INT. J. OF LIFELONG EDUCATION, VOL. 21, NO.

2 (MARCH–APRIL 2002), 99–114

The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong

learning

IAN JOHNSON
Paddington Meditation Centre, Brisbane, Australia

The teachings and practices of Buddhism are becoming popular today in Western countries. Its
non-theistic nature and scientific method, focusing on the individual’s independence in learning
practice, appeal to many. Buddhism contains some effective and unique learning techniques that
could be applied to lifelong learning. Within a notion of lifelong learning defined in terms of the
conscious learning taking place throughout the life span, Buddhist meditation, contemplation
and mindfulness practice are ideally suited to conscious life experience awareness. The
philosophical framework for lifelong learning discourse, particularly that which is outlined by
Richard Bagnall as drawing on the three progressive sentiments, matches the Buddhist ideals
for the individual and society. Just as Bagnall calls for a re-evaluation of the direction for
lifelong learning discourse away from economic determinism, back towards the framework of
the three sentiments, the emphasis of this paper argues that lifelong learning discourse and
strategies might also usefully be informed by ancient Buddhist ideas and methods. To do so
might require a broader perspective on what constitutes lifelong learning and what its
motivations and goals should be.

Introduction

People today, from teenagers to seniors, are seeking to better understand themselves
and their world through learning situations outside the conventional educational
institutions. Furthermore, the explosion of mass-media communications over the
last half-century means that those who wish to broaden their learning have an
informed range of choices as to the direction of their study and/or personal
growth. Such a range of choices was once only accessible through the libraries of
educational and state institutions, but can now be accessed through the world
wide web. Australia’s multicultural society provides a smorgasbord of varied
cultural traditions and ideologies, and the availability of non-conventional
educational institutions (such as personal growth centres and a variety of
Registered Training Organisations) and courses adds further scope to the search
for intellectual and experiential enlightenment.
News coverage of the Dalai Lama; media stars expressing their interest in
Buddhism (e.g. Richard Gere, Tina Turner, Steven Seagal); best-selling books by

Ian Johnson is a secondary school teacher with over 30 years experience of teaching in secondary schools and
private training organizations in various states of Australia and in Papua New Guinea. Since 1972, he has also
maintained an interest in and practice of Eastern meditation traditions. He became a Buddhist in 1988 and has
spent long periods in retreat, in Australia and Sri Lanka, practising the Buddhist meditation and contemplation
techniques. He has studied under many contemporary Buddhist teachers, both Asian and Western. He currently
teaches Buddhist studies and meditation at his own institute in Brisbane, Australia.

International Journal of Lifelong Education ISSN 0260-1370 print/ISSN 1464-519X online # 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/02601370110111673
100 IAN JOHNSON

famous speakers such as Deepak Chopra; and possibly also the diminishing
relevance of the traditional Western religions, may be encouraging many to look
to Buddhism and the practice of meditation as a tool for understanding, change
and growth. Furthermore, as Swearer (1970: 78–79) indicates, the scientific
nature of Buddhist thought and contemplation, in contrast to the faith notions of
the traditional theistic religions, appeals to the modern western mind.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many young people in Western countries
became fascinated by Eastern religions at a time when, according to Musgrove
(1974: 19–39), cultural and social barriers were being challenged by the youth
counter culture of those times. But many of the hopes and dreams engendered
during those heady days have since disintegrated and only now are the weary
again seeking, with a more responsible and discerning attitude, the path to
liberation. Buddhism provides an ideal structure for this search and a
revolutionary way of looking at the self and the world. The more radical ideas
contained within Buddhist teaching can provide an intellectual, religious and
cultural confrontation, thus stimulating interest for the intellectually and
spiritually jaded.
This paper seeks to outline the basic concepts, teachings and techniques of
Buddhism which are so appealing to a growing number of Westerners, and
discuss how they may be utilized as tools of lifelong learning. It is argued that
what constitutes lifelong learning, may be defined more broadly and from a new
perspective when viewed from the context of Buddhist teaching and practice.
The paper proceeds by drawing out the structure, principles and content of the
Buddhist Teachings, placing them in relation to the three progressive sentiments
which, according to Bagnall (2000), inform lifelong learning advocacy and
ideology. The three progressive sentiments are the individual, the democratic and
the adaptive, and the melding of the two streams of thought (Buddhism and
lifelong learning advocacy) helps to highlight practical applications and
implications for the role of lifelong learning in modern society.
Smith and Spurling (1999: 3), call for a shakeup of lifelong learning culture, in
tune with the needs of multiculturalism and the demands of the twenty-first
century. Perhaps some of the ideas and practices of Buddhism can help to
provide a stimulus for such a change.
Readers may wish to refer to the glossary of terms found at the end of this paper
for meanings of words from the Pali language.

