PERSONALITY

Personality is not easily defined. Basically, personality refers to our

attempts to capture or summarize an individuals essence. Personality is
person-ality, the science of describing and understanding persons.
Clearly, personality is a core area of study for psychology, if not the
core. Together with intelligence, the topic of personality constitutes the
most significant area of individual difference study.

Personality comes from the Greek word "persona", meaning

"mask"
The word personality derives from the Latin word persona which means
mask. The study of personality can be understood as the study of masks
that people wear. These are the personas that people project and
display, but also includes the inner parts of psychological experience
which we collectively call our self.

"I" is for personality

According to Adams (1954, cited in Schultz & Schultz, 1994) personality
is I.
Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by
listening to what we say when we use "I".  When you say I, you are, in
effect, summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes,
fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses.
The word I is what defined you as an individual, as a person separate
from all others. (Schultz & Schultz, 1994, p.8)

Various definitions of personality

 "The entire organization of a human being at any stage of
development."
 "The way in which the person does such things as remembering,
thinking or loving."
 "Those characteristics that account for consistent patterns of
behaviour"
 A contemporary definition for personality is offered by Carver and
Scheier (2000, p.5): Personality is a dynamic organisation, inside
the person, of psychophysical systems that create a persons
characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. Carver
& Scheier (2000, p.5)
o Dynamic Organisation: suggests ongoing readjustments,
adaptation to experience, continual upgrading and
 maintaining Personality doesnt just lie there. It has process
and its organised.
o Inside the Person: suggests internal storage of patterns,
supporting the notion that personality influences behaviours,
etc.
o Carver & Scheier (2000, p.5) suggest that the word
personality conveys a sense of consistency, internal causality,
and personal distinctiveness. 
No two people are exactly the same - not even identical twins. Some
people are anxious, some are risk-taking; some are phlegmatic, some
highly-strung; some are confident, some shy; and some are quiet and
some are loquacious. This issue of differences is fundamental to the
study of personality. Note also that in studying these differences we will
also examine where the differences come from: as with intelligence we
will find that there is a mixture of nature and nurture involved.

PERSONALITY TYPES:
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types
of individuals. Personality type theory aims to classify people into distinct
CATEGORIES. i.e. this type or that.  Personality types are synonymous
with "personality styles" .Types refers to categories that are distinct and
discontinuous. e.g. you are one or the other.  This is important to
understand, because it helps to distinguish a personality type approach
from a personality trait approach, which takes a continuous approach.

As we come across people in life, we wonder why some people are quiet
and passive while others are loud and aggressive. The word personality
can describe it best. Personality is set of qualities that differentiate an
individual from other on manners, attitude, behavior and qualities that
make the person standout from the crowd. Personality cannot be
determined by only outlook or appearance of a person but also by ways
an individual reacts and interacts with others. It also reflects the
psychological system of a person.

Personality depends on heredity as well as the environment in which an

individual is born and brought up. The physical appearance, stature,
gender, bone structure and energy level are governed by heredity. Traits
such as shyness, fear and aggression are also attributed to genes. The
culture in which a person is raised, social groups, friend circle etc. are
some of environmental factors that influence personality of an individual.

TYPES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

ISTJ(Introverted Sensing Thinking Judging)
Serious and quiet, interested in security and peaceful living. Extremely
thorough, responsible, and dependable. Well-developed powers of
concentration. Usually interested in supporting and promoting traditions
and establishments.

ISTP(Introverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving)

Quiet and reserved, interested in how and why things work. Excellent
skills with mechanical things. Risk-takers who they live for the moment.
Usually interested in and talented at extreme sports. Uncomplicated in
their desires. Loyal to their peers and to their internal value systems, but
not overly concerned with respecting laws and rules if they get in the way
of getting something done..

ISFJ( Introverted Sensing Feeling Judging)

Quiet, kind, and conscientious. Can be depended on to follow through.

Usually puts the needs of others above their own needs. Stable and
practical, they value security and traditions. Well-developed sense of
space and function. Rich inner world of observations about people.
Extremely perceptive of other's feelings. Interested in serving others.

ISFP(Introverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving)

Quiet, serious, sensitive and kind. Do not like conflict, and not likely to do
things which may generate conflict. Loyal and faithful. Extremely well-
developed senses, and aesthetic appreciation for beauty. Not interested in
leading or controlling others. Flexible and open-minded. Likely to be
original and creative. Enjoy the present moment.

