IRC:SP:91-2019 CONTENTS S.No. Chapter Page No. Personnel of the Highways Specifications and Standards Committee Introduction 1. GENERAL 3 2 PLANNING OF ROAD TUNNELS 7 24 General 7 2.2 Phase 1- Evaluation of Tunnel Cross Section, Corridor Assessment 7 and Development of Altemative Routes 23 Phase 2- Basic Geological Studies on Selected Route 8 2.4 — Phase 3-RockMass/Soil Characterizationand Evaluation of Design 2.5 Phase 4 - Electrical & Mechanical Works including Ventilation, Fire 10 and Fighting Systems, Lighting, Health and Safety Provisions 2.6 Phase 5- Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Land Acquisition " and Statuary Clearances 2.7 Phase 6 - Tender and Contract Design 12 3. DESIGN APPROACH FOR ROAD TUNNELS 13 3.4. Design Basic for Tunnels 13 3.2 Analytical Solutions 14 3.3. Empirical Solutions 17 3.4 Observational Approach 19 3.5 Numerical Methods 22 3.6 Recommended Approach for Geotechnical Design 24 3.7 Tunnel Supports 25 3.8 Structural Design for Road Tunnels 25 4 CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY 29 44 General 29 4.2 Tunnel Approach and Portals 29 4.3. Tunnel Construction using Drill and Blast Method 29 4.4 Mechanical (No- blast) Techniques 34IRC:SP:91-2019 45 Immersed Tube/Sunken Tube Tunnels 46 Cut and Cover Tunnels 4T Pre Excavation Treatment 4.8 Design of Drilling Pattem and use of Explosives 49 Non-structural Works in the Tunnel 4.10 Waterproofing in Tunnels 4.11 Tunnel Furnishings 4.12 Quality Assurance and Quality/Contro! 5. TUNNEL VENTILATION AND FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Type of Ventilation System 5.3 Factors to be Considered for Ventilation Design 54 Admissible Concentration of Toxic Gases 5.5 Visibility 5.6 Ambient Air Concentration 5.7 Minimum Air Exchange 5.8 Objectives of Ventilation for Fire and Smoke Control 5.9 Tunnel Fires, Fire Detection and Fixed Fire Fighting Systems 6. TUNNEL LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS 61 Introduction 6.2 Distinction between long and short tunnels 63 Tunnel Related Zones 6.4 Tunnel Lighting Related Terms 6.5 Daytime Lighting for Long Tunnels 66 Night Time Lighting 67 Luminaries Selection 7. SAFETY AND HEALTH DURING CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS 7A General 7.2 Applicable Regulations 36 38 38 38 a4 41 42 42 42 46 46 47 47 48 48 48 51 51 51 52 56 62 63 65 65 6573 Project Safety Plan (PSP) 7.4 Basic Aspects 7.5 Drilling and Blasting 76 Ventilation and Noise Protection 7.7 Lighting 78 Communication System 79 Protection Against Fire 7.10 Housekeeping 7.11 Emergency Management System TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD SAFETY DEVICES 8.1 General 8.2 Road Markings 83 Reflective Pavement Markers (Road studs) 8.4 — Road Signs 85 Road Delineators 8.6 Lane Messages/Lane Dedicated Signs (LDS)/Lane Use Management System (LUMS) 8.7 VMS System Design 88 Tunnels Closure Management 89 Median Openings OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Operation and Maintenance Function/Activities 9.3 Organization for Operation and Maintenance 94 Documentation 95 Safety Requirements 96 Additional Safety Consideration 97 Information Leaflets: Case Study IRC:SP:91-2019 65 65 67 69 70 70 "1 71 72 73 73 73 7 79 83 83 84 85 85 86 86 86 93 94 95 100 101IRC:SP:91-2019 ANNEXURES NOaReon a ANNEXURE: A (Clause: 1.4) Terminology ANNEXURE: B (Clause: 2.2) Assessment of Functional Requirements ANNEXURE: B-1 Cross Passage/Inspection Path/Sub-Surface Drainage ANNEXURE: C (Clause: 2.3) Geophysical Investigations ANNEXURE: D (Clause: 3.6) Tunnel Instrumentation ANNEXURE: E (Clause: 3.7) Tunnel Supports ANNEXURE: F (Clause: 5.9.1) Standard Tunnel Fire Curves APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX-I (Clause 3.3.1) Terzaghi's Empirical Method for Assessment of Rock Load for Design of Steel Ribs APPENDIX-II (Clause 3.3.4) Procedure for Predicting Rock Mass Rating (RMR) APPENDIX-III (Clause 3.3.5) Data Sheet for Geomechanical Classification of Rock Masses for Assessment of Tunnelling Quality Index APPENDIX-IV (Clause 3.3.5) Relation between Rock Mass Rating, Stand- up time and Unsupported Span and Inter-relation between ‘Q’ and RMR APPENDIX-V (Clause 3.8.1) Applicable Codes of Practices/Acts/Rules 102 104 108 12 116 123 130 135 136 139 14224 22 23 24 25 26 IRC:SP:91-2019 PERSONNEL OF THE HIGHWAYS SPECIFICATIONS Pandey, LK. (Convenor) Balakrishna, Y. (Co-Convenor) Kumar, Sanjeev (Member Secretary) Behera, Bijan Kumar Bose, Dr. Sunil Chandra, Dr. Satish Gupta, DP. Jain, RK. Kapila, KK. Kukrety, B.P. Kumar, Dr. Mahesh Lal, Chaman Meena, HL. Nashikkar, J.T. Nirmal, S.K. Parida, Prof. (Dr) M. Patel, S. Prasad, R. Jal Rawat, MS. Reddy, Dr. KS. Krishna Reddy, 1.6. Reddy, Prof. (Dr) KS. Sharma, 8.C. Shrivastava, AK, Singh, Nirmaljt ‘Sinha, AV. AND STANDARDS COMMITTEE (As on 20.07.2019) Director General (Road Development) & Special Secretary to Govt. of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi Additional Director General, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Dethi Chief Engineer (R) S, R & T, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi Members Engineer-in-Chief (Civil) (Retd.), Odisha Head (Retd.), FP Division, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi Director, Central Road Research institute, New Delhi DG(RD) & AS (Retd.), Ministry of Surface Transport, New Delhi Chief Engineer (Retd.), PWD Haryana Chairman & Managing Director, ICT Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi Associate Director, CEG Ltd., New Delhi Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), PWD (B&R) Haryana Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), PWD Haryana Secretary (Retd.), PWD Rajasthan Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi Deputy Director, Indian institute of Technology, Roorkee ‘Secretary (Retd.), PWD (Roads and Buildings) Gujarat Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), PWD & Bangalore Mahanagar Palike, Kamataka Executive Director, AECOM India Pvt. Ltd. ‘Secretary, Public Works, Ports & Inland Water Transport Department, Kamataka Engineer-in-Chief (NH, CRF & Buildings), PWD Hyderabad Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur DG(RD) & AS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi Additional Director General (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi DG(RD) & SS (Retd,), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi DG(RD) & SS (Rele.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New DelhiIRC:SP:91-2019 ar 2 29 30 31 32 3 35 36 a7 38 39 The Chief Engineer (Basar, Toli) ‘The Addl, DGBR (North-West) (Kumar, Ani) The Director (Tech.) (Pradhan, B.C.) The General Manager (Projects) (Reta) (Kaul, Satish) The JICA Expert (Kitayama, Michiya) The Member (Projects) (Pandey, RK.) The Professor (Chakroborty, Dr. Partha) The Secretary (Vasava, $.B.) The Secretary (Roads) (Joshi, CP.) The Secretary (Tech) (Tickoo, Bimal) (Retd.) The Special Director General (Retd.) (Bansal, M.C.) Venkatesha, M.C. Wasson, Ashok Jaigopal, RK. Justo, Prof. (Dr.) CEG. Veeraragavan, Prof. (Dr) A President, Indian Roads Congress Director General (Road Development) & Special Secretary to Gowt. of India Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress PWD Arunachal Pradesh Border Roads Organisation, New Delhi National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency, New Delhi National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation, New Delhi Japan International Cooperation Agency, New Delhi National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur Roads and Buildings Department, Gujarat PWD Maharashtra Roads and Buildings Department, Jammu & Kashmir CPWD, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi Consultant Member (Tech.) (Retd.), National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi Corresponding Members MD, Struct Geotech Research Laboratories (P) Lid., Bengaluru Professor (Retd.), Emeritus (Expired in June, 2019) Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Ex-Officio Members (Basar, Toli), Chief Engineer, PWD Arunachal Pradesh (Pandey, |.K.