The Buddha as a teacher

The person known to history as ‘The Buddha’ was an Indian sage named Siddattha
Gotama, who lived from 563 B.C. to 483 B.C. (Schumann 1989: xii). The term,
‘Buddha’ is an epithet for, literally, ‘the one who has understood, or, the one who
has attained enlightenment’ (Rhys Davids and Stede, 1989: 488). Siddhattha
became ‘The Buddha’ at the age of 35, after six years of practising meditation
and austerities in the jungles of northern India.
According to the mythology surrounding his life, he chose to leave his wife and
newly-born child as well as his luxurious life-style, at the age of 29, in order to
pursue the way to permanently overcome the suffering inherent in life. The
mixture of historical detail and myth surrounding the Buddha’s life is similar to
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 101

that of other great spiritual teachers or prophets and indicates the way in which
teaching and learning has taken place in most cultures throughout human history
(by the telling of stories). According to Campbell (1988), these mythological
stories always contain basic truths by which humanity has lived throughout the
millennia. In the modern world, individuals and cultures seem to have lost sight
of the validity of stories, folk tales and myth as a teaching/learning tool, and the
psychological power of such teaching when heard (not read) is not so often
experienced. In the Buddha’s time, social or spiritual education took place
orally/aurally and much of the Buddha’s teaching, the Dhamma, has been passed
on in the same way over the last 2500 years (Mookerji 1974: 450, Schumann
1989: 258). This way of learning requires good concentration (attention) and
listening skills as well as the development of structured mnemonic skills. The
religious texts of Buddhism, known as the Pali Canon, contain the discourses and
other teachings of the Buddha, as well as those of some of his senior disciples, in
a written form derived from this oral tradition. They are highly structured and
somewhat repetitious, but when ‘the Dhamma’ is taught orally by a skillful
teacher, the discourses have a significant impact and can more easily be
committed to memory by listeners. This oral tradition continues today, with a
great deal of the Buddhist teaching occurring as dhamma talks, delivered to
groups of people by monks, nuns and lay teachers. Much of the Buddhist
teaching today is therefore contained on cassette tapes and many of the books
published are transcripts of talks and lectures.
Tradition holds that the Buddha also frequently debated with other religious
teachers, philosophers and house-holders and was extremely skillful at it,
highlighting his wit, his delicate sense of irony and his dialectical skills
(Nanamoli and Bodhi 1995: 20). Many of his adversaries are reported to have
become his disciples immediately following such encounters (e.g. Saccaka, in the
Culasaccaka Sutta and Upali, in the Upali Sutta, both from the Majjhima
Nikaya (Nanamoli and Bodhi 1995: 322–331 and 477–492 respectively). The
nikayas are the books or groupings of the Buddha’s teachings and the suttas are
the discourses, often named after the person being taught at the time). These
debates are often the sources for the Sutta Pitaka (meaning the ‘basket of
discourses’, as the teachings of the Buddha, when first written down, were
originally contained in three baskets: the basket of discourses (the Sutta Pitaka),
the basket of rules for monks and nuns (the Vinaya Pitaka) and the basket
containing the ‘Abhidhamma’, an analysis of mind and mental processes, a
wide-ranging systematization of the philosophical, psychological and ethical
structures of the Buddha’s teaching). Such debates help to give his teaching and
philosophy a structured and logical form which is appealing to the trained
intellect and the scientific Western mind. (Albert Einstein said he thought
Buddhism, of all the religions, coped best with modern scientific needs
(Dhammananda 1992: 46).) This form of engaged, two-way transaction as a
teaching/learning method, is argued to be a useful method in lifelong learning
by Garrison (1989: 55).
As the son of a raja, or elected minor king, Siddattha would have lived a
privileged life and was well educated, also being present at council meetings and
court cases over which his father presided (Schumann 1989: 22). He may have
been privy to many philosophical discourses provided by the wandering ascetics
of the day, as, according to De Bary (1958: 35), India was in the midst of a
102 IAN JOHNSON

religious and philosophical revival. It can be assumed then, that he was a skilled
orator and teacher when, as the Buddha, he spent 45 years teaching his dhamma
throughout Northern India. He often used every-day examples and analogies in
his teaching as well as telling Jataka stories (or mythological stories about his
former lives) to illustrate meaning. Many people are said to have accessed the
various stages of enlightenment (there are four in the Theravada tradition) while
listening to the Buddha’s discourses (e.g. Kondanna, during the first discourse on
‘The Four Noble Truths’ (Nanamoli 1981: 4)).
For any learning to take place through educational engagement, it has been
argued there must be a learner, willing to learn, a teacher, willing to teach
and the teaching itself, or the content (Garrison 1989: 57). Correspondingly, In
Buddhism, there is a trinity that is highly venerated, ‘The Triple Gem’: the
Buddha, the dhamma and the sangha, that is, the teacher (the Buddha who
discovered the dhamma and made it available to all), the dhamma (the content
of the teaching or the truth of our existence) and the sangha (those who have
understood the teaching and achieved one of the stages of enlightenment, in
other words, the students who have studied well) (Khantipalo 1986: 3). These
principles of learning through education are inherent in Buddhism and
generate great respect between teacher and student and great respect (even
reverence) for the teaching (the dhamma). Needless to say, having great respect
for the teaching, the original teacher and the one who is currently teaching it
(sangha) means that the learner will pay reverent attention and remember
much of what is said.
However, the Buddha went to great lengths to train his followers to
discriminate between blind faith and the wisdom attained through experiential
investigation. One of the best known discourses which indicates this, is the
Kalama Sutta, which perhaps could be used as an effective orientation for
learning today, as it was in the Buddha’s time, especially given today’s
tendency for skepticism towards belief, often corrupting into cynicism (Bagnall
2000).
The Kalamas were a clan or tribe in the Buddha’s time. When the Buddha
came into one of their towns, Kesaputta, they expressed their confusion and
doubt as to which doctrines of the many monks and brahmins they had
heard, could be believed, as all these teachers professed their own doctrines to
be the only truth and reviled the doctrines of others. The Buddha encouraged
them in free inquiry, exempt from fanaticism, bigotry, dogmatism and
intolerance:

