Electrochemical reactions involve the transfer of electrons.

Mass and charge are conserved when

balancing these reactions, but you need to know which atoms are oxidized and which atoms are
reduced during the reaction. Oxidation numbers are used to keep track of how many electrons are
lost or gained by each atom. These oxidation numbers are assigned using the following rules:
1. The convention is that the cation is written first in a formula, followed by the anion.

For example, in NaH, the H is H-; in HCl, the H is H+.

2. The oxidation number of a free element is always 0.

The atoms in He and N2, for example, have oxidation numbers of 0.

3. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion equals the charge of the ion.

For example, the oxidation number of Na+ is +1; the oxidation number of N3- is -3.

4. The usual oxidation number of hydrogen is +1.

The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 in compounds containing elements that are less
electronegative than hydrogen, as in CaH2.

5. The oxidation number of oxygen in compounds is usually -2.

Exceptions include OF2, since F is more electronegative than O, and BaO2, due to the structure of
the peroxide ion, which is [O-O]2-.

6. The oxidation number of a Group IA element in a compound is +1.

7. The oxidation number of a Group IIA element in a compound is +2.
8. The oxidation number of a Group VIIA element in a compound is -1, except when that
element is combined with one having a higher electronegativity.

The oxidation number of Cl is -1 in HCl, but the oxidation number of Cl is +1 in HOCl.

9. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all of the atoms in a neutral compound is 0.
10. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion.

For example, the sum of the oxidation numbers for SO42- is -2.

OXIDATION STATES (OXIDATION

NUMBERS)
This page explains what oxidation states (oxidation numbers) are
and how to calculate them and make use of them.
Oxidation states are straightforward to work out and to use, but it is
quite difficult to define what they are in any quick way.

Explaining what oxidation states (oxidation numbers) are

Oxidation states simplify the whole process of working out what is
being oxidised and what is being reduced in redox reactions.
However, for the purposes of this introduction, it would be helpful if
you knew about:
• oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer
• electron-half-equations

Note: If you aren't sure about either of these things, you

might want to look at the pages on redox definitions and
electron-half-equations. It would probably be best to read on
and come back to these links if you feel you need to.

We are going to look at some examples from vanadium chemistry.

If you don't know anything about vanadium, it doesn't matter in the
slightest.
Vanadium forms a number of different ions - for example, V2+ and
V3+. If you think about how these might be produced from vanadium
metal, the 2+ ion will be formed by oxidising the metal by removing
two electrons:

The vanadium is now said to be in an oxidation state of +2.

Removal of another electron gives the V3+ ion:

The vanadium now has an oxidation state of +3.

Removal of another electron gives a more unusual looking ion,
VO2+.
The vanadium is now in an oxidation state of +4. Notice that the
oxidation state isn't simply counting the charge on the ion (that was
true for the first two cases but not for this one).
The positive oxidation state is counting the total number of
electrons which have had to be removed - starting from the
element.
It is also possible to remove a fifth electron to give another ion
(easily confused with the one before!). The oxidation state of the
vanadium is now +5.

Every time you oxidise the vanadium by removing another electron

from it, its oxidation state increases by 1.
Fairly obviously, if you start adding electrons again the oxidation
state will fall. You could eventually get back to the element
vanadium which would have an oxidation state of zero.
What if you kept on adding electrons to the element? You can't
actually do that with vanadium, but you can with an element like
sulphur.

The sulphur has an oxidation state of -2.

Summary
Oxidation state shows the total number of electrons which have
been removed from an element (a positive oxidation state) or
added to an element (a negative oxidation state) to get to its
present state.
Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation state
Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation state
Recognising this simple pattern is the single most important thing
about the concept of oxidation states. If you know how the
oxidation state of an element changes during a reaction, you can
instantly tell whether it is being oxidised or reduced without having
to work in terms of electron-half-equations and electron transfers.

Working out oxidation states

You don't work out oxidation states by counting the numbers of
electrons transferred. It would take far too long. Instead you learn
some simple rules, and do some very simple sums!
• The oxidation state of an uncombined element is zero.
That's obviously so, because it hasn't been either oxidised
or reduced yet! This applies whatever the structure of the
element - whether it is, for example, Xe or Cl2 or S8, or
whether it has a giant structure like carbon or silicon.
• The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms or ions in a
neutral compound is zero.
• The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in an ion is
equal to the charge on the ion.
• The more electronegative element in a substance is given a
negative oxidation state. The less electronegative one is
given a positive oxidation state. Remember that fluorine is
the most electronegative element with oxygen second.
• Some elements almost always have the same oxidation
states in their compounds:

usual
element oxidation exceptions
state

Group 1
always +1
metals

Group 2
always +2
metals

except in peroxides and

Oxygen usually -2
F2O (see below)

except in metal hydrides

Hydrogen usually +1
where it is -1 (see below)

Fluorine always -1
 except in compounds with
Chlorine usually -1
O or F (see below)

The reasons for the exceptions

Hydrogen in the metal hydrides
Metal hydrides include compounds like sodium hydride, NaH. In
this, the hydrogen is present as a hydride ion, H-. The oxidation
state of a simple ion like hydride is equal to the charge on the ion -
in this case, -1.
Alternatively, you can think of it that the sum of the oxidation states
in a neutral compound is zero. Since Group 1 metals always have
an oxidation state of +1 in their compounds, it follows that the
hydrogen must have an oxidation state of -1 (+1 -1 = 0).
Oxygen in peroxides
Peroxides include hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. This is an electrically
neutral compound and so the sum of the oxidation states of the
hydrogen and oxygen must be zero.
Since each hydrogen has an oxidation state of +1, each oxygen
must have an oxidation state of -1 to balance it.
Oxygen in F2O
The problem here is that oxygen isn't the most electronegative
element. The fluorine is more electronegative and has an oxidation
state of -1. In this case, the oxygen has an oxidation state of +2.
Chlorine in compounds with fluorine or oxygen
There are so many different oxidation states that chlorine can have
in these, that it is safer to simply remember that the chlorine
doesn't have an oxidation state of -1 in them, and work out its
actual oxidation state when you need it. You will find an example of
this below.

Warning!
Don't get too bogged down in these exceptions. In most of the cases you
will come across, they don't apply!