INFJ( Introverted intuitive Feeling Judging)

Quietly forceful, original, and sensitive. Tend to stick to things until they
are done. Extremely intuitive about people, and concerned for their
feelings. Well-developed value systems which they strictly adhere to.
Well-respected for their perserverence in doing the right thing. Likely to
be individualistic, rather than leading or following.
INFP(Introverted intuitive Feeling Perceiving)

Quiet, reflective, and idealistic. Interested in serving humanity. Well-

developed value system, which they strive to live in accordance with.
Extremely loyal. Adaptable and laid-back unless a strongly-held value is
threatened. Usually talented writers. Mentally quick, and able to see
possibilities. Interested in understanding and helping people.

INTJ(Introverted intuitive Thinking Judging)

Independent, original, analytical, and determined. Have an exceptional

ability to turn theories into solid plans of action. Highly value knowledge,
competence, and structure. Driven to derive meaning from their visions.
Long-range thinkers. Have very high standards for their performance, and
the performance of others. Natural leaders, but will follow if they trust
existing leaders.

INTP(Introverted intuitive Thinking Perceiving)

Logical, original, creative thinkers. Can become very excited about

theories and ideas. Exceptionally capable and driven to turn theories into
clear understandings. Highly value knowledge, competence and logic.
Quiet and reserved, hard to get to know well. Individualistic, having no
interest in leading or following others.

ESTP(Extraverted Sensing Thinking Perceiving)

Friendly, adaptable, action-oriented. "Doers" who are focused on

immediate results. Living in the here-and-now, they're risk-takers who
live fast-paced lifestyles. Impatient with long explanations. Extremely
loyal to their peers, but not usually respectful of laws and rules if they get
in the way of getting things done. Great people skills.

ESTJ(Extraverted Sensing Thinking Judging)

Practical, traditional, and organized. Likely to be athletic. Not interested in

theory or abstraction unless they see the practical application. Have clear
visions of the way things should be. Loyal and hard-working. Like to be in
charge. Exceptionally capable in organizing and running activities. "Good
citizens" who value security and peaceful living.
ESFP(Extraverted Sensing Feeling Perceiving)

People-oriented and fun-loving, they make things more fun for others by
their enjoyment. Living for the moment, they love new experiences. They
dislike theory and impersonal analysis. Interested in serving others. Likely
to be the center of attention in social situations. Well-developed common
sense and practical ability.

ESFJ(Extraverted Sensing Feeling Judging)

Warm-hearted, popular, and conscientious. Tend to put the needs of

others over their own needs. Feel strong sense of responsibility and duty.
Value traditions and security. Interested in serving others. Need positive
reinforcement to feel good about themselves. Well-developed sense of
space and function.

ENFP( Extraverted intuitive Feeling Perceiving)

Enthusiastic, idealistic, and creative. Able to do almost anything that

interests them. Great people skills. Need to live life in accordance with
their inner values. Excited by new ideas, but bored with details. Open-
minded and flexible, with a broad range of interests and abilities.

ENFJ(Extraverted intuitive Feeling Judging)

Popular and sensitive, with outstanding people skills. Externally focused,

with real concern for how others think and feel. Usually dislike being
alone. They see everything from the human angle, and dislike impersonal
analysis.

ENTP(Extraverted intuitive Thinking Perceiving)

Creative, resourceful, and intellectually quick. Good at a broad range of

things. Enjoy debating issues, and may be into "one-up-man ship". They
get very excited about new ideas and projects, but may neglect the more
routine aspects of life. Generally outspoken and assertive. They enjoy
people and are stimulating company. Excellent ability to understand
concepts and apply logic to find solutions.
ENTJ(Extraverted intuitive Thinking Judging)

Assertive and outspoken - they are driven to lead. Excellent ability to

understand difficult organizational problems and create solid solutions.
Intelligent and well-informed, they usually excel at public speaking. They
value knowledge and competence, and usually have little patience with
inefficiency or disorganization.