. Do not believe in anything because you have heard it or because it is repeatedly

recited.
. Do not believe in traditions just because they have been handed down from many
generations.
. Do not believe in anything just because it is spoken or rumoured by many.
. Do not believe in anything just because it is from a scripture, nor because it is
extraordinary, thinking it must have been inspired by a supreme being.
. Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers, elders and
priests.
. But, after thorough investigation and analysis, when you Ž nd that anything agrees
with reason, and is conducive to the good and beneŽ t of one and all, then accept
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 103

it and live up to it. (Anonymous, undated. From a commonly-used, anonymous

adaptation of the Kalama Sutta. The full sutta can be found in Soma 1981).

The Teaching (Dhamma)

The first discourse the Buddha taught elucidates the fundamental tenets of
Buddhism. It concerns the Four Noble Truths, which contain, in seed form, all
the other teachings of the Buddha over 45 years. They were referred to by
Sariputta, a disciple greatly revered for his wisdom, as ‘the elephant’s footprint’
of the dhamma, in the sense that the footprints of all other animals can fit inside
the footprint of an elephant (Nyanaponika 1966: 5). They are as follows:

The noble truth of dukkha

Dukkha is most often translated as ‘suffering’ but has many shades and implications
of meaning. It refers to the unsatisfactoriness of life and is often referred to as dis-
ease (Rhys Davids and Stede 1989: 324). The Buddha said:

Suffering as a noble truth is this: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is

suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering,
association with the loathed is suffering, dissociation from the loved is
suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering—in short, suffering is the five
aggregates of clinging. (From the Buddha’s first discourse, Nanamoli 1981: 8)

(The five aggregates of clinging refer to the Buddha’s definition of what constitutes
personal experience. This will be more fully explained later as a factor of Buddhist
contemplation.)
This statement aims at the heart of motivation in learning. For there to be a
desire to learn, one must feel a lack of some kind, an unsatisfactoriness
concerning one’s current understanding, knowledge or state of being. The
Buddha highlights the cause of dis-ease, or lack, or dukkha, thus:

The origin of suffering

The origin of suffering as a noble truth is this: It is the craving that produces
renewal of being, accompanied by enjoyment and lust, and enjoying this and
that; in other words, craving for sensual desires, craving for being, craving for
non-being. (Nanamoli 1981: 8)

If we analyse our intentions for learning, it is generally to become something

more than what we feel we currently are, or to get something that we do not
currently have. The Buddha encourages noble desires such as gaining knowledge
and understanding, which can benefit ourselves and others. He is discouraging of
pursuits which come out of greed or ego-enhancement (‘renewal of being’) and
which may harm ourselves or others.
104 IAN JOHNSON

The cessation of suffering (nibbana)

Cessation of suffering as a noble truth is this: It is remainderless fading and

ceasing, giving up, relinquishing, letting go and rejecting, of that same
craving. (Nanamoli 1981: 8)

This is an important discovery of the Buddha’s. It shows that suffering or the

unsatisfactoriness of life can, in fact, be overcome. He later gives many
indications of the qualities of mind attained when craving is permanently
banished from the mind and ‘nibbana’ is attained. If we analyse what we are
ultimately seeking through learning, it may be one or more, or all of these.
Descriptions of nibbana by the Buddha found in various discourses in the Pali
Canon are:

‘The unexcelled; the supreme happiness; perfect bliss; peace and serenity;
perfect health (free from the sickness of the mental defilements); freedom
and emancipation; the unique reality; the profound; the subtle; the island;
the cave; the shelter; the refuge; the cool state. (Bodhi 1987: 6)

The Buddha also showed how nibbana transcends our own conditioned
experience: ‘The unborn; the uncreated; the unconditioned; the imperishable;
the unfathomable; the cessation of suffering; the removal of thirst; the eclipse
of ignorance’ (Bodhi 1987: 6). This would indicate that the state of full
knowledge is accompanied by absolute happiness and freedom. Could there
be any other motivation more complete that underlies the human desire for
learning? At this point, let us look at the concept contained in Zen Buddhism
and modern Advaita Vedanta, of non-duality, another, more modern view of
nibbana. Kearney (1999: 101), an Australian lay Buddhist teacher, says:

Why do we meditate? Because we want to attain ‘enlightenment.’