Examples of working out oxidation states

What is the oxidation state of chromium in Cr2+?
That's easy! For a simple ion like this, the oxidation state is the
charge on the ion - in other words: +2 (Don't forget the + sign.)
What is the oxidation state of chromium in CrCl3?
This is a neutral compound so the sum of the oxidation states is
zero. Chlorine has an oxidation state of -1. If the oxidation state of
chromium is n:
n + 3(-1) = 0
n = +3 (Again, don't forget the + sign!)
What is the oxidation state of chromium in Cr(H2O)63+?
This is an ion and so the sum of the oxidation states is equal to the
charge on the ion. There is a short-cut for working out oxidation
states in complex ions like this where the metal atom is surrounded
by electrically neutral molecules like water or ammonia.
The sum of the oxidation states in the attached neutral molecule
must be zero. That means that you can ignore them when you do
the sum. This would be essentially the same as an unattached
chromium ion, Cr3+. The oxidation state is +3.
What is the oxidation state of chromium in the dichromate ion,
Cr2O72-?
The oxidation state of the oxygen is -2, and the sum of the
oxidation states is equal to the charge on the ion. Don't forget that
there are 2 chromium atoms present.
2n + 7(-2) = -2
n = +6

Warning: Because these are simple sums it is tempting to

try to do them in your head. If it matters (like in an exam)
write them down using as many steps as you need so that
there is no chance of making careless mistakes. Your
examiners aren't going to be impressed by your mental
arithmetic - all they want is the right answer!

If you want some more examples to practice on, you will find
them in most text books, including my chemistry calculations
book.
What is the oxidation state of copper in CuSO4?
Unfortunately, it isn't always possible to work out oxidation states
by a simple use of the rules above. The problem in this case is that
the compound contains two elements (the copper and the sulphur)
whose oxidation states can both change.
The only way around this is to know some simple chemistry! There
are two ways you might approach it. (There might be others as
well, but I can't think of them at the moment!)
• You might recognise this as an ionic compound containing
copper ions and sulphate ions, SO42-. To make an
electrically neutral compound, the copper must be present
as a 2+ ion. The oxidation state is therefore +2.
• You might recognise the formula as being copper(II)
sulphate. The "(II)" in the name tells you that the oxidation
state is 2 (see below).
You will know that it is +2 because you know that metals
form positive ions, and the oxidation state will simply be the
charge on the ion.

Using oxidation states

In naming compounds
You will have come across names like iron(II) sulphate and iron(III)
chloride. The (II) and (III) are the oxidation states of the iron in the
two compounds: +2 and +3 respectively. That tells you that they
contain Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions.
This can also be extended to the negative ion. Iron(II) sulphate is
FeSO4. There is also a compound FeSO3 with the old name of
iron(II) sulphite. The modern names reflect the oxidation states of
the sulphur in the two compounds.
The sulphate ion is SO42-. The oxidation state of the sulphur is +6
(work it out!). The ion is more properly called the sulphate(VI) ion.
The sulphite ion is SO32-. The oxidation state of the sulphur is +4
(work that out as well!). This ion is more properly called the
sulphate(IV) ion. The ate ending simply shows that the sulphur is in
a negative ion.
So FeSO4 is properly called iron(II) sulphate(VI), and FeSO3 is
iron(II) sulphate(IV). In fact, because of the easy confusion
between these names, the old names sulphate and sulphite are
normally still used in introductory chemistry courses.

Note: Even these aren't the full name! The oxygens in the
negative ions should also be identified. FeSO4 is properly
called iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI). It all gets a bit out of
hand for everyday use for common ions.

Using oxidation states to identify what's been oxidised and

what's been reduced
This is easily the most common use of oxidation states.
Remember:
Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation state
Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation state
In each of the following examples, we have to decide whether the
reaction involves redox, and if so what has been oxidised and what
reduced.
Example 1:
This is the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid or
hydrogen chloride gas:

Have the oxidation states of anything changed? Yes they have -

you have two elements which are in compounds on one side of the
equation and as uncombined elements on the other. Check all the
oxidation states to be sure:.

The magnesium's oxidation state has increased - it has been

oxidised. The hydrogen's oxidation state has fallen - it has been
reduced. The chlorine is in the same oxidation state on both sides
of the equation - it hasn't been oxidised or reduced.
Example 2:
The reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid is:

Checking all the oxidation states:

Nothing has changed. This isn't a redox reaction.

Example 3:
This is a sneaky one! The reaction between chlorine and cold dilute
sodium hydroxide solution is:

Obviously the chlorine has changed oxidation state because it has

ended up in compounds starting from the original element.
Checking all the oxidation states shows:

The chlorine is the only thing to have changed oxidation state. Has
it been oxidised or reduced? Yes! Both! One atom has been
reduced because its oxidation state has fallen. The other has been
oxidised.
This is a good example of a disproportionation reaction. A
disproportionation reaction is one in which a single substance is
both oxidised and reduced.

Using oxidation states to work out reacting proportions

This is sometimes useful where you have to work out reacting
proportions for use in titration reactions where you don't have
enough information to work out the complete ionic equation.
Remember that each time an oxidation state changes by one unit,
 one electron has been transferred. If one substance's oxidation
state in a reaction falls by 2, that means that it has gained 2
electrons.
Something else in the reaction must be losing those electrons. Any
oxidation state fall by one substance must be accompanied by an
equal oxidation state increase by something else.
This example is based on information in an old AQA A' level
question.
Ions containing cerium in the +4 oxidation state are oxidising
agents. (They are more complicated than just Ce4+.) They can
oxidise ions containing molybdenum from the +2 to the +6
oxidation state (from Mo2+ to MoO42-). In the process the cerium is
reduced to the +3 oxidation state (Ce3+). What are the reacting
proportions?
The oxidation state of the molybdenum is increasing by 4. That
means that the oxidation state of the cerium must fall by 4 to
compensate.
But the oxidation state of the cerium in each of its ions only falls
from +4 to +3 - a fall of 1. So there must obviously be 4 cerium ions
involved for each molybdenum ion.
The reacting proportions are 4 cerium-containing ions to 1
molybdenum ion
The oxidation number is the charge an atom in a substance would have if the pairs of electrons
in each bond belonged to the more electronegative atom. Now this means that in a compound
made up of monatomic ions, like NaCl, in which the bonding pairs do belong to the more
electronegative atom, the oxidation number equals the ionic charge. The sodium ion has an
oxidation number of +1 while the chlorine ion has an oxidation number of -1. Here are some
rules that are helpful in finding the oxidation number of a specific atom:

• The oxidation number of an atom in an elementary substance is 0. This means that the
oxidation number of an O atom in O2 is 0.
• The oxidation number of a Group IA atom in any compund is +1; The oxidation number
of a Group IIA atom in any compund is +2.
• The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all of its compounds.
• The oxidation number of chlorine, bromine, and iodine is -1 in any compound containing
only two elements.
• The usual oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is -2. The major exceptions of
this rule are peroxides, like H2O2, which have an oxidation number of -1.
• The oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds is +1.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound is always zero. For something that is
an ion consisting of two atoms (a polyatomic ion), the oxidation numbers add up to the
 charge on the ion.

rules that are helpful in finding the oxidation number of a specific atom

You might be heartily confused at this point as to what oxidation numbers are and how to find
them. Don't worry, you can usually find the oxidation numbers of elements in ionic compounds
by looking at the individual ions in the compound.

example:

In H2SO4, H = +1 and O = -2.