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi Nirmal, Sanjay KumarIRC:SP-91-2019 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD TUNNELS INTRODUCTION IRC first published Guidelines for Road Tunnels in the year 2010. Subsequent to the advancement in technology used for Geophysical Investigation, ventilation, fire safety as well as outcome of R&D and best world-wide practices, IRC decided to revise this document. Accordingly, IRC entrusted the task of revision of this Guidelines to Hill Roads and Tunnels Committee (H-10) under the convenorship of Shri A.K. Shrivastava during the tenure 2018-20. The Committee had several meetings and prepared an initial draft based on inputs received from members, user departments and industry. Thereafter, a Drafting Committee was formed to compile all the chapters/feedback comprising Shri A.K. Shrivastava, Lt. Col. Parikshit Mehra, Shri Swatantra Kumar and Shri M.C. Bansal. The H-10 Committee finalized the draft in its meeting held on 06.07.2019 for placing during the meeting of HSS Committee. The composition of H-10 Committee is given below: Shrivastava, A.K. ses Convenor Kumar, Anil ‘Co-Convenor Jaiswal, Vivek Member-Secretary Members Adhikari, Atanu Nanda, A.K. Bansal, M.C. Rana, Dr. Sanjay Goel, Dr. R.K. ‘Sharma, Anil Kumar Kaul, Satish Venkatesh, Dr. H.S. Khaira, V.S. BRO (Mehra, Lt. Col. Parikshit) Kohli, Brij Mohan JICA (Kitayama, Michiya) Krenn, Dr. Florian MoRTH (Blah, W.) Kumar, Ashwani PWD Arunachal Pradesh (Basar, Toli) Kumar, Swatantra PWD Mizoram (Lalsawmvela, K.) Madan, M.M. PWD Nagaland (Temjen, R. Temsu) Corresponding Members Casasus, Dr. Alvaro Ramamurthy, Prof. T. Kastner, Dr. Michael Rao, Prof. (Dr.) K.S. Paretkar, S.G.IRC:SP:91-2019 Ex-Officio Members President, (Basar, Toll), Chief Engineer, PWD Indian Roads Congress Arunachal Pradesh Director General (Pandey, .K.), Ministry of Road (Road Development) & Special Transport & Highways Secretary to Govt. of India Secretary General, Nirmal, Sanjay Kumar Indian Roads Congress The HSS Committee in its meeting held on 20.07.2019 authorized the Convenor to finalize the document based on comments offered during the meeting and submit final document to IRC for placing in the Mid-Term Council meeting. The Mid-Term Council in its meeting held on 9" and 10" August, 2019 at Goa approved the document for publishing.IRC:SP:91-2019 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 414 Tunnels are introduced into the road system in any terrain to negotiate gradients and troubled spots while using the safest and shortest route. Tunnels may be introduced to avoid passage through snow bound areas, eco sensitive areas, pass below water bodies or congested areas etc. The fundamental objective of road tunnel is to ensure safe transit of the road traffic in difficutt terrain. 1.2 The decision to introduce a tunnel in a road system should be taken considering life-cycle cost and overall saving for the traffic using the shortest feasible route. The cost of tunnelling itself depends on geology, location of tunnel, length of tunnel and other site specific criteria. 13 The planning, design and construction of a road tunnel is a complex inter- disciplinary task and requires expertise in different fields. The planning and design involves site investigation, physical planning, conceptual design and detailed design with due consideration for construction methods. Aspects of construction methods, lighting and ventilation, safety and operation and maintenance are dealt with in further sections. 14 Terminology: Annexure A contains definitions of terms that relate to planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of road tunnels. 15 Classification of Road Tunnels 1.5.1 Depth wise Shallow and Deep Tunnels. 1.5.2 Construction wise — Cut and Cover, Bored Tunnels using TBMs, Mined tunnels using Road-headers and Drill & Blasting, Immersed tubes and Floating Tunnels. 1.5.3 Shape wise — Circular, Horseshoe, Elliptical tunnels & other shapes. Possible tunnel shapes are given in Figs. 1.1a to 4.1. 'D' Section: 'D’ sections are most suitable for trasportation tunnels. The flat invert of "D" shape greatly facilitates construction. However, this section is not suiitable for tunnels in soft ground. 9&4 = 05050" ~~ PERIMETER #2580 Fig. 11a 3IRC:SP:91-2019 Circular Section: Circular sections are structurally the best and are commonly used for underwater tunnels, tunnels through softy ground and for tunnels excavated with tunnel boring machines. AREA =0,786 D? PERIMETER= 3.140 ——~ CIRCULAR SECTION Fig. 1.1b Horseshoe Section: Horseshoe and Modified Horseshoe sections are a compromise between 'D' Section and Circular section and have added advantage for accomodation of utlility services, better head room, etc. ‘AREA =0,8293 D? PERIMETER® 3.287 D HORSESHOE SECTION MODIFIED HORSESHOE SECTION Fig. 1.1¢ 4IRC:SP:91-2019 Egg Shaped Sections: Egg shaped and egglipse sections are best sulted for sewerage tunnels becuase of their hydraulic properties. They are also used for road tunnels with high vertical pressure. EGGLIPSE SECTION Fig. 1.10 1.5.4 Length wise . Short tunnels: Up to 500 m length . Medium tunnels: Over 500 m to 1500 m length . Long tunnels: Over more than 1500 m length 1.6 Distinctive Features of Tunnelling Following distinctive features of Tunnelling shall be kept in mind while planning and designing:- i) The dimensions of the tunnel are decided basedon the intended purpose. A tunnel is designed to have the minimum cross section that serves the intended purpose. Plant and equipment to be used for construction is decided based on these dimensions. ii) Due to space limitations and linear nature of work, not many operations can be carried ‘out simultaneously, particularly at the tunnel face. Delay caused at any stage tends to get carried through. Adequate number of Shafts and Adits to open multiple attack points need to be planned keeping this aspect in mind. iii) Tunnel design, unlike other civil structures, is largely based on the properties of strata (rock-mass or soil) in which tunnel is being excavated. These are highly heterogeneous materials and hence it is exact mathematical solutions cannot be stipulated. Each tunnel has to be designed based on its specific geological site characteristics and boundary conditions.IRC:SP:91-2019 iv) ” vi) vil) vill) ix) Even in rocky strata, possibility of meeting jointed and weak zones, leading to high convergences, rock