What is this enlightenment? According to the advaita vedanta tradition, when
we awaken, we awaken to the reality of that which is right here, right now. But
if we are striving for enlightenment, then that very striving indicates that what
we are after is not right here, right now. We are looking for it in the future. But
reality is not located in the future; it is located right here, right now. Therefore
our searching results in the endless postponement of our finding. We are
always looking elsewhere for what is right here and as long as we do so, we
are guaranteed never to find it.

Christmas Humphries (1971: 12) introduces Zen in this way:

Zen is at once the knower and the known. It is also the factor that unites the
two in one . . . As Dr Suzuki puts it, ‘When we think we know something,
there is something we do not know.’ For there is still an antithesis, the
known and the knower, and Zen seeks that which lies beyond antitheses,
however subtle.

Western Buddhists today often relate well to the idea of ‘instant enlightenment’ as it
is taught in Zen and modern advaita vedanta. Perhaps this is because, like our
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 105

society in general, we seek instant gratification without having to work for it. Also,
Westerners tend to reject the traditional spiritual disciplines such as celibacy and
abstinence. If we are already enlightened and don’t know it, it is just a matter of
waking up to the truth and this could theoretically happen at any moment given
the right stimulus. However, the Buddha does indicate that there is a way or path
to follow before non-dual realization can occur, and that is contained in the
fourth noble truth:

The noble truth of the way

The way leading to the cessation of suffering as a noble truth is this:

It is simply the noble eightfold path, that is to say, right view, right intention,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right
concentration. (Nanamoli 1981: 8)

Here the Buddha makes it clear that there are certain things to be done or
practised or developed to bring about enlightenment. He called this path of
practice ‘the Middle Way’ because part of this practice is to avoid the extremes
of sensual indulgence on the one hand and self-torment, or over-zealousness on
the other (Nanamoli 1981: 7). This balanced way of doing things will be
determined by the particular society and culture Buddhists find themselves in.
The middle way between extremes will be different for Buddhists today
compared with 2500 years ago. But the effect on the individual mind is what the
Buddha was interested in. His whole teaching defines a path for the individual
to take to transcend dukkha, and every facet of the dhamma is directed towards
this outcome. It was not meant to be a moralistic teaching. The Buddha said: ‘I
teach one thing and one thing only: that is, suffering and the end of suffering’
(Salzberg 1995: 102).
It is in the study and practice of the Noble Eightfold Path that much can be
drawn out in relation to lifelong learning. Every factor of the noble eightfold
path is indispensable in bringing about the complete extinction of suffering and
the full attainment of perfect wisdom. It could be argued that this is also the
ultimate, long-term goal of lifelong learning. Bagnall (2000) describes the ideals
contained within the three progressive sentiments which shape lifelong learning
advocacy, including the ideal of achieving human liberation, progress and
development, being outlined particularly within the individual progressive
sentiment which seeks liberation from ignorance, dependence, constraint and
inadequacy. Buddhism seeks to do exactly that with its emphasis on wise
reflection culminating in the destruction of ignorance and the attainment of
complete wisdom.

The Learning

The eight factors of the noble eightfold path work together, enhancing and
supporting one another in the practice/learning towards enlightenment. They are
not like rungs on a ladder, to be dealt with one after the other, leading to greater
and greater heights, but each factor contains elements of the others as they
106 IAN JOHNSON

develop and deepen together in a spiraling movement towards the goal. The eight
factors are often divided into three categories: sila, sammadhi and panna—the
development and practice of virtue, the development and practice of
concentration through meditation and the development of wisdom or full
understanding of the nature of life (van Zeyst 1980: 39).
The first factor, right view, belongs to the third category and relates back to the
first noble truth. A person must recognize or understand to some extent, that he or
she is suffering from a lack (of happiness or knowledge) and needs to do something
about it. This is how the search for knowledge begins, but right view also arises as
the penultimate factor as the goal of the path is reached; it then refers to the full
understanding/knowledge (of the nature of things) attained in nibbana. So the
noble eightfold path begins and ends with the factor of right view. Perhaps it
could be said, then, that the seed of nibbana is already within the mind and just
needs to be nurtured. This implies, perhaps, that among the responsibilities of the
teacher is that of providing a learning environment that facilitates the learners’
abilities to discover things for themselves, in accordance with their own
perspectives and levels of intellectual or spiritual development: a nurturing,
flexible and somewhat unrestricted environment.
The second factor is right intention. Right intention is dependent upon right
view. It is only through understanding or wisdom, that intentions, which precede
all thought, speech and action, can be ‘right.’ In the Mahasatipatthana Sutta
(Walshe 1987: 348), the Buddha defines right intention as the intention of
renunciation (implying the practice of generosity and the relinquishing of
attachments), the intention of non-ill-will (implying the development of love and
kindness and relinquishing of anger, hatred and aversion), and the intention of
harmlessness (implying the development of compassion for all creatures). These
qualities of mind can only come about as a result of understanding and wisdom.
This is also reflected in the individual sentiment where the emphasis is on the
cognitive or intellectual development of individuals through (academic) discipline,
but relates in particular to Bagnall’s description of the second progressive
sentiment, the democratic, with its commitment to social justice, equity, tolerance
and liberation from oppression. A real and practical commitment to such ideals
could certainly come about through the individual development of the qualities
associated with right intention.
The next three factors are part of the virtue category. They are right speech, right
action and right livelihood. Right speech means to refrain from lying, slander, harsh
speech and gossip (Walshe 1987: 348). This is dependent on being aware of unskillful
intentions directing speech. This factor also requires an awareness of the right timing
when telling the truth, and has implications for teachers. Honesty and integrity in
speech as well as skillfulness in what, how, why and when to teach certain
principles or information could define the ideal teacher in any field. Students, it is
hoped, would respond in kind. The Buddha’s doctrine is open to all. There are no
secret or higher teachings available only to a select, advanced few (Bodhi 1987: 1).
So this honesty and openness in speech translates to an integrity in the dhamma
and the way it should be taught. Like Bagnall’s third, adaptive progressive
sentiment, the dhamma seeks liberation from deprivation, poverty and
dependence by its openness and relevance to all. Further, it is normally
considered essential in the Buddhist world, that the dhamma is always taught free-
of-charge, thereby ensuring it is accessible to everyone.
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 107