Since there are 4 oxygen atoms, the total charge from oxygen is -8. Therefore the charge of S
must be +6, since the net charge of the molecule is zero.
Top 5 To Try
• How to Find an Oxidation Number
• How to Determine the Oxidation Numbers of Atoms
• What Is Ferrite?
• How to Find the Number of Ions in a Compound
• What Is the Chemical Formula of Bleach?

Related Topics
• Oxidation Number
• Chemical Formula
• Oxidization
• Oxidants
• Types Of Chemicals
More

How to Assign Oxidation Numbers to

Chemical Formulas
eHow Education Editor
This article was created by a professional writer and edited by experienced copy
editors, both qualified members of the Demand Media Studios community. All articles
go through an editorial process that includes subject matter guidelines, plagiarism
review, fact-checking, and other steps in an effort to provide reliable information.

By an eHow Contributor

Oxidation numbers are assigned to elements of a compound to describe whether electrons are lost
or gained. Oxidation numbers are used to determine how elements combine in different chemical
formulas. There's no need to memorize the many possibilities. Several rules apply when assigning
oxidation numbers to chemical formulas.

Difficulty:

Moderate

Instructions

1.

○ 1
Assign free elements. Unattached elements that have no charge are always assigned an
oxidation number of zero.

○ 2
Identify charge for ions formed of a single atom. Assign oxidation number that equals the
charge. For self-combined elements with no charge the oxidation number is zero.

○ 3
Process metals on the periodic table. Alkali metals are +1 while all alkaline earth metals are
identified as +2. Aluminums are identified with oxidation number of +3.

○ 4
 Recognize that oxygen displays different numbers depending on its state. As an oxide its
number is -2, while when in peroxide form -1 describes the transfer of electrons.

○ 5
Understand that hydrogen in most cases has an oxidation number of +1 except when in the
form of a metal hydride where it's then -1.

○ 6
Process halogens such as fluorine with an oxidation number of -1, the other halogens are
usually -1 when forming compounds of negative ions.

○ 7
Summarize oxidation numbers of neutral compounds when the sum of the numbers is zero.
For complex ions the charge is equal to the charge of the ion.

○ 8
Create a chart to help memorize oxidation numbers or as a study aid. Write out the elements
and oxidation numbers by hand. Opt to print out a chart and refer to it for assistance. (See
Resources)

Tips & Warnings

• Knowledge of the periodic table and how elements are grouped is necessary to
understand oxidation numbers.

Read more: How to Assign Oxidation Numbers to Chemical Formulas | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/how_2241377_assign-oxidation-numbers-chemical-
formulas.html#ixzz1LJYDrJ3x

1.2 Oxidation Numbers

Redox reactions are all about electrons being transferred from one substance to another, so it
would be useful if we had a system for keeping track of what gains and what loses electrons, and
how many electrons are involved.
We do - our record-keeping system is called Oxidation Numbers
You may remember from earlier chemistry classes something called electronegativity.

Electronegativity
 The ability of a bonded atom to
attract shared electrons towards
itself

When two atoms of different elements are bonded together by a covalent bond (sharing
electrons), the electrons are generally not shared equally between the two atoms due to
differences in their electronegativity. Think of this as a tug-of-war for electrons. Sometimes both
atoms pull with equal strength on shared electrons; other times there is a clearly stronger player
who will pull the electrons closer to itself.
Consider the bond between a hydrogen atom (with one valence electron) and an oxygen atom
(with its six valence electrons):

+ =

Because oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the shared electrons are closer to
the oxygen atom than to the hydrogen atom. This is not the total transfer of electrons that would
create an ion, but partial charges do form - the hydrogen end of the bond is partially positive
(+1) because it has partially lost one electron, and the oxygen end of the H–O is partially
negative (-1) because it has partially gained the one electron from hydrogen:

Our molecule is incomplete however, because there is a lone electron around oxygen. Let's add
one more hydrogen to complete our water molecule:

We see that each of the two hydrogen has "lost" one electron to oxygen. Oxygen has "gained"
two electrons - one from each hydrogen. Again, these are not true ions but it is useful to think of
them in the same way.
Charges given to atoms in a molecule in this way are called oxidation numbers. We can use
oxidation numbers to keep track of where electrons are in a molecule, and how they move during
a reaction. In our water example, hydrogen is assigned an oxidation number of +1 because each
individual hydrogen has "lost" one electron. Oxygen has an oxidation number of +2 because the
single oxygen atom has "gained" a total of two electrons, one from each hydrogen.
Here is another molecule involving hydrogen and oxygen - hydrogen peroxide, H2O2:

In hydrogen peroxide, each hydrogen still has an oxidation number of +1 because each
hydrogen "gives up" a single electron to oxygen. Oxygen, however, now has an oxidation
number of -1 because each oxygen gains just one electron from its neighboring hydrogen. The
electrons between the two identical oxygen atoms are shared equally, so there is no partial
charge resulting from that bond.

Oxidation Numbers
A positive or negative number
assigned to an atom in a molecule
or ion that reflects a partial gain or
loss of electrons

Knowing the oxidation number of each individual element in a molecule will be a key step in our
understanding of redox reactions. Fortunately it will not usually involve drawing electron dot
diagrams. Instead there are a series of rules that we can use to determine oxidation numbers.
Here are the main rules:

Oxidation
Element
Number

The oxidation number of a pure Na 0

1. element (by itself, and not an H2 0
ion) is zero.
O2 0
P4 0

Ionic Oxidation
Ions Charge
Compound Number
The oxidation number of a
monatomic ion (by itself or as part
of an ionic compound) is equal to Na+ +1 +1
its charge. NaCl
2. Cl- -1 -1
Alkali metals - elements in the first column
of the periodic table - will always have an
oxidation number of +1; Alkali metals Mg+2 +2 +2
(column 2) are almost always +2 Mg3N2
N-3 -3 -3

Oxidation
Compound element
Number

The oxidation number of hydrogen H +1

HCl
3. is almost always +1 when it is in a Cl -1
compound.

