Angela Shen

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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

What are the most important environmental issues for the

various countries of Asia? What have Asian governments and
transnational organisations done to address them?
Throughout the Asia Pacific region, explosive economic growth has led to
severe environmental consequences. This growth has been accompanied
and propelled by rapid industrialisation and population growth, both
factors which have led to environmental hazards posing significant health
risks to humans. As countries develop and undergo industrial
development and urbanisation, they are faced with the numerous
environmental consequences that will arise in the future due to such
developments. This is summarised by the concept of growth vs.
environment, or GE dilemma1.

The GE dilemma is reflected in China, the most populous country in the

world and an economic powerhouse with an average economic growth of
9% per annum over the past 25 years. However, this rapid economic
growth is threatening China’s sustainable future due to the seriousness of
the environmental problems arising as a result of high energy
consumption, heavy dependence on coal and increasing air pollution. This
is reflected through the World Bank’s estimation that pollution was costing
China $54 billion annually. By the close of the 20th century, China was the
world’s second largest carbon dioxide emitter and energy consumer
following the United States2.

Population growth is one of the main contributing factors to the host of

environmental problems that are severely affecting Asian countries, in
particular China. Despite the efforts of the government to curb the
population through the One Child Policy introduced in 1979, due to the
already expansive population, there is a substantial increase in the use of
transport, energy and industry to cope with the rapid demand of growing

1
Broadbent, J 1998, Environmental Policies in Japan: Networks of Power and Protest,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2
World Bank 2001, China Air, Land and Water: Environmental Priorities for a New
Millennium, Washington, DC, viewed 20 April 2011 < http://www.gapem.org/Text/China
%20eco-efficiency%20managi.pdf>
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

population. This rapid growth contributes to the escalating urbanisation of

Asian countries and has become a key contributor to various
environmental issues. The growth of urban population is a result of three
processes3: the natural growth of urban areas, rural urban migration, and
the reclassification of rural into urban areas as urban areas increase in
size and overspill into surrounding rural area. Urbanisation occurs for both
an individual’s personal reasons and as a result of government initiatives.
Many rural dwellers relocate to urban areas as they provide vast social
opportunities such as increased accessibility to jobs, housing and
healthcare. For governments, it is a method of strengthening a city’s
social and economic infrastructure and channelling the extra human
resources to achieve further growth and development. Between 1950 and
2000, the number of Asians living in urban areas increased from 231
million to 1.22 billion4. This figure is expected to increase; by 2030 Asia
will have the highest numbers of urban dwellers than any other major
area of the world and will account for 54% of the urban population of the
world, increasing from 48% in 20005. However, the pace of urbanisation in
Asian countries especially China and India, which both have a population
of over one billion6 and increasing, has far outstripped their
accommodation capabilities.

Due to the overwhelming number of people living in densely populated

areas, this urban excess has increased overall levels of energy
consumption, transport usage and industrial productions which all lead to
detrimental environmental issues. Asia is responsible for 23% of world
3
Sheng, Y.K 2011, Poverty Alleviation through Rural-Urban Linkages: Policy Implications,
Poverty Reduction Section, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific,
Bangkok, viewed 21 April 2011 <
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/Rural-Urban
%20Linkages/Rural-Urban%20Linkages-policyimp.pdf>
4
United Nations 2001a, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, New York, viewed 21
April 2011 < http://time.dufe.edu.cn/wencong/africanmigration/2Hugo.pdf>
5
United Nations 2002, World Urbanisation Prospects: The 2001 Revision, Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, New York, viewed 21
April 2011 < http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2001/wup2001dh.pdf>
6
National Bureau of Statistics of China 2010, China Statistical Yearbook 2010, China
Statistical Press, China, viewed 20 April 2011 <
http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2010/indexeh.htm>
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