Right action is also based on right intention, arising out of right view, and
concerns the non-harming of others in any manner or form and the renunciation
of cruelty and greed (Khema 1987: 168). More specifically, the Buddha taught his
lay disciples five precepts to govern their actions:

To refrain from destroying life; to refrain from taking what is not given; to
refrain from wrong sexual action (adultery or sexual activity which harms
oneself or others in any way); to refrain from false speech; and to refrain
from drugs and intoxicants which cloud the mind. (Khantipalo 1986: 95)

The practice of virtue, once again, is for the purification and peaceful happiness of
the individual as a foundation for concentration and wisdom and is not meant as a
moralistic dogma. It also brings the Buddhist path into the realm of practical
experience; something one does; a way to live; an all-encompassing learning
through directly lived experience. The adaptive sentiment informs educational
ideology in respect of the need for education to be contextualized, embedded in
adaptive life tasks (Bagnall 2000), as is seen in the practice of the five precepts in
Buddhism.
Right livelihood concerns being involved with an occupation that allows one to
practice the five precepts. The qualities of love, kindness, compassion and mental
clarity required for the development of wisdom, cannot be induced when
destroying life or taking something that belongs to another or engaging in harmful
sexual conduct or speaking falsely or indulging in mind-numbing intoxicants.
Buddhists need to investigate their own livelihood and make an honest judgement
as to whether it is conducive to their personal development as a noble human
being. Happily, the occupations of teaching and learning stand up well in this context.
Now we come to the three factors on the path that fall within the category of the
development of concentration (or meditation). The practice of meditation holds a
pivotal place in Buddhist learning. It is through meditation that enough
concentration can be generated for the mind to break through to the direct
insight of the true nature of things. Meditative practice is conceptualized in two
aspects, although they cannot, in practice, be separated. These are tranquillity
meditation (samatha-bhavana) and insight meditation (vipassana-Bhavana) (van
Zeyst 1980: 238). It is the qualities of peacefulness and clarity developed in
tranquillity meditation that attract great numbers of Westerners to meditation
courses. The economic determinism referred to by Bagnall (2000), whereby
individual learning is evaluated according to its capacity to create wealth for the
learner, is creating new and substantial pressures on learners as well as on the
workforce. Students and workers alike are experiencing the stress brought about
by competition and long work hours, and this is causing them to seek meditation
as a stress-management device. Using meditation is encouraged for this purpose
by many stress-management writers, including Rice (1992: ch. 13) and Cormier
and Cormier (1998: Ch. 17).
The sixth factor of the noble eightfold path is right effort. Like the practice of all
facets of the path, balance (the middle way) is called for. This carefully balanced
effort is achieved with the help of mindfulness. Right effort is dependent also on
the arousal of energy, and the other factors of the path, especially the virtue
factors which promote purification. Physical and mental purity support the
growth of energy (just as a clean engine will operate more efficiently).
108 IAN JOHNSON

The Buddha gave a formula to explain how to practice right effort:

. Not to let an unwholesome thought arise, which has not already arisen;
. Not to let an unwholesome thought continue, which has already arisen;
. To make a wholesome thought arise, which has not yet arisen;
. To make a wholesome thought continue, which has already arisen. (Khema 1987:
170)

The seventh factor of the path is the object of a great deal of consideration in
Buddhist practice. It is right mindfulness. The Mahasatipatthana Sutta (Walshe
1987: 335–350) contains a very detailed outline of the whole practice of
mindfulness, but a full analysis is beyond the scope of this paper. However, this
area may have the most to offer lifelong learning theory and practice.
Mindfulness is described by contemporary Buddhist teachers as: non-judgemental
observation (of experience); an impartial watchfulness; non-conceptual awareness;
present-time awareness; non-egotistic alertness; and being aware of change
(Gunaratana 1991: 142–154). Joseph Goldstein, one of the foremost
contemporary lay Buddhist teachers, says of mindfulness (or bare attention):