H +1
H2S
S -2
 Oxidation
Compound element
Number

The oxidation number of oxygen is Mg +2

MgO
almost always -2 when it is in a
compound magnesium oxide O -2

The exceptions:
4.  peroxides, such as hydrogen Na +1
peroxide. In peroxides oxygen has Na2O
an oxidation number of -1. sodium oxide O -2
 when oxygen is combined with
fluorine it's oxidation number is +2
Na +1
Na2O2
sodium peroxide O -1

5. Compoun elemen Oxidation

Numbe
Tota
r
The sum of the oxidation numbers d t Number
atoms
l

in a compound is zero.
To determine the oxidation number of Mn
Mg +2 3 +6
in Mn2O7 we must work backwards: Mg3N2
 We know each oxygen is -2 (Rule 4) N -3 2 -6
 7 oxygen gives a total of: SUM 0
-2 × 7 atoms = -14 total
Since the sum of oxidation numbers must
+1
be zero, the total oxidation number of Mn Mn +7 2
Mn2O7 4
must be +14 to cancel out oxygen's -14,
but since there are 2 Mn atoms, each O -2 7 -14
individual atom will have an oxidation
number of +7: SUM 0

+14 total
= +7
Cl +3 2 +6
2 Mn atoms Cl2O3
O -2 3 -6

SUM 0

6.
The sum of the oxidation numbers
in a polyatomic ion is equal to the
charge on that ion.
Again, work backwards to determine the
oxidation number of any non-oxygen or
non-hydrogen atom.
To determine the oxidation number of Cr in
 Cr2O72- :
 Oxygen will be -2 (Rule 4), for a
total of:
-2 × 7 = -14
 Since the sum of the oxidation
numbers will be -2 (the charge on
the entire ion), the total for all Cr
must be +12 because:
+12 + (-14) = -2
 Since there is are two Cr, each Cr
will have an oxidation number of +6

Titration (aka titrimetry)[1] is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis

that is used to determine the unknown concentration of a known reactant. Because volume
measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. A reagent,
called the titrant or titrator,[2] of a known concentration (a standard solution) and volume is used
to react with a solution of the analyte or titrand,[3] whose concentration is not known. Using a
calibrated burette or chemistry pipetting syringe to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the
exact amount that has been consumed when the endpoint is reached. The endpoint is the point at
which the titration is complete, as determined by an indicator (see below). This is ideally the
same volume as the equivalence point—the volume of added titrant at which the number of
moles of titrant is equal to the number of moles of analyte, or some multiple thereof (as in
polyprotic acids). In the classic strong acid-strong base titration, the endpoint of a titration is the
point at which the pH of the reactant is just about equal to 7, and often when the solution takes
on a persisting solid color as in the pink of phenolphthalein indicator. There are however many
different types of titrations (see below).
Many methods can be used to indicate the endpoint of a reaction; titrations often use visual
indicators (the reactant mixture changes color). In simple acid-base titrations a pH indicator may
be used, such as phenolphthalein, which becomes pink when a certain pH (about 8.2) is reached
or exceeded. Another example is methyl orange, which is red in acids and yellow in alkali
solutions.
Not every titration requires an indicator. In some cases, either the reactants or the products are
strongly colored and can serve as the "indicator". For example, a redox titration using potassium
permanganate (pink/purple) as the titrant does not require an indicator. When the titrant is
reduced, it turns colorless. After the equivalence point, there is excess titrant present. The
equivalence point is identified from the first faint persisting pink color (due to an excess of
permanganate) in the solution being titrated.
Due to the logarithmic nature of the pH curve, the transitions are, in general, extremely sharp;
and, thus, a single drop of titrant just before the endpoint can change the pH significantly—
leading to an immediate color change in the indicator. There is a slight difference between the
change in indicator color and the actual equivalence point of the titration. This error is referred to
as an indicator error, and it is indeterminate.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History and etymology
• 2 Preparing a sample for titration
• 3 Procedure
• 4 Titration curves
• 5 Types of titrations
○ 5.1 Acid-base titration
○ 5.2 Redox titration
○ 5.3 Complexometric titration
○ 5.4 Zeta potential titration
○ 5.5 Miscellaneous
• 6 Measuring the endpoint of a titration
○ 6.1 Back Titration
• 7 Particular uses
• 8 References
• 9 External links

[edit] History and etymology

The word "titration" comes from the Latin word titulus, meaning inscription or title. The French
word titre, also from this origin, means rank. Titration, by definition, is the determination of rank
or concentration of a solution with respect to water with a pH of 7 (which is the pH of pure H2O
under standard conditions).
The origins of volumetric analysis are in late-18th-century French chemistry. Francois Antoine
Henri Descroizilles developed the first burette (which looked more like a graduated cylinder) in
1791. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a
side arm, and coined the terms "pipette" and "burette" in an 1824 paper on the standardization of
indigo solutions. A major breakthrough in the methodology and popularization of volumetric
analysis was due to Karl Friedrich Mohr, who redesigned the burette by placing a clamp and a tip
at the bottom, and wrote the first textbook on the topic, Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen
Titrirmethode (Textbook of analytical-chemical titration methods), published in 1855.[4]

[edit] Preparing a sample for titration

In a titration, both titrant and analyte are required to be in a liquid (solution) form. If the sample
is not a liquid or solution, the samples must be dissolved. If the analyte is very concentrated in
the sample, it might be useful to dilute the sample.
Although the vast majority of titrations are carried out in aqueous solution, other solvents such as
glacial acetic acid or ethanol (in petrochemistry) are used for special purposes.
A measured amount of the sample can be given in the flask and then be dissolved or diluted. The
mathematical result of the titration can be calculated directly with the measured amount.
Sometimes the sample is dissolved or diluted beforehand, and a measured amount of the solution
is used for titration. In this case the dissolving or diluting must be done accurately with a known
coefficient because the mathematical result of the titration must be multiplied with this factor.
Many titrations require buffering to maintain a certain pH for the reaction. Therefore, buffer
solutions are added to the reactant solution in the flask to maintain the pH of the solution.
Some titrations require "masking" of a certain ion. This can be necessary when two reactants in
the sample would react with the titrant and only one of them must be analysed, or when the
reaction would be disturbed or inhibited by this ion. In this case another solution is added to the
sample, which "masks" the unwanted ion (for instance by a weak binding with it or even forming
a solid insoluble substance with it).
Some redox reactions may require heating the solution with the sample and titration while the
solution is still hot, in order to increase the reaction rate. For instance, the oxidation of certain
oxalate solutions requires heating the solution to approximately 60 degrees in order to maintain a
reasonable rate of reaction.