fall etc. cannot always be ruled out. Tunnels may pass through complex geological formations wherein adverse geological occurrences like rock bursting, squeezing, swelling, sudden ingress of water, emission of inflammable, poisonous & noxious gases and high geothermic zones could be encountered. Adequate ventilation and lighting facilities need to be provided inside tunnels and along tunnel approaches during construction and operation. Urban tunnels pass at relatively shallow depths below populated areas with structures ‘on top due to which surface subsidence and ground vibrations are of significant consideration. Non-urban tunnels could pass below reserved forests containing flora and fauna. It would, therefore, be necessary to ensure that Tunnelling techniques chosen are such that disturbance and damage to environment is avoided is minimal, Efficient Tunnelling calls for a good understanding and appreciation of the geological aspects. Application of the right amount of appropriate supports applied at the optimum time, based on sound understanding of geology and rock mechanics is solicited. Tunnelling requires appropriate Health, Safety and Environmental protection measures which must be implemented after due deliberations based on site situations.IRC:SP-91-2019 CHAPTER 2 PLANNING OF ROAD TUNNELS 24 General: Planning and design of road tunnels require adequate investigations and studies, as underground structures are always associated with a lot of uncertainties. It is preferable to carry out detailed investigation, exploration and studies as listed below. The planning data for a highway tunnel should be compiled as a Detailed Project Report. An ideal DPR should constitute the following Phases:- 22 Phase 1 - Evolution of Tunnel Cross Section, Corridor Assessment and Development of Alternate Routes The process of preparing the DPR starts with understanding the end use of the Tunnel. The end use determines the intended size of opening based on utility solicited. The general cross section of the main Tunnel, Emergency Egress Tunnel and cross passages is evolved based on actual utlity. Aspects of ventilation, Fire Fighting, electrification including niches or caverns are also evolved. Taking into consideration all these aspects the basic geometrical layout of the Tunnel project is evolved. A brief guideline on configuration of a tunnel is given at Annexure B. The next objective is to decide the alignment of the tunnel. This is inarguably the most critical part of the process as it has major ramifications on the overall structural integrity and construction plan of the Tunnel, Obligatory Locations to be connected are the most important facet for selecting the alignment. Once understanding is reached on the type and volume of traffic envisaged and the locations to be connected, Tunnel Planners can evolve a corridor of the general area where the tunnel can be built. Such a corridor is generally evolved in consultation with the end user or client. Once the corridor is finalised the assessment of the corridor begins. Keeping in mind the principles of survey the corridor is assessed from whole to part. Initial assessment of the corridor is achieved with bibliographical desk studies including study of any earlier investigation campaigns in the area, any scholarly geological researches, geological maps, remote sensing inputs and latest satellite and photographic records. Walk over surveys are also carried out to study the outcrops and for corroborating the remotely collected data. During such walkover surveys, Detailed Scan line or window Mapping surveys are also carried out by geologists. This data is collated in form of a Geological Reference Model (GRM). GRM should also be presented as and as a L-section duly highlighting the ground types based on geologist's initial assessment of rock type and outcrops. Any special features like water bodies, major thrusts, folds, faults etc. are shown on this model. This model is continuously populated with more data as the investigation and exploration progresses. Generally, a specialized agency is employed for providing stereo paired satellite imagery of the complete tunnel corridor with minimum 50 cm ground sample distance. Based on these images a Digital Elevation Model(DEM) is evolved using digital processing techniques. The DEM is overlaid with topographical contours to produce accurate geomorphological maps. This result obtained after digital processing should be represented in form of A3 size high resolution photographs. Scale used for such photographs should be 1:10000 with 5 m contour interval.IRC:SP:91-2019 However, for portal locations a scale of 1:5000 and contour interval of 2 m is proposed. Inputs received after study of the DEM and photographs are used to further populate the GRM. ‘Once the GRM is developed to an acceptable detail the actual route options within the corridor are selected. The routes are prioritized based on suitability of geology, approaches to the Tunnel, ‘environmental aspects, cost and time involved. Sometimes, some peculiar end use requirement like obligatory points or some critical construction aspects, like a preferred mode of construction, might be the crucial factor for selection of a particular alignment option. This can be dealt on case to case basis. Such route options are generally marked on ground as far as practicable and then evaluated. A final alignment is generally evolved at this stage and subsequent detalled investigations are carried out along the selected alignment. During this stage adits and shafts for ease of construction and ventilation are also conceived. Rock mass of proposed adits and shafts is also required to be investigated in detail for ensuring a proper design. 23 Phase 2 - Basic Geological Studies on Selected Route After selection of the final alignment, detailed study of geology of the area assodated with this, preferred alignment within the corridor is taken up. This incorporates detailed geophysical and intrusive investigation schemes. Generally, the GRM obtained during previous phase is first populated by using geophysical methods like seismic reflection, seismic refraction, magnetic techniques, electric tomography etc. A note on the same is placed as Annexure C. ‘Once the input of the geophysical methods is obtained, Intrusive Investigations are carried out through Bore Holes at critical junctions where more detailed information is required for designing the tunnel. This process of deciding the depth and number of Boreholes is dependent upon the gaps of critical information in the GRM. The location and depth of boreholes should ideally be decided by the geotechnical engineers and geologists making the DPR. In most cases for tunnels less than 500 m length where a fair idea of geology is available especially under low to moderate overburden, Bore Holes may be done away with. In case of tunnels greater than 1500 m length following Bore hole configuration is suggested: - a) Portal Locations = 02 x 400 m Deep NX size Boreholes; One vertical one inclined/ Horizontal. b) % Length = 01 x 200 m Deep c) % Length = 01 x 400 m Deep; Generally, around max overburden area d) 3/4 Length -01 x 200 m Deep ) Shaft and Adit locations -Site based (preferably at portals