energy consumption, with China leading at 13 per cent7. In 1979, Japan

(Law on Rational Use of Energy) and South Korea (The Rational Energy
Utilisation Act) were the first Asian countries to implement Energy
Conservation Laws focusing on the efficiency and conservation of energy8.
In Japan, in order to ensure the efficient use of fuel resources, the law
specifies the required actions in buildings and factories. In 2008, China
exceeded the United States as the prevalent global emitter of greenhouse
gases9. This increase can be attributed to China’s heavy reliance on coal
which accounts for over two thirds of its energy consumption. This
consequently results in negative environmental effects such as acid rain,
which in turn affects human health, forests and buildings. The increase in
industrial activity also negatively affects the environment. Approximately
200 million tonnes of sewage and industrial effluent was poured into
Chinese waterways in 2004, contributing to 70% of the country’s already
polluted rivers and lakes. This is turn further affects the one third of
China’s population that is unable to access clean drinking water10.

Transport usage has also increased dramatically, with an estimated 180

million vehicles in use in China as of 200911 with road vehicles one of the
major sources of carbon dioxide and pollutant emissions12. The number of
vehicles in Asia will continue to grow, with the exceptions of Hong Kong
and Singapore, where active controls have been instigated in an attempt
to limit the number of vehicles. This continued growth of motorisation in
Asia will only further complicate present levels of traffic congestion and

7
Schwela, Dieter, et al. 2006, Urban Pollution in Asian Cities: Status Challenges and
Management, Sterling, London
8
Environment and Development Division (EDD) 1999, Energy Efficiency – Compendium
of Energy Conservation Legislation in the Asia and Pacific Region, UNESCAP (United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), Sub – regional
publication, viewed 26 April 2011, < http://www.unescap.org/publications/detail.asp?
id=758>
9
Bajoria, J & Zissis C 2008, China’s Environmental Crisis, viewed 20 April 2011 <
http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-environmental-crisis/p12608>
10
Bajoria, J & Zissis C, op.cit.
11
Beijing Traffic Management Bureau 2009, Statistical Analysis on China’s Vehicles and
Drivers in the First Half of 200, viewed 22 April 2011 <
http://www.bjjtgl.gov.cn/publish/portal1/tab165/info12857.htm>
12
Yan, X., Crookes, R.J. 2007, ‘Study on energy use in China’, Journal of the Energy
Institute, vol. 80, pp. 110–115
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

increase vehicle emissions. However, the Chinese Government has

introduced a gradual ban of motorcycles in various main Chinese cities in
an effort to reduce noise and air pollution. As of 2009, the ban has come
into effect for four major cities, sharply reducing the amount of vehicle
emission pollutants13. With the rapid urbanisation and the accompanying
urban excess, Asia faces a difficult task in managing the energy
consumption needed for industrial and transportation processes, and the
resulting polluting emissions, all whilst effectively managing air quality
levels.

Air quality has become an increasingly important environmental issue

Asian governments are focusing on, as it can be considered the
cumulative effect of the urban excess. In response, Asian governments
have initiated many policies concerning air quality, such as the regulation
of the sources of pollutant emissions and the monitoring of air quality. The
main cause of urban air pollution is the use of fossil fuels in transport,
energy and industrial sectors resulting in direct and indirect effects on air
quality which consequently affect human health and the environment14.
The degradation of air quality has also led to an increase in health related
problems, as demonstrated in New Delhi, where chronic respiratory
diseases are more prevalent in the city than that of individuals living in
low income housing areas or slums15. Levels of air pollution in Asian cities
surpass the World Health Organisation’s recommended guidelines, with
dust and smoke particles doubling the world average16. In a recent survey
conducted by the government regarding climate change in Hong Kong,
77%17 of residents considered air pollution to be a top priority. This
13
Xu, J Dr. (n.d.), Media and Motorcycle Ban in China, viewed 23 April 2011,
<http://www0.hku.hk/sociodep/soci0067/SOCI0067%20Lecture%2010%20(Guest
%20Lecture%20Xu%20JH).pdf>
14
Schwela, Dieter, et al., op.cit.
15
Schwela, Dieter, et al., op.cit.
16
World Health Organisation 2000a, Human Exposure Assessment, Environmental Health
Criteria 214, World Health Organisation, Geneva, viewed 23 April,
<www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/
ehc214.htm#SectionNumber:1.5>
17
Wassener, B 2010, ‘Concern Over the Environment Rises in Asia’, The New York Times,
7 November, viewed 22 April, < http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/business/energy-
environment/08green.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1>
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

