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Pairs of electrons will repel each other as far as possible (due to electrostatic repulsion)
Finding the shape:
1. Draw dot and cross
2. Count the number of electron pairs – bond pairs and lone pairs
3. Decide the shape adopted by the electron pairs
4. Look at the number of lone pairs and decide the shape adopted by the atom
5. Draw shape, including bond angles
180o
120o
109.5o
90o
Lone pairs repel more than bond pairs because they are attracted to a single nucleus and not
shared by two atoms
Lone pairs reduce bond angles between bonding pairs. Each lone pair reduces predicted
bond angle between bonding electrons by 2.5 degrees.
Organic molecules:
Tetrahedral around carbon if saturated e.g. C3H8 or trigonal planar around carbon if there is
a C=C bond.
In C2H4 , the double bond reduces the bond angle further (its electron rich)
Multiple Bonds:
Count as one bond pair of electrons for purpose of determining the shape.
E.g. CO2 is linear:
Carbon Structures:
Layers of graphite are weakly bonded to each other – London forces. Also has a very high
melting point.
Fullerenes: Consist of 32+ carbon atoms. Buckminsterfullerene has 60 carbon
atoms. Ball-shaped molecules. The fourth outer e- is delocalised, so conduct
electricity.
Nanotubes: Fullerenes in the form of tubes. Very small and stiffer than other known
materials. If embedded in polymers they may produce materials with good electrical
conductivity and strength.
Polar bonds will deflect a stream of water (because water is polar) e.g. CH3Cl deflects, CCl4
doesn’t.
Intermolecular Forces:
3 types of forces BETWEEN molecules: London forces/Van der Waals (weakest), Permanent
dipole-dipole and Hydrogen bonding (strongest)
1. London/VdW: Found in ALL molecules. Caused by an unequal distribution of
electrons which makes a temporary dipole. This affects surrounding atoms causing
induced dipoles. The net result is a weak attractive force. Everything has London
forces, and the MORE electrons, the STRONGER/LARGER the force.
2. Permanent dipole-dipoles: delta-plus of one molecule is
attracted to delta-minus of another molecule:
3. Hydrogen bonding: The attraction between a hydrogen
attached to Fluorine, Oxygen or Nitrogen on one molecule and an F, O, N atom on
another molecule. e.g.: hydrogen bonding in water:
Alkane boiling points increase with carbon chain length, because the number of electrons
increases, so more London forces.
Branched chain alkanes have LOWER boiling points than straight chains because they can’t
pack as closely together, whereas straight chains can pack together closely (greater surface
area in contact) therefore the IMF forces are greater and they have higher boiling points.
Alcohols have very high boiling points (lower volatility – harder to evaporate) due to strong
hydrogen bonding.
Solubiliy:
Affected by bonding, and usually a substance will only dissolve if the strength of the new
bonds formed is the same, or greater than the strength of the bonds that are broken.
Ionic compounds dissolve in polar substances such as water, because the ions are attracted
to the polar molecules and they surround the ions and pull them away from the ionic
lattice. This releases energy known as the hydration enthalpy. This can only happen if the
hydration enthalpy is big enough to overcome the lattice enthalpy. (Hydration vs. Lattice)
Alcohols are soluble in water, because they form hydrogen bonds with it.
Non-polar molecules wont form hydrogen bonds with water, so don’t dissolve in it. E.g.
halogenoalkanes like chlorobutane.
Generally ‘like dissolves like’
Hexane molecules are held together by London forces. Water molecules are held together by
hydrogen bonds. Hexane can’t make hydrogen bonds with water, so the two liquids do not mix or
dissolve in each other – immiscible.
Redox
Oxidation number: the number of electrons that need to be lost or gained to become a
neutral atom.
Uncombined elements are 0
F is always -1, group 1 are +1, group 2 are +2, oxygen is -2 (except in peroxides H2O2 where
its -1), H is +1 (except metal hydrides where its -1)
Oxidation numbers in a neutral compound add up to zero, and in a polyatomic ion add up to
the charge.
Ionic half equations are used for redox processes – when oxidation and reduction take place
together in a reaction.
If species are reduced, electrons are on the LEFT
If species are oxidised, electrons are on the RIGHT
Half equations are then added together for the full redox equation
E.g. : The overall equation for the oxidation of I- ions by MnO4- ions is obtained from the two
half equations:
For oxidising agents that contain OXYGEN, e.g. MnO4- , you will need H+ on the LEFT and H2O
on the RIGHT (oxygen can’t swim)
The MnO4- half equation has 5e- but the I- equation has 2e- , so to make them both have the
same number of electrons (so they can cancel out when the equations are added together),
the MnO4- equation has to be multiplied by 2, and the I- equation multiplied by 5, so that
they both have 10e-
They are then added together to give:
Disproportionation: when one species is both oxidised AND reduced at the same time
Have their highest energy electrons in an s sub-shell, hence they are called s-block elements.
Going down the group, there is an extra electron shell compared to the element above, and
the atomic radius is increasing
The outer electrons are increasingly further away from the nucleus; therefore the attractive
force is less.