Somatotypes - William Sheldon, 1940's

William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified
personality according to body type. He called this a
person�s somatotype.
Sheldon identified three main somatotypes:
Sheldon's
Character Shape Picture
Somatotype

relaxed, sociable, plump, buxom,

Endomorph
tolerant, comfort- developed visceral
[viscerotonic]
loving, peaceful structure

active, assertive,
Mesomorph
vigorous, Muscular
[somatotonic]
combative

quiet, fragile,
Ectomorph restrained, non- lean, delicate, poor
[cerebrotonic] assertive, muscles
sensitive
 PERSONALITY THEORIES
SIGMUND FREUD
1856 - 1939

Freud didn't exactly invent the idea of the conscious versus unconscious
mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it popular.
The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular moment,
your present perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies, feelings, what
have you. Working closely with the conscious mind is what Freud called
the preconscious, what we might today call "available memory:"
anything that can easily be made conscious, the memories you are not at
the moment thinking about but can readily bring to mind. Now no-one
has a problem with these two layers of mind. But Freud suggested that
these are the smallest parts!

The largest part by far is the unconscious. It includes all the things that
are not easily available to awareness, including many things that have
their origins there, such as our drives or instincts, and things that are put
there because we can't bear to look at them, such as the memories and
emotions associated with trauma.

According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of our motivations,

whether they be simple desires for food or sex, neurotic compulsions, or
the motives of an artist or scientist. And yet, we are often driven to deny
or resist becoming conscious of these motives, and they are often
available to us only in disguised form. We will come back to this.
 ANNA FREUD
1895 - 1982

Ego psychology

Unlike Jung and Adler, she remained faithful to the basic ideas her father
developed.  However, she was more interested in the dynamics of the
psyche than in its structure, and was particularly fascinated by the place
of the ego in all this.  Freud had, after all, spent most of his efforts on the
id and the unconscious side of psychic life.She is probably best known for
her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, in which she gives
a particularly clear description of how the defenses work, including some
special attention to adolescents' use of defenses.  The defenses section of
the chapter on Freud in this text is based as much on Anna's work as on
Sigmund's.

ERIK ERIKSON
1902 - 1994

He is most famous for his work in refining and expanding Freud's theory
of stages. Development, he says, functions by the epigenetic principle.
This principle says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of
our personalities in eight stages.

Psychosocial Significant Psychosocial Psychosocial Maladaptations

Stage (age)
crisis relations modalities virtues & malignancies
I (0-1) --  trust vs to get, to give in sensory distortion
Mother hope, faith
infant mistrust return -- withdrawal
autonomy vs
II (2-3) --  to hold on, to let will, impulsivity --
shame and Parents
toddler go determination compulsion
doubt
III (3-6) --  initiative vs to go after, to purpose, ruthlessness --
Family
preschooler guilt play courage inhibition
IV (7-12 or so)
to complete, to
--  industry vs neighborhood narrow virtuosity
make things competence
school-age inferiority and school -- inertia
together
child
V (12-18 or so)
ego-identity vs peer groups, to be oneself, to fidelity, fanaticism --
-- 
role-confusion role models share oneself loyalty repudiation
adolescence
VI (the 20’s) to lose and find
intimacy vs partners, promiscuity --
--  oneself in a  Love
isolation friends exclusivity
young adult another
VII (late 20’s
generativity vs household, to make be, to overextension –
to 50’s) -- Care
self-absorption workmates take care of rejectivity
middle adult
VIII (50’s and to be, through
integrity vs mankind or presumption –
beyond) -- old having been, to Wisdom
despair “my kind” despair
adult face not being

CARL JUNG 
1875 - 1961 

Jung's theory divides the psyche into three parts. The first is
the ego,which Jung identifies with the conscious mind. Closely related is
the personal unconscious, which includes anything which is not
presently conscious, but can be. The personal unconscious is like most
people's understanding of the unconscious in that it includes both
memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been
suppressed for some reason. But it does not include the instincts that
Freud would have it include.

But then Jung adds the part of the psyche that makes his theory stand
out from all others: the collective unconscious. You could call it your
"psychic inheritance." It is the reservoir of our experiences as a species, a
kind of knowledge we are all born with. A nice example that has been
greatly discussed recently is the near-death experience. It seems that
many people, of many different cultural backgrounds, find that they have
very similar recollections when they are brought back from a close
encounter with death. They speak of leaving their bodies, seeing their
bodies and the events surrounding them clearly, of being pulled through a
long tunnel towards a bright light, of seeing deceased relatives or
religious figures waiting for them, and of their disappointment at having
to leave this happy scene to return to their bodies.
 OTTO RANK
1884 - 1939

Life and death

Another interesting idea Rank introduced was the contest between life
and death.  He felt we have a "life instinct" that pushes us to become
individuals, competent and independent, and a "death instinct" that
pushes us to be part of a family, community, or humanity.  We also feel a
certain fear of these two.  The "fear of life" is the fear of separation,
loneliness, and alienation;  the "fear of death" is the fear of getting lost
in the whole, stagnating, being no-one.