severity reflects the rapid economic development and the effectiveness of

past air quality management. The effectiveness is evident in cities such as
Singapore and Tokyo due to their earlier implementation of emission
control measures, therefore having managed to avoid the high levels of
urban pollution associated with cities that introduced measures at a later
time. Their developed air quality management capabilities have seen an
improvement in air quality, in contrast to cities such as Jakarta or Hanoi
who have limited capability due to factors such as poor enforcement or
lack of effective management tools. In New Delhi in 1998, citizens
launched a court case against the Indian government as a result of the
poor enforcement of air quality regulations such as the 1981 Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Consequently, the city was
forced to carry out measures such as improving public transport; the
conversion of the entire diesel bus fleet to compressed natural gas, the
banning of the use of buses older than eight years and replacing all pre
1990 automobiles with new vehicles that consumed cleaner fuel by
200018. Over twenty major Asian countries such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan
and Thailand have implemented several air quality laws over the past few
decades in a response acknowledging the extent of present and future
damage. In Korea, the 1990 Clean Air Conservation Law19 requires
compulsory monitoring of air pollutants and specifies emission limits.
Through this law, the development of public or private projects in areas
which do not comply with air quality standards must acquire permission
from the regional environmental office. An environmental impact
assessment must also be conducted in order to minimise any potential
effects.

The involvement of transnational organisations has generated debates

over the GE dilemma; the economic progress can be viewed

18
Rosencranz, A (n.d.), Environmental Law and Policy in India, viewed 25 April 2011, <
http://www2.americanbar.org/calendar/section-of-international-law-2011-spring-
meeting/Documents/Thursday/Evolution%20of%20Environmental%20Rule%20of%20Law
%20in%20China%20and%20India/AR%20Enviro%20Law%20in%20India
%20_sustainability%20volume_.pdf>
19
Schwela, Dieter, et al., op.cit.
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

simultaneously as either a destructive force, or as a necessity in

progressing. There are also concerns that whilst foreign companies are
undoubtedly more technologically advanced, they generate more
pollution than local companies as their interests lie in the company’s
economic profits, not the country’s environmental interest. There have
been other issues regarding transnationals, including the accusation that
governments lower environmental criteria in order to meet transnational
interests and that transnationals adjust their strategies to fit local
regulatory conditions. With an increasing amount of individuals now more
aware of the consequences of neglecting the environment for the sake of
progress, there has been rising support for environmentally friendly
practices. This global and local pressure has influenced transnationals to
adopt improved environmental standards and practices20.

In Malaysia, transnationals have had both negative and positive

environmental impacts. Mobile phone company Motorola has actively
participated in the elimination of harmful ozone depleting solvents (ODS).
ODS free alternative technologies are now in use in manufacturing
facilities in Penang and Seremban. The Malaysian car industry has also
benefited through the partnership between British company, Johnson
Matthey, the world’s leading supplier of auto catalysts, and government
department Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM). The
partnership sought to produce catalytic converters which would help
reduce vehicle engine pollutants through breaking them down into
harmless gases. In the past however, Malaysia has suffered the
consequences of poor environmental planning. In 1970 Mamut Copper
Mine (MCM) was formed, their downfall being the short term strategies
that were employed in an effort to reduce operating costs, hence no
consideration was given to the environment. The poor environmental
standards and unfavourable location of the open mine led to thousands of
acres of land destroyed and tainted with exceptionally high levels of toxic

20
Rasiah, R 1999, Transnational Corporations and the Environment: The Case of
Malaysia, viewed 25 April 2011, <
http://openarchive.cbs.dk/bitstream/handle/10398/7001/rasiah.pdf?sequence=1>
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

chemicals, and the degradation of air and water quality. Consequently,

MCM was forced to compensate the surrounding twenty villages in 198821.

Overall, it is clear there is an impending environmental crisis for Asia.