and intersection areas) It may be appreciated that it is not always essential for the Bore Hole to reach till the Tunnel depth. Also, Boreholes may be drilled vertical or inclined to confirm the stratigraphy of the GRM. In case of sensitive projects or locations oriented core logs may be used to map discontinuities. Directional drilling may be resorted to wherever found essential and pragmatic. International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) recommends least core size of NX dimensions (54.7 mm dia) drilled with double-tube core barrel using a diamond bit. Artificial fractures can be 8IRC:SP:91-2019 identified by close fitting of cores and unstained surfaces. All the artificial fractures should be ignored while counting the core length for RQD. ‘The samples are not only used for determination of RQD but also intact rock parameters through laboratory tests. These samples are to be properly marked and stored in wooden sample boxes in form of core logs. Due care should be taken to keep the samples safe from any direct weathering and photographic records of the core logs should always be maintained for reference. Acoustic Bore Hole tele-viewers (BHTV) and optical Tele-Viewers (OPTV) can be used for Bore Hole Imagery to record the geo-mechanical characteristics of the encountered strata. Using the water and rock sample collected from site and from intrusive tests, Laboratory tests are carried out. The tests for intact rock include Unit weight, Porosity, Rock Hardness, Strength, Deformability, Poission's ratio etc. Water is generally tested for PH value, sulphates, dissolves ‘solids etc. as per IS:3025 or other relevant International Standards. Laboratory Tests should be carried out as per provisions of relevant norms and codes duly citing the codes. The data collected during desk studies and different field and laboratory investigation procedures are presented in standard formats from which interpreted geotechnical report and geotechnical design reports are generated. The compilation of geotechnical data with all the necessary information that would help to complete the interpretation report is called ‘Geotechnical Investigation Factual Report’ (GFR). Besides geological and hydrological considerations, in situ stresses are also mapped using hydro fracturing or other suitable techniques. Any available stress maps should also be utilized for this. Specific hydrogeological and permeability characteristics are also measured and mapped. Once the data is collected and collated ina GFR a Geotechnical Investigation Interpretative Report (GIR) is prepared. Here data from desk study conducted prior to the geotechnical investigation and the entire data from the investigation are critically reviewed and analysed to arrive at geotechnical models that are suitable for the design of the tunnel. The interpretative report shall provide all necessary references and typical calculations used in arriving at such geotechnical model. GIR shall provide the basis of rock mass characterisation and recommend any foreseen ground improvement techniques. GIR shall comment upon the suitability of the site and recommend remedial/mitigation procedures or suggest additional investigation required to complete such sludy. Any expected extraordinary geotechnical occurrences like major shear zones ete should be part of the GIR and the mitigation techniques should form part of the report. 24 Phase 3 — Rockmass/Soil Characterisation and Evolution of Design Having mapped the geology in detail and having analysed test results from laboratory tests (summarized in GFR & GIR) rockmass/soil type along the selected alignment is characterised. Such characterization can be done using empirical formulations like Q, RMR or GS! based on suitability of these models. The consultant should justify using any such empirical model based ‘on the likeliness of the rock mass being characterised to the geology on which the empirical model is based. These would obviously have to be reviewed during actual construction. Details ‘of approaches available to carry put such analysis is given in Chapter 3 - Design Approaches for Road Tunnels 9IRC:SP:91-2019 Preferably, the consultant should evolve his own model to describe the behavior of rock mass. The rock mass should be divided into ground types based on the properties of the intact rocks, discontinuities, hydro-geological and in-situ stress conditions with expected failure modes. A detailed model, generally an L section, should be evolved based on such characterization. Such an L section should give out the distribution of expected ground types across the tunnel alignment. ‘Once such a section has been evolved, support systems for each ground type is designed. The support system is based on the expected geo-mechanical nature of the ground type and possible modes under which rock mass may fail during excavation. Special supports like pre-support pipe roof umbrellas in squeezing ground or Lining Stress Controllers in highly stressed ground may be prescribed within these supports. In poor ground conditions, measures like segmental excavation, temporary inverts and deep inverts should also be incorporated into the support class drawings. Once the support systems have been designed for the complete alignment another L section showing the envisaged excavation and support classes is evolved. This L Section showing the distribution of excavation and support classes would form the basis of the tender. Stereographic projections should also be made available with such a L section profile. Adetailed drawing, based ‘on intended cross section, is evolved for each support and excavation class. Such drawings would generally prescribe convergence for construction purposes besides recommended ‘support systems and round lengths. Handling of water is crucial for safe construction of tunnels in the Himalayas. Hence, itis important that all locations where significant egress of water is expected are marked on the L. section evolved for excavation and support classes. It is important to prescribe measures to handle such water during construction and evolve a drainage plan for both construction and operational phase of the Tunnel. ‘Tunnel portals need to be conceived and designed in a comprehensive manner as a proper portal design is imperative for successful construction of the tunnel project. Additionally, in many cases the tunnel portal locations solicit special effort for development of approach to the portals. In such cases the approach should be designed keeping in mind the required geometrics and options like cut and cover sections or viaducts must be explored. These design aspects of the portals, approaches, excavation and support systems inside the Tunnel, design of adits and shafts etc. are compiled in the Geotechnical Design Report (GDR) Anypossibility of extraordinary geotechnicaloccurrences mustbe clearlydemarcaledandremedial measures in form of excavation and support system should be recommended in such a GDR. 25 Phase 4 - Electrical & Mechanical Works including Ventilation, Fire and Fighting Systems, Lighting, Health and Safety Provisions (Once the the excavation and support design of the Tunnel has been formalized, the ventilation and fire safety provisions