Bare attention means observing things as they are, without choosing, without
comparing, without evaluating, without laying our projections and
expectations on to what is happening; cultivating instead, a choiceless and
non-interfering awareness. This quality of awareness is well expressed by a
famous Japanese haiku (by Basho): The old pond.
A frog jumps in.
Plop! (Goldstein 1985: 19–20)

The Buddha outlined four foundations or fields within which mindfulness can take
place: the body, feelings (the pleasant, unpleasant or neutral qualities felt,
associated with each experience), mind states (being aware of the particular
mental qualities or moods, e.g. the distracted mind, the lustful mind, the
concentrated mind, and so on) and mind objects (the contents of the mind,
including thoughts and emotions, but particularly, the positive and negative
factors that affect the path to enlightenment) (Walshe 1987: 335–350). This kind
of practice is to be cultivated in everyday life so that the practitioner learns to
experience life fully, whether it is a pleasant or an unpleasant experience.
Experiences are not shut out or pushed away or embellished, so their true nature
is revealed. The person knows they are doing whatever they are doing. This
activity is reminiscent of a statement by Joseph Campbell, in which he says he
thinks people (seekers, learners) are not looking for the meaning of life but an
‘experience of being alive, so that the life experiences that we have on the
physical plane will have resonances within that are those of our own innermost
being and reality—so that we actually feel the rapture of being alive’ (Campbell
1988).
This is a unique type of scientific, objective observation in a subjective framework
and the Buddha recommended certain structures and frameworks within which to
analyse and investigate the experiences noticed through the practice of
mindfulness. Two of the most important of these are ‘the five aggregates’ and ‘the
three characteristics of existence’. Actually, the three characteristics are
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 109

recognized when contemplating the five aggregates. The five aggregates are the five
groups of factors, which together make up the individual’s universe (internally and
externally). They are material form (including the body), feelings, perceptions,
mental formations and consciousness. Every experience is of, and contained
within the five aggregates. When any experience, physical or mental, is analysed
it involves contact between the sense organ and the sense object (including the
mind as one of six senses), a pleasant, unpleasant or neutral feeling, perception of
the object, mental formations (e.g. memories helping the perception process) and
consciousness (of the object, as a result of the previous processes) (Bodhi 1987: 3).
The three characteristics that are seen when mindfulness is properly established
on the five aggregates (or any of the other categories described in the four
foundations of mindfulness) are that every experience is impermanent, that there
is no abiding, continuing core or entity inside any experience, and that, because
there is attachment to certain experiences being permanent or being a self,
suffering arises. The three characteristics, then, are anicca (impermanence),
dukkha (unsatisfactoriness or suffering) and anatta (selflessness or no-self) (van
Zeyst 1980: 66–111). These are realities that the Buddha challenges us to see and
admit to, through direct and non-judgemental experience and investigation.
A major emphasis in lifelong learning discourse is that learning occurs in all
experiences and that education should assist people of all ages to adapt to change
(Australian Association of Adult Education 1974: 73). The practice of
mindfulness, as set out by Buddhist teachers then, provides a method for learners
(everybody) not only to notice fully their experiences, but also to become aware
of the underlying structures and workings of experience. By becoming aware of
the inherently changing nature of experience, people can learn to accept change
and flow with it in equanimity, rather than with resistance and resentment. With
this kind of learning, the whole universe becomes the classroom, each and every
experience, the lesson, and wisdom and happiness, the graduation prizes. The
other interesting and liberating aspect of this practice is that individuals become
their own teachers, thus promoting independence and self-confidence (in that all
knowledge gained is seen directly by oneself and is first-hand). This is very much
in line with the democratic sentiment, so that individual value, self-esteem and
self-worth are not measured only by individual economic potential or
contribution (Bagnall 2000). Bagnall also considers that the individual progressive
sentiment needs to include an emphasis on the liberation from constraint by
focusing on the transformation and transcendence of frameworks of individual
understanding developed through cultural conditioning. ‘Mindfulness practice’
(the practice of being mindful), is a potent method for doing just that, with its
emphasis on experiencing without colouring the experience with conditioned
perceptions. Once basic structural frameworks for this practice have been
learned, the learning, from then on, is also without any financial cost. Another
facet of the above sentiment, too, is the emphasis on liberation from inadequacy,
giving a focus on individual growth and development. The whole of the noble
eightfold path is elucidated in order for this to take place, but the mindfulness
practice, in particular, by allowing such independent learning and self- directed
growth, fulfills this need. This is a real embedding of education within other (in
fact, all) life engagements, as called for by Bagnall (2000).
The eighth factor on the noble eightfold path is that of right concentration. In the
Mahasatipatthana Sutta (Walshe 1987: 349), the Buddha defines right
110 IAN JOHNSON

concentration as the cultivation of four deep states of meditation called the jhanas.
The development of these meditation states requires a great deal of practice of
meditation, along with the other factors of the noble eightfold path. When the
concentration has developed to this high and purified degree (the level at which
the meditator can attain the fourth jhana), right view can be established through
insight into the nature of things, that is, nibanna is realized in four stages and the
understanding (called ‘knowledge and vision’) of the three characteristics and the
four noble truths is reached (Bodhi 187: 8). This accomplishment of the goal is
synonymous with that part of the description of the individual progressive
sentiment as seeking liberation from ignorance through individual enlightenment
(Bagnall 2000).