The extra inner shells shield the outer electrons from the attraction of the nucleus
Therefore, the ionization energies DECREASE down the group (gets easier to remove an e- )
1. Burn in Oxygen to form solid oxides, often burning with a bright flame
Mg reacts rapidly with steam: Mg(s) + H2O (g) MgO + H2 Mg with steam
Ca steadily
Ba rapidly
e.g.: Mg(s) + Cl2 (g) MgCl2(s)
1. Group 2 oxides react with water to form metal hydroxides, which dissolve. They are also
alkaline
Hydroxides are the same: Ca (OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Generally compounds of group 2 elements that contain singly charged negative ions (e.g.
OH-) INCREASE in solubility down group
Compounds with doubly charged -ve ions (e.g. SO42-) DECREASE in solubility down group.
Solubility of
Solubility of
HYDROXIDES
SULFATES DECREASES
INCREASES down the
down the group
group
MgSO4 Most soluble
Mg (OH) 2 Insoluble
CaSO4
Ca (OH) 2
SrSO4
Sr (OH) 2
BaSO4 Insoluble
Ba (OH) 2 Most soluble
Thermal Stability of group 1 and 2 CARBONATES and NITRATES
Group 1
Carbonates: From sodium carbonate down group 1, the carbonates will NOT DECOMPOSE
on heating – thermally stable.
Nitrates: From sodium nitrate down group 1, the nitrates decompose to form the nitrite
and oxygen
Group 2
Carbonates: Lithium and group 2 carbonates decompose to form an oxide and carbon
dioxide
Nitrates: Lithium and group 2 nitrates decompose to form the oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen.
1. Nitrates:
How long it takes until a brown gas - NO2 – is produced. It is toxic, so must be done in fume
cupboard
2. Carbonates:
How long it takes for carbon dioxide to be produced – tested using limewater which turns
cloudy.
Flame tests:
Electrons are being excited to higher energy levels by the heat energy. When the electrons
return to the lower energy levels, they emit energy in the form of visible light.
Barium – GREEN
Reactions of halogens:
COLD alkali to give halide and halate (I) ions: HOT alkali to give halide and halate (V) ions:
X2(g) + 2OH-(aq) XO-(aq) + X-(aq) +H2O 3X2 (g) + 6OH-(aq) XO3- (aq) + 5X- + 3H2O
O.S: 0 +1 -1 0 +5 -1
e.g: I2 + 2NaOH NaIO + NaI + H2O 3Br2 + 6NaOH NaBrO3 + 5NaBr + 3H2O
Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium
iodate (I) iodide bromate (V) bromate
2. Oxidise metals, non-metals and ions
Metals: e.g. fluorine and chlorine react with iron to form iron (III) halides
Iron is oxidised: 2Fe 2Fe3+ + 6e-
Chlorine is reduced: 3Cl2 + 6e- 6Cl-
Overall equation: 3Cl2(g) + 2Fe(s) 2FeCl3(s)
Non metals: e.g. chlorine reacts with sulphur to form sulphur (I) chloride. Sulphur is oxidised
to +1 and chlorine is reduced to -1)
S8(s) + 4Cl2(g) 4S2Cl2(l)
Ions: e.g. all halogens except iodine (weak oxidising agent) will oxidise iron (II) ions to iron
(III) ions in solution. The solution will change colour from green to orange.
2Fe2+(aq) 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2e-
Reactions of Halides:
But hydrogen chloride is not a strong enough reducing agent to reduce the sulphuric acid, so
reaction stops there. Misty fumes of hydrogen chloride gas will be seen when it comes into contact
with moisture in air. This is NOT a redox reaction – O.S of halide and sulphur stay the same (-1 and
+6)
This reaction gives misty fumes of hydrogen bromide gas, and the HBr is strong enough to reduce
the H2SO4 in a redox reaction.
O.S of S: +6 +4 REDUCTION
KI with H2SO4:
O.S of I: -1 0 OXIDATION
O.S of S: +4 -2 REDUCTION
With ammonia: react to form white fumes of the corresponding ammonium halide:
NH3 (g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
4. Silver nitrate solution, and silver halides solubility in ammonia and reactions with sunlight:
The colour of precipitate identifies the halide, and they have different solubility’s in ammonia
solution:
Chloride Cl- : White ppt which dissolves in dilute NH3 (aq) and darkens in sunlight
Bromide Br- : Cream ppt, dissolves in concentrated NH3 (aq) and darkens in sunlight
Iodide I- : Yellow ppt, insoluble in concentrated NH3 (aq) and does NOT darken in
sunlight.
Number of electrons increases down group, so London forces will increase. Astatine
will be a solid and have the highest boiling temperature.
Electronegativity decreases down group, so astatine will have lowest EN value.
Fluorine will be most oxidising
Kinetics
Reactions only happen when: Particles collide in the correct orientation, and they possess
the activation energy (minimum amount of kinetic energy particles need to react). This is
the collision theory.
Enthalpy profile diagram:
Factors affecting the rate of reaction: concentration, temperature, pressure, surface area
and catalysis.