[edit] Procedure
A typical titration begins with a beaker or Erlenmeyer flask containing a precise volume of the
reactant and a small amount of indicator, placed underneath a burette or buretting syringe
containing the reagent. By controlling the amount of reagent added to the reactant, it is possible
to detect the point at which the indicator changes color. As long as the indicator has been chosen
correctly, this should also be the point where the reactant and reagent neutralize each other, and,
by reading the scale on the burette, the volume of reagent can be measured.
As the concentration of the reagent is known, the number of moles of reagent can be calculated
(since Molarity = numberofmoles / volume(L)). Then, from the chemical equation
involving the two substances, the number of moles present in the reactant can be found. Finally,
by dividing the number of moles of reactant by its volume, the concentration is calculated.

[edit] Titration curves

Main article: Titration curve
A typical titration curve of a diprotic acid, oxalic acid, titrated with a strong base,
sodium hydroxide. Each of the two equivalence points is visible

A titration curve is a curve in the plane whose x-coordinate is the volume of titrant added since
the beginning of the titration, and whose y-coordinate is the concentration of the analyte at the
corresponding stage of the titration (in an acid-base titration, the y-coordinate is usually the pH
of the solution at the corresponding stage). Often it is the case that the titration curve of a
titration reflects the nature of the titration quite well; for instance, it reflects the nature of all
solutions involved in the titration.
In the case of acid-base titrations, titration curves reflect the strength of the corresponding acid
and base. For instance, in a strong acid and strong base titration, the titration curve will be
relatively smooth, although very steep for points near the equivalence point of the titration. Since
in this case, small changes in the volume of the titrant result in large changes of the pH near the
equivalence point, an extensive range of indicators would be appropriate (for instance litmus,
phenolphthalein or bromothymol blue).
On the other hand, if one of the constituents of an acid-base titration is either a weak acid or a
weak base, and the other is either a strong acid or a strong base, the titration curve is fairly
irregular near the equivalence point (and the pH does not change as much due to the addition of
small volumes of titrant). For instance, the titration curve for the titration between oxalic acid (a
weak acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is depicted in the image above. Here, the
equivalence point occurs at a pH of about 8-10, and thus the analyte is basic at the equivalence
point (more precisely, the sodium salt produced by the reaction hydrolyses in water to produce
hydroxide ions). An indicator such as phenolphthalein would be appropriate for this particular
titration. The titration curve corresponding to a weak base and strong acid titration is similarly
behaved. In this case, indicators such as methyl orange or bromothymol blue are regularly used.
On the other hand, titration curves corresponding to acid-base titrations in which the constituents
are a weak acid and weak base, are quite irregular in nature. Due to the nature of such titrations,
no definite indicator may be appropriate, and thus pH meters are often used.

[edit] Types of titrations

There are various sorts of titrations whose goals are different to the others. The most common
types of titrations in qualitative work are acid-base titrations and redox titrations.
[edit] Acid-base titration
Main article: Acid-base titration

Color on Acidic Range of Color Color on Basic

Indicator
Side Change Side

Methyl Violet Yellow 0.0 - 1.6 Violet

Bromophenol
Yellow 3.0 - 4.6 Blue
Blue

Methyl Red 3.1 - 4.4 Yellow

 Orange

Methyl Red Red 4.4 - 6.2 Yellow

Litmus Red 5.0 - 8.0 Blue

Bromothymol
Yellow 6.0 - 7.6 Blue
Blue

Phenolphthal
Colorless 8.3 - 10.0 Pink
ein

Alizarin
Yellow 10.1 - 12.0 Red
Yellow

These titrations are based on the neutralization reaction that occurs between an acid and a base,
when mixed in solution. The acid (resp. base) is added to a burette, which was rinsed with the
same acid prior to this addition to prevent contamination or diluting of the acid being measured.
The base (resp. acid) is added to a volumetric flask, which had been rinsed with distilled water
prior to the addition to prevent contamination or dilution of the base/alkali being measured. The
solution in the volumetric flask is often a standard solution; one whose concentration is exactly
known. The solution in the burette, however, is the solution whose concentration is to be
determined by titration. The indicator used for such an acid-base titration often depends on the
nature of the constituents as described in the above section. Common indicators, their colors and
the pH range in which they change color, are given in the table above. When more precise results
are required, or when the titration constituents are a weak acid and a weak base, a pH meter or a
conductance meter are used.
[edit] Redox titration
Main article: Redox titration

These titrations are based on a redox reaction between an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent.
The oxidizing agent (resp. reducing agent) is added to the burette, which was rinsed with the
same oxidizing agent. The reducing agent (resp. oxidizing agent) is added to the conical flask,
which had been rinsed with distilled water. Like in an acid-base titration, the standard solution is
often the one in the conical flask, and the solution whose concentration is to be determined is the
one in the burette. The procedure for carrying out redox titrations is similar to that required for
carrying out acid-base titrations.
Most commonly, a potentiometer or a redox indicator is used to determine the end-point of the
titration. For example, when one of constituents of the titration is the oxidizing agent potassium
dichromate, the colour change of the solution from orange to green is not definite and, thus, an
indicator such as sodium diphenylamine is used. The analysis of wines for their sulfur dioxide
content requires the use of iodine as an oxidizing agent. In this case, starch is used as an
indicator; a blue starch-iodine complex is formed once an excess of iodine is present, thus
signalling the endpoint of the titration.
On the other hand, some redox titrations do not require an indicator, due to the intense colour of
some of the constituents. For instance, in a titration where the oxidizing agent potassium
permanganate (permanganometry) is present, a slight faint persisting pink colour signals the
endpoint of the titration, and no particular indicator is, therefore, required.
[edit] Complexometric titration
Main article: Complexometric titration

These titrations are based on the formation of a complex between the analyte and the titrant. The
chelating agent EDTA is very commonly used to titrate metal ions in solution. In general, these
titrations require specialized indicators that form weaker complexes with the analyte. A common
example is Eriochrome Black T for the titration of calcium and magnesium ions.
[edit] Zeta potential titration
Main article: Zeta potential titration

These titrations characterize heterogeneous systems, such as colloids. Zeta potential plays role of
indicator. One of the purposes is determination of iso-electric point when surface charge
becomes 0. This can be achieved by changing pH or adding surfactant. Another purpose is
determination of the optimum dose of the chemical for flocculation or stabilization.
[edit] Miscellaneous
A form of titration can also be used to determine the concentration of a virus or bacterium. The
original sample is diluted (in some fixed ratio, such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, etc.) until the last
dilution does not give a positive test for the presence of the virus. This value, the titre, may be
based on TCID50, EID50, ELD50, LD50 or pfu. This procedure is more commonly known as an
assay.

