Steel Structures

Structural Design for Architecture – Chapter 3

Structural Properties
Steel has high strength in tension and compression, and is therefore able to resist
bending and axial loads with equal facility. It is the strongest of the commonly used structural
materials. It is used to make the tallest buildings and the enclosures with the longest spans.

The thin columns and floors and greater spans possible with steel allow for uncluttered
interiors to be created within buildings. Skeleton frameworks channel the load of the building
into slender elements of low volume within which stress levels are high. This allows both
internal and external walls to become non-loadbearing partitions. This allows for the
development of glass-clad buildings and ‘overt use of structural elements’ (e.g. exposed
structure) which can deliver the appearance of lightness, openness and structural elegance.

Indeed the merits of steel-frame construction are often intertwined with the advantages
and disadvantages of glazing. Glass-clad buildings are visually appealing, but on its own
glass performs poorly in terms of thermal and acoustic insulation.

When a ‘space framework’ is built out of steel components it can demonstrate an even
greater strength-to-weight ratio. They can do this because their form provides a more
‘satisfactory distribution of internal forces’. Space frames demonstrate ‘high static
indeterminancy’ meaning that they can warp and bend without losing strength. Due to their
cost space frames are only economical for wide spans (20m +). Similarly when, as in tall
buildings such as the World Trade Centre, the structure is kept to the edges of the building so
as to create a tube, this allows the building to resist lateral loading from wind.

Steel components are typically bolted or welded on site. Joints between components will
either be hinge-type joints which do not transmit ‘bending moment’ (e.g. the components can
flex away from each other) and rigid joints which do (e.g. the components flex together).
Hinged joints can allow for thermal expansion and movements in the foundation, but they will
also require bracing. Where hinge joints are used bracing can be provided in the vertical
plane by masonry walls (or other solid sections like lift shafts a.k.a. self-supporting masonry
cores) and in the horizontal plane by the roof or diagonal beams.

One-way-spanning structural systems support weight in a single plane (e.g. two parallel walls
with a roof in between), whereas two-way-spanning systems support weight in two planes
(e.g. a box).

Technical Performance
Despite its strength, steel is also dense and heavy, giving it a strength-to-weight ratio which is
similar to timber.

Benefits of using steel:

• High strength means that flexibility in building plans is possible;
• High strength means smaller components which means that the structure takes up
less space;
• Consistent performance (unlike wood or concrete which can vary) meaning that small
safety factors are required;
• Standard components means fast erection of the structure on site.

Problems associated with steel:

 • Construction must, in most circumstances, be specified from standard components
and can be changed very little on site. Typically this results in rectilinear buildings.
• Poor durability when exposed to weather, must be treated with corrosion-protection if
exposed;
• Poor performance in fire, must be clad in fire-proofing materials;
• Exposed elements must be also be fire-protected to prevent them from conducting
heat around the building;
• Difficult to shape into useful components;
• Heavy components, requires cranes;
• High energy consumption and pollution associated with production.

When steel is exposed to the heat of a fire the most vulnerable parts of the structure are the
compression elements and the compression flanges of beams (e.g. the top ones). Fire
protection (which can be mechanical such as at Le Centre Pompidou, but is more commonly
insulating material) reduces the rate at which the temperature of steel increases. Common
insulating materials include ‘tradition’ materials such as concrete and masonry, ‘spray-on’
materials made from rock-fibre, and ‘intumescent coating’ which is thin like paint but foams
when exposed to heat.