inside the tunnel are to be designed. Vehicles on the open road create emissions which are diluted and dispersed through natural surface air flows. Road tunnels create an enclosed space around vehicles where emissions from the vehicles can bulld up to unacceptable levels without an engineered ventilation system to replace natural surface air flows 10IRC:SP:91-2019 For most tunnels up to around 500 m in length the natural air flow through the tunnel driven by the piston effect created by movement of vehicles is adequate to manage in-tunnel air quality, and forced ventilation may not be required. For longer tunnels forced ventilation in the form of fans and ducts may be required to ensure that air flow rates are sufficient to maintain in-tunnel air quality to required levels. The main air quality criteria considered in tunnel ventilation design are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO) and visibility. Even though there are other vehicle pollutants to consider, these three criteria are considered to be the most important for health and safety. By managing air quality based on these criteria, other pollutants are managed to well below required levels. It is imperative that the layout of the ventilation system including details of all accessories like fans, ducts, dust collectors etc. is properly stipulated. Today firefighting mechanisms are also closely linked with ventilation systems through use of dampeners and intelligent ventilation control systems in order to control oxygen availability inside tunnel during a fire. Such Intelligent systems are highly recommended to be included as part of DPR for long tunnels. Chapter 5 “Ventilation and Fire Fighting for Road Tunnels” to be referred for further details Safety provisions generally consist of vehicle lay byes, cross passages, emergency egress paths, turning caverns, lighting, firefighting, water supply, communication systems, emergency power supply etc. Emergency escape systems need to strengthened through PA arrangements, route markers, fire doors etc. Lighting is a pivotal factor in ensuring safety and ergonomics in a tunnel. Provision of reflective paints, lighting arrangements and other such altematives may be made based on expected luminosity requirements. In very long tunnels mood lighting can help break monotony and reduce driving stress. Chapter 6 “Lighting for road tunnels" to be referred for further details. Health and safety regulations need to be stipulated for both construction and operational phase of the Tunnel. These include ventilation during construction, emergency evacuation plans, medical setup, SOPs on traffic management, safety drills, safety arrangements inside tunnel etc. Health and Safety manual should be asked from the construction agency which elaborates the health and safety management plan to ensure compliance of relevant norms. Chapter 7 “Health and Safety for Road Tunnels” to be referred for further details. 2.6 Phase 5 - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Land Acquisition and Statuary Clearances ‘Once the detailed design for construction is complete in all respects, environmental impact of the project is assessed. The impact should be based on an environment baseline record. Once the impact has been assessed, Environment Management Plan(EMP) is evolved to mitigate any adverse effects. EIA with the EMP is subsequently approved by relevant Government Authority. EMP should contain provisions for safe disposal of construction water, handling ground water table, guidelines for storage of chemicals, emission norms for construction equipment, working environment for tunnel construction workers, labour accommodation layout, disposal and treatment of any direct or indirect waste. This should be recommended to be finally presented by the construction contractor in form of a manual abiding by all local environment laws.IRC:SP:91-2019 Muck disposal plan forms the most important facet of this phase. This involves possibility of reuse of muck and identification of sites for disposal. The EIA and EMP with the muck disposal plan should be approved by the relevant environmental authorities. Atthis stage another very important aspectis to identify the requirement of diversion or acquisition of land. Acquisition of land forms an essential factor in ensuring timely completion of a project. Allnecessary statutory clearances and approvals shall be obtained before taking up construction. These shall include, but not limited, to the following:- a) Environmental and Forest clearances where applicable b) Permission for Blasting in the area ¢) License for storage and handling of explosives d) Acquisition of Right of Way, e) Approvals from Fire Authority if applicable f) Clearance from Pollution Control Board 27 Phase 6 — Tender and Contract Design Construction of highway tunnels is a significantly complex civil engineering activity, Such complexity increases even further as tunnels become longer and deeper. In order to ensure ‘smooth construction, it is important to frame a contract which caters for a fair risk sharing mechanism. Initial risks can be significantly reduced with a comprehensive Investigation and exploration campaign. However, there would still be residual risks involved due to the very nature of tunneling work coupled with peculiar Himalayan geology wherein it is difficult to predefine ground conditions in exact detail. To ensure proper handling of such risks it is important that a ‘sound tender and contract document is formalized. The tender document should contain adequate site information, a detailed construction design, detailed Specifications of each item (based on referred relevant codes of practice), a draft construction schedule with a tunneling approach recommended based on least risk. Ideally at this stage, the Consultant should include the Geotechnical Baseline Report (GBR). Any geological condition equal to or better than that given in baseline is Contractors responsibility and any expenditure due to conditions adverse than baseline should be bome by the client. This forms the basis of risk sharing mechanism. Risk sharing mechanisms should be included in the contract documents and should be in place before start of construction. Detailed Bill of Quantities and cost of works envisaged during the construction should form part of the DPR. Details of aspects like pay lines for excavation and sprayed support elements should be clearly brought out in the contract documents. During this stage of the DPR the consultant should also recommend the type of contract and funding model based on a detailed traffic survey and toll potential. Any particular pre-qualification criteria for the Construction Agency should also be recommended. solicited organizational structure at the site including Client, Designer, Authority Engineer and Contractor's skeleton setup should also be stipulated. 