[edit] Measuring the endpoint of a titration

Main article: Endpoint (chemistry)

Different methods to determine the endpoint include:

• pH indicator: This is a substance that changes colour in response to a
chemical change. An acid-base indicator (e.g., phenolphthalein) changes
colour depending on the pH. Redox indicators are also frequently used. A
drop of indicator solution is added to the titration at the start; when the
colour changes the endpoint has been reached.
• A potentiometer can also be used. This is an instrument that measures the
electrode potential of the solution. These are used for titrations based on a
redox reaction; the potential of the working electrode will suddenly change as
the endpoint is reached.
• pH meter: This is a potentiometer that uses an electrode whose potential
depends on the amount of H+ ion present in the solution. (This is an example
of an ion-selective electrode.) This allows the pH of the solution to be
measured throughout the titration. At the endpoint, there will be a sudden
change in the measured pH. It can be more accurate than the indicator
method, and is very easily automated.
 • Conductance: The conductivity of a solution depends on the ions that are
present in it. During many titrations, the conductivity changes significantly.
(For instance, during an acid-base titration, the H+ and OH- ions react to form
neutral H2O. This changes the conductivity of the solution.) The total
conductance of the solution depends also on the other ions present in the
solution (such as counter ions). Not all ions contribute equally to the
conductivity; this also depends on the mobility of each ion and on the total
concentration of ions (ionic strength). Thus, predicting the change in
conductivity is harder than measuring it.
• Colour change: In some reactions, the solution changes colour without any
added indicator. This is often seen in redox titrations, for instance, when the
different oxidation states of the product and reactant produce different
colours.
• Precipitation: If the reaction forms a solid, then a precipitate will form during
the titration. A classic example is the reaction between Ag+ and Cl- to form
the very insoluble salt AgCl. This usually makes it difficult to determine the
endpoint precisely. As a result, precipitation titrations often have to be done
as "back" titrations (see below).
• An isothermal titration calorimeter uses the heat produced or consumed by
the reaction to determine the endpoint. This is important in biochemical
titrations, such as the determination of how substrates bind to enzymes.
• Thermometric titrimetry is an extraordinarily versatile technique. This is
differentiated from calorimetric titrimetry by the fact that the heat of the
reaction (as indicated by temperature rise or fall) is not used to determine
the amount of analyte in the sample solution. Instead, the endpoint is
determined by the rate of temperature change.
• Spectroscopy can be used to measure the absorption of light by the solution
during the titration, if the spectrum of the reactant, titrant or product is
known. The relative amounts of the product and reactant can be used to
determine the endpoint.
• Amperometry can be used as a detection technique (amperometric titration).
The current due to the oxidation or reduction of either the reactants or
products at a working electrode will depend on the concentration of that
species in solution. The endpoint can then be detected as a change in the
current. This method is most useful when the excess titrant can be reduced,
as in the titration of halides with Ag+. (This is handy also in that it ignores
precipitates.)
[edit] Back Titration
The term back titration is used when a titration is done "backwards"; instead of titrating the
original analyte, one adds a known excess of a standard reagent to the solution, then titrates the
excess. A back titration is useful if the endpoint of the reverse titration is easier to identify than
the endpoint of the normal titration. They are also useful if the reaction between the analyte and
the titrant is very slow.
[edit] Particular uses
• As applied to biodiesel, titration is the act of determining the acidity of a
sample of WVO by the dropwise addition of a known base to the sample while
testing with pH paper for the desired pH=8.5 reading. By knowing how much
base neutralizes an amount of WVO, we discern how much base to add to the
entire batch.
• Titrations are a very common procedure held in secondary education, to
assess a chemistry student's practical aptitude[citation needed].
• Titrations in the petrochemical, polymer science or food industry to define
oils, fats, polymers or biodiesel and similar substances. An example
procedure for all three can be found here: [1].
○ Acid-base titrations:
 Acid value (ASTM D 974 and D 604, DIN EN ISO 2114): The mass
in milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to
neutralize carboxylic acid groups in one gram of a chemical
substance. Titration takes place at low temperatures. This
titration is used for example to determine the free fatty acid
content. See also: pH of fatty acids.
 Saponification value (ASTM D 94 and DIN 51559): The mass in
milligrams of KOH required to saponify ester and to neutralize
carboxylic acid groups in one gram of a chemical substance.
Titration takes place at high temperatures. This method is used
for example to get a hint about the average chain length of fatty
acids in a fat.
 Ester value (or "ester index"): This index is not measured, it is
calculated: Ester value = Saponification value – Acid value.
 Amine value (ASTM D 2073): The mass in milligrams of KOH
equivalent to the total amine content in one gram of a chemical
substance.
 Hydroxyl number (DIN 53 240-2): The mass in milligrams of KOH
required to neutralize the hydroxyl groups in one gram of a
chemical substance. It is determined by acetylation using acetic
anhydride and titration of the acetic acid and excess anhydride
with KOH.
○ Redox titrations:
 Bromine number: A measure of unsaturation expressed in terms
of the mass in grams of bromine that reacts with 100 grams of a
chemical substance.
 Iodine number: A measure of unsaturation expressed in terms of
the mass in grams of iodine that reacts with 100 grams of a
chemical substance. This method is used for example to indicate
the amount of unsaturated fatty acids.
○ Karl Fischer titration: a method to analyze trace amounts of water in a
substance in a lab.
 ○ Nonaqueous_titration: Non-Aqueous Titrations (with solvents other
than water).
An acid-base titration is the determination of the concentration of an acid or base by exactly
neutralizing the acid/base with an acid or base of known concentration. This allows for
quantitative analysis of the concentration of an unknown acid or base solution. It makes use of
the neutralization reaction that occurs between acids and bases and the knowledge of how acids
and bases will react if their formulas are known.
Acid-base titrations can also be used to find percent purity of chemicals.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Alkalimetry and
acidimetry
• 2 Equipment
• 3 Method
• 4 Titration of weak acid
• 5 References

Alkalimetry and acidimetry

Alkalimetry, sometimes spelled alkimetry, is the specialized analytic use of acid-base titration to
determine the concentration of a basic (synonymous to alkaline) substance. Acidimetry,
sometimes spelled acidometry, is the same concept of specialized analytic acid-base titration, but
for an acidic substance.[1]

Equipment
The key equipment used in a titration are:
• Burette
• White tile - used to see a colour change in the solution
• Pipette
• pH indicator (the one used varies depending on the reactants)
• Erlenmeyer flask/ Conical flask
• Titrant or titrator (a standard solution of known concentration, a common one
is aqueous sodium carbonate)
• Analyte or titrand (solution of unknown concentration)