Drawing out some implications

The aim of this paper is to highlight some general implications for lifelong learning
practice and to stimulate some re-evaluation of the direction of lifelong learning
discourse. It is not, therefore, within the scope of this study, to draw out the
synergies between the Buddhist approach to teaching and learning and the
current streams of thought in more Western-based educational theories (such as
humanistic educational philosophy or an emphasis on critical reflection and
educational holism). This must be the subject of a further study.
The OECD (1996: 89) defines lifelong learning as the continuation of conscious
learning throughout the life-span. Through the Buddhist practice of mindfulness,
life is more fully and consciously experienced. This kind of experiencing
provides the motivation for learning and understanding, and it provides the
basis for a clearer seeing and knowing of the true nature of existence (all the
experiences of life being what existence is). Therefore the problem of motivation
as the OECD (1996: 27) presents it, is taken care of. The responsibility for
learning remains with the individual and the process provides its own reward.
This kind of motivation does not rest on getting anything in particular or on
being competitive with others, but it does require a mutually respectful and
caring relationship between the learner, the teacher and the teaching at the time
of initial instruction. These qualities of respect for others and the balance of
motivational energy are inherent in the noble eightfold path. Motivation comes
out of a noble, altruistic goal for the learning, rather than a less inclusive and
more selfish one of an economic or competitive nature. Perhaps this highlights
the need for re-establishing ancient values within learning to enable such
qualities to develop. Seeking liberation from ignorance through individual
enlightenment cannot be a motivation placed on learners by a teacher. It must
come from the learner.
The ancient method of education involving dialogue and debate transcends what
education has become today, with large numbers of students being talked at by a
teacher pitching to a common denominator of student understanding and
interest. This is one of the results of economic constraint. In the days of the
Buddha, the monks were the educators of the young who aspired for knowledge,
and they were supported by the community in respect of their food and shelter
needs (Mookerji, 1974: 414–445). This system would probably not work today in
the area of general education because of economic constraints, but there are
BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES AND LIFELONG LEARNING 111

many lay Buddhist teachers, like Joseph Goldstein and Sharon Salzberg in America
and Christopher Titmus in Britain, who are teaching Buddhist meditation using
some of these principles, but also incorporating new ways that are appropriate to
the needs of today’s world. These teachers are supported by donations from their
students and from people who attend 10 day meditation retreats, which is a
common way for Westerners to practise intensive meditation. Christopher Titmus
is one teacher who is using forms of debate and dialogue in his teaching, like the
Buddhist teachers of 2500 years ago, and he also works with small groups during
his retreats (as experienced by the writer recently). Such teachers are
experimenting with the traditional Buddhist methods, while also helping to
establish centres of learning which use modern methods of study and research.
Such institutions include the Insight Meditation Society and the Barre Centre for
Buddhist Studies in Massachusetts, and Gaia House and Sharpham College in
Britain. There are many other similar institutions, in various western countries,
within the various schools of Buddhism. Another example is the Chenrezig
Institute in Queensland, Australia, which is a Tibetan Buddhist centre
(Buddhanet 2000).
It has been noted by the writer through his work in stress-management and as a
meditation teacher, that a large cross-section of society is suffering considerable
stress and anxiety brought about by modern social and economic pressures.
These conditions are not easing. Rather, they are becoming more intensified as
the personal, social and natural environment would appear to be in crisis
(Helfrich 1970: ix, The International Literacy Year Secretariat 1989: 12,
McAllister et al. 1991: 2, Healey 1995: 21). Fundamental to change is education
and fundamental to changing education is the area of lifelong learning
advocacy. Lifelong learning, according to the OECD (1996: 27), is important as
an agent for shaping the future, by fostering the personal development of the
individual, countering the risks to social cohesion, promoting democratic
traditions, and responding to the challenges posed by increasingly global and
knowledge-based economic and social systems. If lifelong learning is to help in
shaping the future in such a way, and if it is genuinely to embrace the notion of
learning through all life experiences, it must approach its contribution from an
all-embracing perspective, considering all aspects of the individual’s
development, physical, intellectual and spiritual (whatever form that may take
for an individual).
It has been shown that Bagnall’s description of the three progressive sentiments
fits comfortably with the practice and teaching of Buddhism, but the Buddhist
teaching can easily be viewed as a universal, humanitarian way of living, rather
than a particular religious framework. The three path categories of virtuous
living, the development of concentration (so that learning can be effective) and
wisdom (arising out of concentrated learning) could be applied as a structure
for lifelong learning. After all, the system has been successfully used for 2500
years to take practitioners to a more enlightened way of life, if not to full
enlightenment.
The practices of meditation, contemplation and mindfulness—the fundamental
core of Buddhist teaching—are not currently part of education or learning in
traditional institutions or frameworks. This paper has shown, it is hoped, that
they could be a valuable tool for lifelong learners to incorporate into their lives.
Conscious learning requires conscious living.
112 IAN JOHNSON