1234 ii) iii) iv) vy) IRC:SP:91-2019 CHAPTER 3 DESIGN APPROACH FOR ROAD TUNNELS. Design Basic For Tunnels In the conventional design schemes external loads are calculated and then materials commensurate with allowable strength and deformation under the calculated loads are prescribed. However, for tunnels the approach varies as the properties of the rock mass cannot be prescribed and construction has to be carried out by analysing the Tock mass behaviour and provisioning a suitable support system. The influence of adjacent structures, in-situ stresses and overburden also plays an important role. The structural behaviour and analysis of any underground opening whether a mine, tunnel, shaft or a cave mainly depends on the properties of the rock mass, geological Profile, the in-situ stress conditions and to some extent on the excavation technique used. The basic aim of any underground excavation should be to utilize the rock itself as the principal structural material. The excavation should be carried out with as little a disturbance as possible. Intact rock generally has far more compressive strength than concrete and possesses tensile strength comparable with steel. Hence supports should be added as sparingly as possible. However, this may not always be pragmatic due to disturbance caused to rock mass while excavating. Effects of earthquakes, earth pressure and other significant phenomena Water pressure (inner water pressure, extemal water pressure), groundwater level, water inflow amount frost heaving and freezing, inner load, surcharge, deadweight environment (water landscape) etc. to be considered. Design items: Major design items include the following: a) Horizontal Alignment: Horizontal Alignment of Tunnels b) — Longitude Profile: Vertical Alignment of Tunnels c) Finished Cross Section: Tunnel Cross Section d) Auxiliary Facilities: Tunnel Facilities e) Rock Mass Classification (classification for design based on the ground assessment by Section) f) Excavation Section Geometry g) Excavation Method: Selection of Tunnel Driving Method i) — Supports (shotcrete, rock bolt, steel support, etc.) i) Lining k) Waterproofing and Drainage m) Portal Section and Portal 1) Auxiliary Methods ©) Measurement In addition to the above item, some design items have special condition, for example, 13,IRC:SP-91-2019 branching sections and enlargement section, as well as the design of protecting against neighbouring Construction. vi) Design methods a) Analytical Methods b) Empirical Methods ) Observational Methods d) Numerical Method 32 Analytical Solutions Analytical or closed form solutions are derived basically with some assumptions. The closed form solutions are available for basic and regular geometrical shapes of openings, like circular, square, rectangular with rounded comers, oval and elliptical openings and are derived considering the following assumptions:- a) The material around the opening is linear elastic or elasto-plastic. b) The solutions are either for Plane Strain or for Plane Stress condition, °) The medium is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic. ‘Assumptions given above may not always be valid for practical cases, but still analytical solutions give a preliminary estimate of the behaviour of the underground openings before their actual construction. They also aid in benchmarking solutions using numerical methods. 3.2.1 Linear Elastic Material The analytical solution for circular opening in an infinite linear elastic medium can be obtained by solving the differential equations of compatibility and equilibrium. The integration constants obtained while solving the above said equations could be evaluated with boundary conditions. Pender (1980), has given the elastic solution for stresses and deformation around a deep circular ‘opening located in a biaxial stress medium defined by o =P, and ,=K"P,, where G, is the vertical stress magnitude, a, is the horizontal stress magnitude and K is the in-situ stress ratio. The solution is largely based on Airy stress function. Equations for radial, tangential stresses and for displacements along the excavation are obtained as part of Pender's solution. As per Pender (1980), when an opening is excavated in such a medium, the radial and tangential stresses acting over the medium get relieved. These stresses get channelized around the periphery and so the stresses in the proximity of the opening are found by using Eqs. (1.1) to (1.3). 4 2) cof vat joos20 WP} (1.1) $6. -a{t 15 ozo r (1.2) 4IRC:SP-91-2019 2 (1.3) ‘The displacements around the tunnel opening are obtained by using Eqs (1.4) and (1.5). txt lose (Epon (is Jor} 2 lr) ror aay 2 gt Ey tle, -o, io- wee «naa rf (1.5) By putting r = a, the above equations will give the stress and displacement at the opening periphery. Fig. 3.1 shows all the parameters involved in Eqs 1.1 to 1.5, where E is the Young's Modulus of the material medium and vis its Poisson's ratio. Fig. 3.1 Stresses in Polar Coordinate System (Pender, 1980) a= radius of the opening T= radial coordinate 0,,0,= Circumferential and Radial Stresses 9,9, Vertical and Horizontal in-situ Stress Radial and Circumferential Displacements uve 3.2.2 Elasto-Plastic Material Generally, weak rocks show elasto-plastic behaviour. According to Crowder and Bawden (2006), it is observed in an elasto-plastic material that as soon as the peak strength of the material is exceeded, the properties of the rock instantly change to residual parameters in a brittle manner. 15,IRC:SP:91-2019 It is also possible that the rock actually starts to “soften” or behave in a ductile manner, and hence gradually change rather than abruptly changing from peak to residual parameters. The analytical solution for stresses in an elasto-plastic medium has been suggested by Hoek ‘and Brown (1982). The solution gives radial and tangential stresses within the elastic and plastic regions of the excavated rock mass under hydrostatic in-situ stresses. The solution takes info account GSI of the rock mass, the rock strength parameters of intact and broken rock and intemal pressure inside the excavation apart from the opening radius. ‘The analytical solution for stresses in an elasto-plastic medium as per Hoek and Brown (1982) is given in the Eqs. (1.6) to (1.9). For elastic region (r>r,), radial and tangential stresses are as per Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7). ' (1.6) a, =P, +(P, -o, () r (1.7) where, 9, 0,= Radial and Tangential Stresses in elastic zone at radial distance r (Pr ); 1, = Radius of plastic or broken rock mass zone; ©,,= Radial stress at the elastic and broken rock mass interface; P, = Magnitude of in-situ hydrostatic stress. In broken rock mass (r Fig. 3.3 Typical Ground Reaction Curve The plot given in Fig. 3.3 shows: a) Zero displacement when the support pressure equals the in-situ stress (p= p,) b) Elastic displacement u,, for p,> P,> P., °) Plastic displacement u,, for p, < p, d) Maximum displacement when the support pressure equals zero For a given tunnel radius and in-situ stress, the shape of the ground reaction curve depends on the rock mass failure criterion which is assumed and the specific rock mass characteristics. ‘Once the support has been installed and is in effective contact with the rock, the support starts to deform elastically as shown in Fig. 3.3. The maximum elastic displacement which can be accommodated by the support system is u,,, and the maximum support pressure p,., is defined by the yield of the support system. Depending upon the characteristics of the support system, the rock mass surrounding the tunnel and the in-situ stress level, the support system will deform elastically in response to the closure of the tunnel, as the face advances away from the point under consideration. 