Method
Before starting the titration a suitable pH indicator must be chosen. The equivalence point of the
reaction, the point at which equivalent amounts of the reactants have reacted, will have a pH
dependent on the relative strengths of the acid and base used. The pH of the equivalence point
can be estimated using the following rules:
• A strong acid will react with a strong base to form a neutral (pH=7) solution.
 • A strong acid will react with a weak base to form an acidic (pH<7) solution.
• A weak acid will react with a strong base to form a basic (pH>7) solution.
When a weak acid reacts with a weak base, the equivalence point solution will be basic if the
base is stronger and acidic if the acid is stronger. If both are of equal strength, then the
equivalence pH will be neutral. However, weak acids are not often titrated against weak bases
because the colour change shown with the indicator is often quick, and therefore very difficult
for the observer to see the change of colour.
The point at which the indicator changes colour is called the end point. A suitable indicator
should be chosen, preferably one that will experience a change in colour (an end point) close to
the equivalence point of the reaction.
First, the burette should be rinsed with the standard solution, the pipette with the unknown
solution, and the conical flask with distilled water.
Secondly, a known volume of the unknown concentration solution should be taken with the
pipette and placed into the conical flask, along with a small amount of the indicator chosen. The
burette should always be filled to the top of its scale with the known solution for ease of reading.
The known solution should then be allowed out of the burette, into the conical flask. At this stage
we want a rough estimate of the amount of this solution it took to neutralize the unknown
solution. The solution should be let out of the burette until the indicator changes colour and the
value on the burette should be recorded. This is the first (or rough) titre and should be discluded
from any calculations.
Three more titrations should be performed, this time more accurately, taking into account
roughly where the end point will occur. The readings on the burette at the end point should be
recorded, and averaged to give a final result. The end point is reached when the indicator just
changes colour permanently. This is best achieved by washing a hanging drop from the tip of the
burette into the flask right at the end of the titration to achieve a drop that is smaller in volume
than what can usually be achieved by just dripping solution off the burette.
Acid-base titration is performed with a phenolphthalein indicator, when it is a strong acid -
strong base titration, a bromthymol blue indicator in weak acid - weak base reactions, and a
methyl orange indicator for strong acid - weak base reactions. If the base is off the scale, i.e. a
pH of >13.5, and the acid has a pH >5.5, then an Alizarine yellow indicator may be used. On the
other hand, if the acid is off the scale, i.e. a pH of <0.5, and the base has a pH <8.5, then a
Thymol Blue indicator may be used.
Titration of weak acid

The pH of a weak acid solution being titrated with a strong base solution can be found at
different points along the way. These points fall into one of four categories [2]:
1. initial pH
2. pH before the equivalence point
3. pH at the equivalence point
4. pH after the equivalence point
1. The initial pH is found for a weak acid solution in water using the equation

where Ka is the dissociation constant and F is the concentration of the acid.

2. The pH before the equivalence point depends on the amount of weak acid remaining and the
amount of conjugate base formed. The pH can be calculated by the following formula (which is a
variation of the Henderson-Hasselbach equation): [3]

where:
• pKa is the negative log of the acid dissociation constant of the weak acid.
• nOH- added is the number of moles of added strong base in the solution.
• nHA initial is the number of moles the weak acid initially present.
When the numerator of the log term equals the denominator (
), then the ratio goes to 1 and the log term goes to
zero. Thus the pH will equal the pKa which occurs half-way to the equivalence point.
3. At the equivalence point, the weak acid is consumed and converted to its weak conjugate
base. The pH will be greater than 7 and can be calculated from an equation derived from the
following relationships:
1. pH + pOH = 14
2. KaKb = 10-14
3. at equivalence CaVa = CbVb
The previous 3 relationships are used to generate the equivalence point pH formula below:

• Ca = concentration of acid and Cb = concentration of base

• Kw = dissociation constant for water and Ka = for the acid
Note that when an acid neutralizes a base, the pH may or may not be neutral (pH = 7). The pH
depends on the strengths of the acid and base.
4. After the equivalence point, the solution will contain two bases: the conjugate base of the
acid and the strong base of the titrant. However, the base of the titrant is stronger than the
conjugate base of the acid. Therefore, the pH in this region is controlled by the strong base. As
such the pH can be found using the following:

Single formula. More accurately, a single formula[2] that describes the titration of a weak acid
with a strong base from start to finish is given below:

• φ = fraction of completion of the titration (φ < 1 is before the equivalence

point, φ = 1 is the equivalence point, and φ > 1 is after the equivalence
point)
• Ca, Cb = the concentrations of the acid and base respectively
• Va, Vb = the volumes of the acid and base respectively
 • αA- = the fraction of the weak acid that is ionized
• Ka = the dissociation constant for the acid
• [H+], [OH-] = concentrations of the H+ and OH- ions respectively
This formula is somewhat cumbersome, but does describe the titration curve as a single equation

10.0 cm3 of a solution of potassium hydroxide was titrated with a 0.10 M[1]
solution of hydrochloric acid. 13.5 cm3 of the acid was required for neutralization.
Calculate the concentration of the potassium hydroxide solution.
Step 1
Write down everything you know. Placing the one you know most about on the
left (you don’t have to do this, but its just a good idea).

Hydrochloric Acid Potassium hydroxide

Volume used = 13.5 cm3 Volume used = 10.0
cm3
Concentration = 0.10 M Concentration = TBD[2]
Step 2
Write the equation or as much as you know about it.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
This is necessary to check out the ratios of reactants – in this case 1:1 so we don’t
have to worry about any ratios.
Step 3
Calculate the Number of Moles used of the reactant you know most about. In this
case the HCl(aq)

The rule here is Number of Moles = volume × concentration

Step 3
Work out how many moles of the unknown you have used, this is where you may
need to multiply up or down the number of moles, so if 1 mole of HCl needed 2
mol of potassium hydroxide, then at this point you would multiply the number of
moles of HCl by 2. In this case this is unnecessary.

Number of moles of HCl = 0.0014 mol

Number of moles KOH = 0.0014 mol – they react in a one to one ratio
Step 4

Work out the concentration of the potassium hydroxide.

Concentration = 0.14 M
Questions

1. Sodium ethanedioate, Na2C2O4, can be made into a solution of an

exact and reliable concentration and so can be used as a standard
solution for checking the concentration of a solution containing
sulphuric acid. The reaction is summarized by the equation:

Na2C2O4 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + (CO2H)2

In a particular experiment 10.0 cm3 of a 0.50 M solution of sodium

ethanedioate was found to react with 8.7 cm3 of sulphuric acid. Find the
concentration of the concentration of the sulphuric acid.