Having only focused on the economic development of each country,
governments have neglected to consider the future environmental
consequences. With a large majority of studies and reports producing
negative feedback on the environmental wellbeing of Asia, governments
are now aware of the future implications and over the past few decades
have worked to correct their mistakes. Spurred by mounting global and
local pressure, governments and transnationals are forced to maintain the
environment as a top priority. However, given the magnitude of the
consequences and the length of time before governments intervened, it
remains to be seen whether the various environmental laws have been
effective.

Word count: 2, 148

Reference List
Bajoria, J & Zissis C 2008, China’s Environmental Crisis, viewed 20 April
2011 < http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-environmental-crisis/p12608>

Beijing Traffic Management Bureau 2009, Statistical Analysis on China’s

Vehicles and Drivers in the First Half of 200, viewed 22 April 2011 <
http://www.bjjtgl.gov.cn/publish/portal1/tab165/info12857.htm>

Broadbent, J 1998, Environmental Policies in Japan: Networks of Power

and Protest, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

21
Rasiah, R, op.cit.
 Angela Shen
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ARTS1210 – Research Essay

Environment and Development Division (EDD) 1999, Energy Efficiency –

Compendium of Energy Conservation Legislation in the Asia and Pacific
Region, UNESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific), Sub – regional publication, viewed 26 April 2011, <
http://www.unescap.org/publications/detail.asp?id=758>

National Bureau of Statistics of China 2010, China Statistical Yearbook

2010, China Statistical Press, China, viewed 20 April 2011,
<http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2010/indexeh.htm>

Rasiah, R 1999, Transnational Corporations and the Environment: The

Case of Malaysia, viewed 25 April 2011,
<http://openarchive.cbs.dk/bitstream/handle/10398/7001/rasiah.pdf?
sequence=1>

Rosencranz, A (n.d.), Environmental Law and Policy in India, viewed 25

April 2011, < http://www2.americanbar.org/calendar/section-of-
international-law-2011-spring-meeting/Documents/Thursday/Evolution
%20of%20Environmental%20Rule%20of%20Law%20in%20China%20and
%20India/AR%20Enviro%20Law%20in%20India%20_sustainability
%20volume_.pdf>

Schwela, Dieter, et al. 2006, Urban Pollution in Asian Cities: Status

Challenges and Management, Sterling, London

Sheng, Y.K 2011, Poverty Alleviation through Rural-Urban Linkages: Policy

Implications, Poverty Reduction Section, Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, viewed 21 April 2011 <
http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/RuralUrban
%20Linkages/Rural-Urban%20Linkages-policyimp.pdf>

United Nations 2001a, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision,

Department of
Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations, New
York, viewed 21 April 2011 <
http://time.dufe.edu.cn/wencong/africanmigration/2Hugo.pdf>

United Nations 2002, World Urbanisation Prospects: The 2001 Revision,

Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United
Nations, New York, viewed 21 April 2011
<http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2001/wup2001dh.pdf
>

Wassener, B 2010, ‘Concern Over the Environment Rises in Asia’, The

New York Times, 7 November, viewed 22 April,
<http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/business/energyenvironment/08gre
en.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1>
 Angela Shen
z3372435
ARTS1210 – Research Essay

World Bank 2001, China Air, Land and Water: Environmental Priorities for
a New Millennium, Washington, DC, viewed 20 April 2011
<http://www.gapem.org/Text/China%20eco-efficiency%20managi.pdf>

World Health Organisation 2000a, Human Exposure Assessment,

Environmental Health Criteria 214, World Health Organisation, Geneva,
viewed 23 April,
<www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc214.htm#SectionNumber:1.5>

Xu, J Dr. (n.d.), Media and Motorcycle Ban in China, viewed 23 April 2011,
<http://www0.hku.hk/sociodep/soci0067/SOCI0067%20Lecture
%2010%20(Guest%20Lecture%20Xu%20JH).pdf>

Yan, X., Crookes, R.J. 2007, ‘Study on energy use in China’, Journal of the
Energy
Institute, vol. 80, pp. 110–115