Conclusion

Bagnall (2000) highlights the current trend of lifelong learning discourse as being
bogged down in economic determinism and thus being engaged in a commitment
to the development of basic life and vocational skills in the interests of
engagement in and service to the global economy. He, along with other
commentators (including Smith and Spurling 1999: 3–14), is looking for a
commitment to a radical changing back to the perspectives outlined by the three
progressive sentiments. At the same time, Buddhism, as a philosophical inquiry
and as a practical, experiential learning pedagogy, is becoming increasingly
popular in western societies. It contains a system of practice/learning, which can
continue at all wakeful moments and in all life situations, and fulfills the
philosophical requirements of the three sentiments. Further, the learning and
practice of Buddhism has nothing to do with economic determinism, although the
peaceful clarity of mind, which results, certainly can facilitate life and work skills.
This paper has attempted to give a brief descriptive outline of Buddhist teaching.
There are many other aspects of Buddhism which could provide illumination for
lifelong learning educators and theorists. Perhaps, as Buddhism begins to
influence modern culture more and more, the ideas presented here, along with
other aspects, will help to bring about the radical changes of perspective called
for in this and other fields of inquiry needing such a stimulus.
Finally, if we look to the ultimate motivation for learning implied within the three
progressive sentiments, perhaps it is mirrored in the statement from Swearer (1970:
70–71), in quoting a Sri Lankan Buddhist leader:

Buddhism aims at creating a society where the ruinous struggle for power is
renounced; where calm and peace prevail away from conquest and defeat;
where the persecution of the innocent is vehemently denounced; where one
who conquers oneself is more respected than those who conquest millions
by military and economic warfare; where hatred is conquered by kindness,
and evil by goodness; where enmity, jealousy, ill-will and greed do not infect
men’s minds; where compassion is the driving force of action; where all,
including the least of living things, are treated with fairness, consideration
and love; where life in peace and harmony, in a world of material
contentment, is directed towards the highest and noblest aim, the realisation
of ultimate truth, nibbana.

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GLOSSARY

This is a glossary of key terms from Buddhist teaching introduced in this paper.
Most are from the Pali language. These terms are traditional to Theravada
Buddhism, while the Sanskrit language is traditionally used in other schools of
Buddhism. Thus, ‘nibbana’, in Pali, is ‘nirvana’, in Sanskrit.

. Advaita Vedanta–an Indian philosophical tradition originating with Shankara in

the 9th century AD.
. Anatta–no-ultimate self, no-soul, corelessness.
. Anicca–impermanence, the dynamic, changing  ow of all physical and mental phe-
nomena.
. Ascetic–a wandering mendicant who has forsaken the household life to discover the
truth.
. Bhavana–mind cultivation, meditation.
. Buddha–a particular type of person in Buddhist mythology, who spends thousands
of lifetimes perfecting various noble qualities and who attains nibbana and then tea-
ches the world how to overcome the suffering inherent in life.
114 IAN JOHNSON

. Dhamma–various meanings, but in this context, it refers to the doctrine of the

Buddha.
. Dhamma talk–teaching or discourse about the dhamma by a monk, nun or lay
teacher.
. Dukkha–unsatisfactoriness, suffering. Original literal meaning was ‘felt pain’.
. Jatakas–mythological stories. In particular, stories relating previous lives of the
Buddha.
. Kalama–a tribe of people at the time of the Buddha.
. Kesaputta–a town of the Kalama people.
. Kondanna–one of the Ž ve ascetics who became the Buddha’s Ž rst disciples.
. Mahasatipatthana sutta–the greater discourse on the four foundations of mind-
fulness.
. Nibbana–the transcendent state of knowledge, peace and happiness permanently
attained when the Buddhist practice achieves it’s goal.
. Nikaya–a grouping or class of things.
. Pali–an ancient Indian language in which the Buddhist scriptures were originally
aurally recorded and later written down.
. Pali Canon–the Buddhist scriptures.
. Panna–wisdom.
. Pitaka–basket. Referring to the three sections of the Pali Canon.
. Raja–a minor king (compared to a Maharaja) in Indian political history.
. Samatha–tranquillity.
. Sammadhi–absorbed concentration.
. Sangha–there are two types of sangha. One is the order of Buddhist monks and
nuns and the other is the group of people (which may include lay Buddhists) who
have attained one of the four stages of enlightenment.
. Siddhattha Gotama–the name of the man who, on the attainment of nibbana,
became the Buddha.
. Sila–virtue, morality.
. Sutta–a discourse on a spiritual theme.
. Theravada–the form of Buddhism found in Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma.
. Vipassana–insight-wisdom.
. Zen–a form of Buddhism practised in Japan, although originating in China, and
now, widely practised in the West.