2. The equation for the reaction of sodium hydroxide solution with

sulphuric acid is:

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

[1] M = mol
dm-3
Question

A 25 ml solution of 0.5 M NaOH is titrated until neutralized into a 50 ml sample of HCl. What was the
concentration of the HCl?

Solution
Step 1 - Determine [OH-]

Every mole of NaOH will have one mole of OH-. Therefore [OH-] = 0.5 M.

Step 2 - Determine the number of moles of OH-

Molarity = # of moles/volume

# of moles = Molarity x Volume

# of moles OH- = (0.5 M)(.025 L)

# of moles OH- = 0.0125 mol

Step 3 - Determine the number of moles of H+

When the base neutralizes the acid, the number of moles of H+ = the number of moles of OH-.
Therefore the number of moles of H+ = 0.0125 moles.

Step 4 - Determine concentration of HCl

Every mole of HCl will produce one mole of H+, therefore number of moles of HCl = number of moles
of H+.

Molarity = # of moles/volume

Molarity of HCl = (0.0125 mol)/(0.050 L)

Molarity of HCl = 0.25 M

Answer

The concentration of the HCl is 0.25 M.

Another Solution Method

The above steps can be reduced to one equation

MacidVacid = MbaseVbase

where

Macid = concentration of the acid

Vacid = volume of the acid
Mbase = concentration of the base
Vbase = volume of the base
This equation works for acid/base reactions where the mole ratio between acid and base is 1:1. If the
ratio were different as in Ca(OH)2 and HCl, the ratio would be 1 mole acid to 2 moles base. The
equation would now be

MacidVacid = 2MbaseVbase

For the example problem, the ratio is 1:1

MacidVacid = MbaseVbase

Macid(50 ml)= (0.5 M)(25 ml)

Macid = 12.5 MmL/50 ml
Macid = 0.25 M

1. Work out the amount in moles of the substance for which both the concentration and volume are known. In
this case it is the hydrochloric acid (concentration 0.060 mol dm-3, volume 23.75 cm3). Give your answer to 3
significant figures.

Moles of HCl = mol

2. Now decide on the amount in moles of barium hydroxide that has reacted.

Moles of Ba(OH)2 = mol

3. Now work out the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution given that the amount in moles calculated
above is dissolved in 25.0 cm3 of solution.

Concentration of Ba(OH)2(aq) = mol dm-3

4. Calculate the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution in g dm-3 (Ar: Ba 137.5; O 16; H 1;).

Concentration of Ba(OH)2(aq) = g dm-3

Calculation of titration result is always based on the stoichiometry of the titration reaction.

When titrating we are usually given information about volume and concentration of the titrant
solution and about volume of the titrated substance solution. Balanced reaction equation shows
numbers of moles of reacting substances, thus to be able to deal with titration results we have to
be able to convert between volumes, concentrations and numbers of moles. All these
conversions are based on definition of molar concentration:

which can be rearranged to calculate number of moles when concentration and volume are
given:

2
(where n is number of moles, C concentration and V is volume).

In most cases concentration is given in moles per liter of solution (molarity, denoted here as M),
but sometimes it can be also given as normality. For details see molarity and normality lectures
on ChemBuddy site.

For example let's look at the simple acid base titration - determination of concentration of
sulfuric acid with the use of NaOH solution of known concentration CNaOH.

From the titration we know volume of titrant used (VNaOH).

We know that one mole of H2SO4 reacts with exactly two moles of NaOH:

2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

As we know that amount of substance of a given concentration in given volume of solution is

C×V, and sulfuric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide in the 1:2 ratio, we can write:

There is only one unknown in this equation:

Occasionally some additional calculations are needed, as determination of concentration of

titrated substance may be only a step in the assay. For example if we are asked to find a purity
of the substance, we must convert concentration found to amount of substance in the original
sample. These calculations are usually based on simple number of moles/mass of substance
conversions, or on simple dilution calculations.

10.00 mL sample of concentrated HCl was diluted to mark in

250 mL volumetric flask. To titrate 25.0 mL sample of diluted
solution 43.56 mL of 0.1023 M NaOH was needed. What was
the original concentration of hydrochloric acid?
We start with the reaction equation:

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

One mole of hydrochloric acid reacts with one mole of NaOH. For titration
0.04356 L×0.1023 M=4.456×10-3 mole of base was used, so there was 4.456 mmole of
hydrochloric acid in every 25.00 mL of solution taken from the volumetric flask. Volumetric flask
is 10 times larger than the samples titrated, so it contained 44.56 mmole of acid. This amount
was originally found in 10.00 mL of concentrated acid - so original concentration was
44.56 mmole/10.00 mL=4.456 M (note that concentrations expressed in mmole/mL and mol/L
have always the same numerical value, so to convert between them it is enough to change
units).

1.456 g sample of unknown alloy was dissolved in acid and

diluted to 100 mL. What was the percentage of iron in the
sample, if titration of 20.00 mL aliquot of the diluted solution
requires on average 33.45 mL of 0.01005 M solution of
potassium permanganate?
As usual, we will start with the reaction equation:

5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ → 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O

33.45 mL of 0.01005 M solution of potassium permanganate contains

0.03345 L×0.01005 M=3.362×10-4 moles of titrant. Iron reacts with permanganate in 5:1 ratio,
so 20.00 mL aliquot contains 5×3.362×10-4=1.681×10-3 moles of iron. There were exactly five
such aliquots (100.00 mL vs 20.00 mL), so amount of iron in the sample was 5×1.681×10-
3
=8.404×10-3 moles, or 55.854 g/mol×8.404×10-3 mol=0.4693 g. That in turn means there was
0.4693 g/1.456 g×100%=32.23% iron in the sample.

1.354 g sample of sodium nitrate contaminated with NaCl

was dissolved in small amount of water and filled to the
mark in the 100 mL volumetric flask. To titrate chlorides in
10.00 mL sample 35.70 mL of 0.01021 M AgNO3 was used.
What is the percent purity of the sample?
NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3

Chlorides react with silver nitrate solution in 1:1 ratio. That means that 10.00 mL of chlorides
solution contained 35.70×0.01021=0.3645 mmole of chlorides. Total sample was 10 times
larger, so it contained 3.645 mmole, or 0.2130g (molar mass of NaCl being 58.33 g/mol).
Sample contains 0.2130×100%/1.354=15.73% NaCl and 100%-15.73%=84.27% of sodium
nitrate (assuming there are no other impurities).

Such calculations are rarely really difficult, but they are always time consuming. To make them
much easier you may use EBAS - Equation Balancer And Stoichiometry calculator. You may
download it from ChemBuddy site and we will provide ready files with reaction equations for all
assays described.