Our lives are filled with separations, beginning with birth.  Rank's earliest
work, in fact, concerned birth trauma, the idea that the anxiety
experienced during birth was the model for all anxiety experienced
afterwards.  After birth, there's weaning and discipline and school and
work and heartbreaks.

ALFRED ADLER
1870 - 1937

Alfred Adler postulates a single "drive" or motivating force behind all our
behavior and experience. By the time his theory had gelled into its most
mature form, he called that motivating force the striving for perfection.
It is the desire we all have to fulfill our potentials, to come closer and
closer to our ideal. It is, as many of you will already see, very similar to
the more popular idea of self-actualization.

KAREN HORNEY
1885 - 1952

Psychoanalytic theorist Karen Horney developed one of the best known

theories of neurosis. She believed that neurosis resulted from basic
anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships. Her theory proposes that
strategies used to cope with anxiety can be overused, causing them to
take on the appearance of needs. The neurotic needs are as follows:
1. The neurotic need for affection and approval.
2. The neurotic need for a partner, for someone who will take over one's
life.
3. The neurotic need to restrict one's life to narrow borders, to be
undemanding, satisfied with little, to be inconspicuous.
4. The neurotic need for power, for control over others, for a facade of
omnipotence.
5. The neurotic need to exploit others and get the better of them.
6. The neurotic need for social recognition or prestige.
7. The neurotic need for personal admiration.
8. The neurotic need for personal achievement.
9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence.
10. The neurotic need for perfection and unassailability.

As Horney investigated these neurotic needs, she began to recognize that

they can be clustered into three broad coping strategies:

I. Compliance, which includes needs one, two, and three.

II. Aggression, including needs four through eight.

III. Withdrawal, including needs nine, ten, and three. She added three
here because it is crucial to the illusion of total independence and
perfection that you limit the breadth of your life!

GORDON ALLPORT
1897 - 1967

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in

the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual
personalities are composed broad dispositions. Consider how you would
describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list
a number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can
be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals
to behave in certain ways.
 Murray's Theory of Psychogenic Need

American psychologist Henry Murray (1893-1988) developed a theory of

personality that was organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs.
Murray described a needs as a, "potentiality or readiness to respond in a
certain way under certain given circumstances" (1938).Murray identified
needs as one of two types:

1. Primary Needs
Primary needs are based upon biological demands, such as the need
for oxygen, food, and water.

2. Secondary Needs
Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need for
nurturing, independence, and achievement.

ERICH FROMM
1900 – 1980

As his biography suggests, Fromm's theory is a rather unique blend of

Freud and Marx. Freud, of course, emphasized the unconscious, biological
drives, repression, and so on. In other words, Freud postulated that our
characters were determined by biology. Marx, on the other hand, saw
people as determined by their society, and most especially by their
economic systems.

He added to this mix of two deterministic systems something quite

foreign to them: The idea of freedom. He allows people
to transcend the determinisms that Freud and Marx attribute to them. In
fact, Fromm makes freedom the central characteristic of human nature!
 B. F. SKINNER
1904 - 1990

B. F. Skinner’s entire system is based on operant conditioning.  The

organism is in the process of “operating” on the environment, which in
ordinary terms means it is bouncing around its world, doing what it does. 
During this “operating,” the organism encounters a special kind of
stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer.  This
special stimulus has the effect of increasing the operant -- that is, the
behavior occurring just before the reinforcer.  This is operant
conditioning:  “the behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature
of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the
behavior in the future.”

HANS EYSENCK
(1916 - 1997)

(AND OTHER TEMPERAMENT THEORISTS)

Eysenck’s theory is  based primarily on physiology and genetics. 

Although he is a behaviorist who considers learned habits of great
importance, he considers personality differences as growing out of our
genetic inheritance.  He is, therefore, primarily interested in what is
usually called temperament.

Eysenck is also primarily a research psychologist.  His methods involve a

statistical technique called factor analysis.  This technique extracts a
number of “dimensions” from large masses of data.  For example, if you
give long lists of adjectives to a large number of people for them to rate
themselves on, you have prime raw material for factor analysis.