Lower temperature
Increase the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower
activation energy. It is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
N2O4 2NO2
ORGANICS – Alcohols:
Reactions of alcohols:
1. Combustion of alcohols:
Alcohols react with PCl5 (Phosphorus (v) Chloride), releasing hydrogen chloride gas which
forms misty fumes in air
CH3CH2OH (l) + PCl5 CH3CH2Cl (l) + POCl3 (l) + HCl (g)
The OH is swapped for the Cl, and this reaction can be used as a test for an –OH group. The
steamy fumes that are produced turn blue litmus paper red (because HCl dissolves to form
a strong acid)
To make a chloroalkane, just mix a tertiary alcohol (most reactive) and hydrochloric acid
together. This will give an impure chloroalkane which can be purified.
4. Oxidation of alcohols:
The results show that only primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidised, and tertiary
alcohols cannot be oxidised, therefore remains orange.
Oxidation of primary alcohols:
A primary alcohol can be oxidised to an aldehyde and then to a carboxylic acid. This is
carried out using an oxidising agent: Mixture of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (souce of H+) and
potassium/sodium dichromate, K2Cr2O7
To stop oxidising at the aldehyde, you must’ allow the product to distil over’
To get the carboxylic acid, you heat under reflux
Primary
alcohol to
aldehyde
Primary alcohol
to carboxylic
acid
HEAT
Refluxing allows you to heat / boil volatile liquids for a long time. The condenser stops the
volatile liquids evaporating off , because any vaporised compounds are cooled, condense
and drip back down to the reaction mixture
Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones ONLY. Do not undergo further oxidation.
This can be done by refluxing the secondary alcohol with acidified sodium/potassium
dichromate.
Summary:
Halogenoalkanes
Reactions of Halogenoalkanes:
Aqueous hydroxide ions need to substitute the halogen. Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) or
potassium hydroxide KOH(aq) can be used.
The reaction is called hydrolysis and usually carried out under reflux
Hydrolysis: is a reaction with water or aq hydroxide ions that break a chemical compound
into two compounds
Mechanism:
First step
Second step
If water with dissolved silver nitrate is used, this can tell us about the reactivities of
halogenoalkanes
When water and an alcohol react, and an alcohol is formed, the silver nitrate will react with
the halide ions when they form giving a silver halide precipitate
The precipitate that forms first indicates which halogenoalkanes hydrolyses first:
Tertiary halogenoalkanes – precipitate forms immediately
Secondary halogenoalkanes – precipitate forms after several seconds
Primary halogenoalkanes – precipitate forms after several minutes
This shows that the reactivity is tertiary 3o > secondary 2o > primary 1o
Ammonia NH3 has a lone pair of electrons, and can therefore act as a nucleophile
Alcoholic ammonia – ammonia dissolved in ethanol.
Heated under reflux
When a halogenoalkane reacts with alcoholic alkali, e.g. potassium hydroxide, KOH in hot
ethanol , an alkene is made
Uses of halogenoalkanes:
Redox – any reaction where electrons are transferred between two species
Homolytic – when the bond breaks evenly, and one electron moves to each atom. This
forms two free radicals as both atoms now have an unpaired electron. The unpaired
electron makes free radicals very reactive.
Heterolytic – when the bond breaks evenly, and both electrons from the shared electron
pair move to one atom. This forms two different species: a positively charged cation – an
electrophile, and a negatively charged anion – a nucleophile
When drawing curly arrows – double headed arrow shows movement of electron pair; single
headed arrow shows movement of single electron.
Should be able to recall these reaction mechanisms from unit 1: Electrophilic addition and free
radical substitution:
OZONE
Ozone molecules – O3
The ozone layer is at the edge of the stratosphere
It filters out most of the harmful UV radiation which can damage DNA in cells causing skin
cancer and can also cause eye cataracts.
Ozone is formed when UV radiation from the sun hits oxygen molecules. This forms two free
radicals. The free radicals then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone
molecules
O2 + U.V O* + O*
* = free radical
O2 + O* O3
The ozone layer is constantly being replaced, and there is a natural balance between
formation of new ozone and breakdown of ozone molecules : O2 + O* O3
It was discovered that the ozone layer is thinning in places, and a hole in the ozone was
discovered over Antarctica – this means that more harmful UV will reach the earth.
The decrease in ozone concentrations is due to CFCs – chlorofluorocarbons.
Because of their un-reactivity, CFCs don’t decay and reach the upper atmosphere and the
ozone layer, where several reactions happen:
2) The free radicals are catalysts, and react with ozone to form an intermediate – ClO*, and O2
The Cl free radical is regenerated
Cl*(g) + O3 (g) O2 (g) + ClO*(g)
and goes on to attack other ozone
molecules. This shows that one
ClO*(g) + O3 (g) 2O2 (g) + Cl*(g)
CFC molecule can destroy
thousands of ozone molecules
3) The overall reaction is: 2O3 (g) 3O2 (g) (Cl is the catalyst)
Nitrogen oxides are produced from car and aircraft engines and thunderstorms. Like
chlorine radicals, NO* also act as catalysts :
NO* + O3 O2 + NO2*