21IRC:SP:91-2019 Support pressure p; —__gp- be yy ey Inward radial displacement uy; |= ———> Fig. 3.4 Rock Support Interaction -Support Reaction Curve Equilibrium is achieved if the support reaction curve intersects the rock mass displacement curve before either of the curves have progressed too far. If the support is installed too late (i.e. u ,, is large in Fig. 3.4), the rock mass may have already deformed to the extent that loosening of the falled material is irreversible. On the other hand, if the capacity of the support is inadequate (i.e. psm is low in Fig. 3.3), then yield of the support may occur before the rock mass deformation curve is intersected. In either of these cases the support system will be ineffective, since the equilibrium condition as illustrated in Fig. 3.3 will not be achieved. 35 Numerical Methods The behaviour of the underground openings is studied by analytical solutions only for simplified cases with regular geometries and non-complex geology. An actual site is likely to encounter non- linear, anisotropic, non-homogenous material behaviour and a complex underground opening geometry. In such a case, it will be very difficult to get the mathematical solutions of the complex differential equations associated with compatibility and equilibrium of the model. Techniques known as numerical methods have hence been evolved for solving complex physical problems which are generally encountered in the field. These methods use computational resources to analyse field problems through programs or use of prescribed software. The numerical methods in rock engineering may be approached either as Continuum or as Discontinuum. 3.5.4 Continuum There are various types of numerical methods available to carry out the analysis of problems in the field of rock engineering. The method to be chosen for analysis mainly depends on the problem-specific factors and mainly on the problem scale and fracture system. 22IRC:SP:91-2019 A continuum model, as the name suggests can be used for numerical analysis when there is enough evidence that the actual physical system of the rock mass can be represented as continuous matter. Modelling of an object as a continuum assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the space it occupies. Acontinuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material. Fundamental physical laws such as ‘the conservation of mass, the conservation of momentum, and the conservation of energy may be applied to such models to derive the differential equations of compatibility and equilibrium which describes the behaviour of such objects, the information about the particular material studied is added through some constitutive relations. Continuum models will be representative only if the rock mass in the field conditions acts like a continuum, i., only a few fractures or joints are present in the system. The numerical techniques based on continuum models are: a) Finite Element Method. b) Finite Difference Method. °) Boundary Element Method 3.5.1.1 Finite Element Method (FEM) The Finite Element Method (FEM) is the most widely applied numerical method across science and engineering. In FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is discretized into simple geometric shapes called ‘elements. The properties and the governing relationships are assumed over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of unknown values at specific points in the elements called as nodes. An assembly process is used to link the individual elements to the given system. When. the effects of loads and boundary conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic ‘equations is usually obtained. Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of the continuum or system. The stress-strain behavior of the elements is approximated by constitutive relationships. FEM is the first numerical method with enough flexibility for the treatment of material heterogeneity, and non-linear deformability, mainly plasticity. (FEM related software packages such as Abaqus, Phase”, Plaxis, Adina, Ansys etc. may be referred). ‘Some text books on Finite Element Method are by Bathe (1982), Zienkiewicz and Taylor (1989), Desai and Kundu (2001) and Logan (2012). 3.5.1.2 Finite Difference Method (FDM) Finite Difference Method (FDM) is a numerical method which assesses the solutions of differential equations of the model using Finite Difference Equations which approximate the derivatives and then get the solutions. The method is similar to FEM, as the subsurface is modelled as a continuum, divided into a number of elements interconnected at the nodes. 23IRC:SP:91-2019 The prime difference between Finite Difference Method and Finite Element Method lies in the approach used for solving the unknown parameters. FDM, considers that the change at a given mesh point is experienced by the immediate neighbors of the mesh only and not whole of the elements. The basic technique in FDM is the discretization of the governing partial differential equations (PDEs) by replacing the partial derivatives with differences defined at neighbouring grid points. (FDM related software packages such as FLAC, FLAC3D etc. or equivalent may be referred). 3.5.1.3 Boundary Element Method (BEM) As per Jang and Hudson (2002) Boundary Element Method (BEM) is a numerical computational method. The solution of the differential equations associated with the models is got by solving the linear partial differential equations which have been formulated as integral equations in boundary integral form. Integral equation may be regarded as an exact solution of the governing partial differential equation. The Boundary Element Method attempts to use the given boundary conditions to fit boundary values into the integral equation. The integral equation now can be used again to calculate numerically the solution directly at any desired point in the interior of the solution domain. BEM is applicable to problems for which Green’s functions can be calculated. These usually involve fields in linear homogeneous media. (BEM related software packages such as Examine-2D, Examine-3D etc. or equivalent may be referred). 3.5.1.4 Discontinuum Models Discontinuum models are models where the material on which the analysis is to be performed is not assumed to be continuous. (Software packages like UDEC and 3DEC or equivalent may be referred. 3.6 Recommended Approach for Geotechnical Design Since tunnels are generally constructed in heterogeneous medium, the best approach to be used is to initially do an approximation which takes into account the most prominent ground features. This can be done with simple analytical formulae and ground reaction curves. It needs to be understood that although supports are designed after taking info account the failure mode of the ground, supports are installed to keep the ground intact. Additionally a numerical model of the tunnel using the data available from detailed site investigations can be prepared for representative cross sections and the model may be further verified and calibrated using observations/monitoring while excavating the tunnels. The empirical methods are based on local experiences and case studies and hence their applicability in a totally different geological profile is limited. Empirical methods like Q, GSI and RMR generally do not give satisfactory results in the Himalayan regions of India and hence should be used for preliminary design only. An observational approach based upon numerical 24IRC:SP-91-2019 models calibrated using monitoring data obtained during construction have proven to be most effective in handling all types of geological strata. Some of the recommended Instrumentation measures described at Annexure-D. 37 Tunnel Supports: Various supports available for conventional tunneling are described at Annexure-E. 3.8 ‘Structural Design for Road Tunnels ‘The structural design of a road tunnel, when executed with a double shell lining, can be classified into two main components: a) The geotechnical design, which consists the design of the “primary support”. b) The design of the inner lining which encases the utilities, ensures, along with a waterproofing membrane, the water tightness and ensures (especially in soft ground tunneling) the long-term stability of the tunnel. The geotechnical design is considering the ground behaviour as well as the system behaviour in order to have the most appropriate support system for the encountered ground. Geotechnical designs based on observational approaches rely on constant feedback from the observations, ie. Geotechnical Monitoring and Face Mapping. The inner lining design is oriented on the concept of loads and safety factor supplemented by the results of numerical calculations. Both these combined make the structural design. 3.8.1 Inner Lining Design For tunnels being executed by cyclic excavation, like Drill and Blast, the inner lining is introduced once the excavation is stabilized through the primary support system and the stress redistribution process is over. As per generally accepted practice, a monitored displacement rate of less than 2 mm/month (convergence 4 mm) indicates that the inner liner can be installed. The practical ‘significance is that the primary support is sufficient to take the loads from the ground and stabilize the ground so that equilibrium is reached. The inner lining would not be loaded at this point of time; however the inner lining has to be designed for a designed life span (100 years as per Eurocode) and therefore (long term) load assumptions are to be taken. The ITA Guideline for the Design of Tunnels (published in Tunnelling and Underground ‘Space Technology, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 237 - 249, 1988) is referring in Chapter 4.1 to different approaches to be taken for the loading of the lining, depending primarily on the overburden and the assumption of relaxation in the ground around the tunnel. Apart from the overburden to diameter ratio also the ratio between ground strength and secondary stress field is decisive for the inner lining. It shall be noted here that segmental lining if it is a single shell lining shall be designed as primary as well as permanent support system. This increases the requirements substantially. ‘The following loads shall be considered for inner lining: a) Permanent ground load i) Taking over the already assessed loads from the primary support system 25IRC:SP:91-2019 b) °) d) e) f 9) h) ii) Load assumptions — vide above. They may range from full overburden to a load equivalent to one radius height of ground in good rock. Water pressure (as per drainage situation) Temperature loads (climatic conditions) Seismic Loading (vide ITA/AITES accredited paper “Seismic Design and Analysis of underground structures”, Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 247-293 - (Refer Appendix-V) Vehicle impact Self-weight of the lining Loads from installations e.g. jet fans, static as well as dynamic Intermediate ceiling loads e.g. air pressure ‘The safety factors are to be taken from the relevant national code (i.e. Indian Standard), or if not applicable, any generally accepted international code. 3.8.2 Fig. 3.5 Example of a Bedded Beam Model (from RiLi DB 853:0004) Segmental Lining There are two ways to employ segmental linings: i) ii) Single shell lining Double shell lining For the single shell lining the segmental lining is primary support and final lining. It has to be designed for all permanent and exceptional load cases. A double shell system may treat the segmental lining as “primary lining” and the permanent lining (cast in place) lining for the waterproofing as well as for fire protection and housing of installations. Here the load split between ‘segmental ring and cast in place lining needs to be defined, as well as the fire resistance of each lining part. 26IRC:SP-91-2019 3.8.3. Drainge Situation The type of drainage system envisaged has a strong impact on the inner lining design, and is therefore highlighted again, ‘The two most common drainage situations are: a) Fully drained, with the water level being lowered to the level of the drainage b) Fully tanked/watertight Apart from these, there are projects where water pressure is kept below a threshold value by specific drainage arrangements. Since such systems are special solutions and difficult to maintain, they will not be discussed further. In case the groundwater situation does not allow for an economical design of a watertight inner liner (high water pressures and/or high groundwater inflows), the most common approach is to reduce the permeability of the ground in a manner that allows to have the tunnel itself being built as a drained structure. 3.8.4 Fully Drained Tunnels — Design Basis The assumption that the tunnel is not subject to water pressure is based upon the lowering of the water level around the tunnel by installing drainage pipes in the sidewalls and/or in the invert as well as a waterproofing (so called “umbrella type’) in the overt. Due to the lowered water level, no water pressure can build up onto the inner lining, It is good practice to check in the design phase also a water level which represents a clogged drainage system, e.g. up to the tunnel crown. This gives assurance that in such case the inner lining is still offering enough resistance to the loads. 3.8.5 Watertight Tunnels — Design Assumptions In urban areas a lowering of the groundwater table is not allowable and therefore the tunnels can only be designed as watertight structures. This has an impact on the structural design, as now the water pressure (design value) needs to be considered. Apart from that, buoyance has to be taken into account for shallow tunnels. For shallow tunnels with circular shape, the water pressure impact has to be checked during design calculations also for the lowest possible level, as it usually reduces the bending moments (effective stresses are reduced by the pore water pressure). 3.8.6 Ground Load The assessment of the ground load to be applied onto the final lining can be done as follows: a) Full overburden - applicable in soft ground b) Reduced overburden (Terzaghi’s formula) °) Wedge with a height of 0.5 to 1 tunnel diameter above the crown d) Values from numerical analysis (from the primary support) e) Numerical simulation with inner lining being modeled explicitly 27