ENGINE:

Automotive production down the ages has required a wide range of energy-conversion systems. These
include electric, steam, solar, turbine, rotary, and different types of piston-type internal combustion engines.
The reciprocating-piston internal -combustion system, operating on a four-stroke cycle, has been the most
successful for automobiles, while diesel engines are widely used for trucks and buses
In today’s world, there has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive
power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine
refinements that were not economically feasible in prior years. Although a few limited-production battery-
powered electric vehicles have appeared from time to time, they have not proved to be competitive owing to
costs and operating characteristics. However, the gasoline engine, with its new emission-control devices to
improve emission performance, has not yet been challenged significantly..

The first half of the twentieth century saw a trend to increase engine horsepower, particularly in the
American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including
increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and
increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these
changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and
opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements. In passenger cars, V-8 layouts were
adopted for all piston displacements greater than 250 cubic inches (4 litres).

Smaller cars brought about a return a to smaller engines, the four- and six-cylinder designs rated as low as
80 horsepower, compared with the standard-size V-8 of large cylinder bore and relatively short piston stroke
with horsepower ratings in the range from 250 to 350.
Applications of Engine:

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in automobiles, equipment, and other
portable machinery. In mobile equipment internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to
weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in transport in almost all
automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives, generally using petroleum.
Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of
turbines.
They are also used for electric generators (i.e. 12 V generators) and by industry.

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion, or rapid oxidation, of gas and air occurs in a
confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction of a fuel with an oxidizer creates gases of high
temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that
useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause pressure, further causing movement of the
piston inside the cylinder, for example by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine
itself.This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam engines and Stirling engines, which use an
external combustion chamber to heat a separate working fluid, which then in turn does work, for example by moving a
piston.The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to refer specifically to reciprocating engines,
Wankel engines and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. However, continuous combustion engines,
such as jet engines, most rockets and many gas turbines are also internal combustion engines

V-engine:

A V engine is a common configuration for an internal combustion engine. The pistons are aligned so that they appear to
be in a V when viewed along the line of the crankshaft. The V configuration reduces the overall engine length and
weight compared to an equivalent straight engine.

In 1896, Karl Benz patented his design for the first internal combustion engine with horizontally opposed pistons.
Usually, each pair of corresponding pistons from each bank of cylinders share one crank pin on the crankshaft, either by
master/slave rods or by two ordinary rods side by side. Some authorities even regard this as a distinguishing feature of a
true V engine, and for example divide flat engines into boxer engines which do not share crank pins in this way, and
180° engines which do. On the other hand, some important V-twin engine designs have two-pin cranks. However, in
German, these engines are all identified as boxermotors.

Various angles of V are used in different engines; depending on the number of cylinders, there may be angles that work
better than others for stability. Very narrow angles of V combine some of the advantages of the V engine and the
straight engine (primarily in the form of compactness) as well as disadvantages; the concept is an old one pioneered by
Lancia, but recently reworked by Volkswagen.

Some V configurations are well-balanced and smooth, while others are less smoothly running than their equivalent
straight counterparts. With an optimal angle V16s have even firing and exceptional balance. The crossplane V8 can be
balanced with counterweights on the crankshaft similar to those used on a straight 6. V12s, being in effect two Straight
6 engines married together, always have even firing and exceptional balance regardless of angle. Others, such as the
V2, V4, V6, flatplane V8, and V10, show increased vibration and generally require balance shafts.

Certain types of V engine have been built as inverted engines, most commonly for aircraft. Advantages include better
visibility in a single-engined airplane, and lower centre of gravity. Examples include World War II German engines
produced by Daimler-Benz and Jumo.It is common for V engines to be described with V# notation, where # is how
many cylinders it has:

1.V-twin 9.V-18

2.V4 10.V-20

3.V5 11.V24

4.V6

5.V8

6.V10

7.V12

8.V16

Technological Advantages Of V-Engine:

1.Turbocharging and two stage intercooling.

2.Single cylinder heads with four valve technology.

3.Centrally arranged industrial spark plug with intensive plug seat cooling.
 4.Microprocessor-controlled high voltage ignition system.

5.One ignition coil per cylinder.

6.Electronic Control and Monitoring of genset operation through TEM systems.

7.Exhaust emissions controlled according to combustion chamber temperature.

8.Intercooling permits maximum power even when using gases with low methane
numbers.

9.Reliable control and monitoring with high safety standards ensure optimum combustion
and maximum engine protection.

10.All governing, service, control and monitoring functions are easy and comfortable to
operate.

11.Designed for 100% continuous operation, long service intervals.

12.Compatibility to operate wide variety of gases even with low methane index and calorific
values.

13.Environmentally friendly, fuel saving combustion system with low exhaust emissions. All
engines meet the world wide statutory emission requirements.

14.Reduced operating costs through low fuel consumption, low down times to keep
operating and servicing costs minimum.

15.Engines for high loads and heavy-duty performance.

16.Compact design saves installation space and hence manufacturing costs.

17.Additional benefits through steam production

V-4 Flat cylinder Engine:

A V4 engine is a V form engine with four cylinders.

Lancia produced several narrow-angle V4 engines from the 1920s through 1960s for cars like the Lambda, Augusta,
Artena, Aprilia, Ardea, Appia, and Fulvia. These were a spiritual predecessor for Volkswagen's VR6 family.The Ford
of Europe produced two totally different V4 engines with a balance shaft, one in the UK and one in Germany:

• The British Ford Essex V4 engine

• The German Ford Taunus V4 engine (also used by Saab)
Saab featured a 1.5L OHV V4 engine in their 95, 96 and Sonett models, producing 65bhp and 85 lb-ft of torque.

The Ukrainian manufacturer ZAZ also used air cooled V4s with a balance shaft, produced by MeMZ and used in
Zaporozhets cars.

V4 engines are also sometimes found in motorcycles, for instance the

• Ducati Desmosedici
• Honda RC212V
• Honda VF and VFR
• Honda Magna
• Honda ST series (Pan European)
• Yamaha VMax
• Yamaha YZR500

One other large use of the V4 engine is in outboard motors. They are two stroke cycle and generally carbureted. Some
manufacturers are Johnson, Evinrude and Yamaha. This type of engines is popular because of their small size, while
still allowing 140+ horsepower.

V6 engine:

V6 engine is a V engine with six cylinders. It is the second most common engine configuration in modern cars after the
inline four; it shares with that engine a compactness well suited to the popular front-wheel drive layout, and is
becoming more common as car weights increase.

The first V6 was introduced by Lancia in 1950 with the Lancia Aurelia. Other manufacturers took note and soon other
V6 engines were in use. In 1959, GMC introduced a heavy duty 305 cubic inch (5 liter) 60-degree V6 for use in their
pickup trucks and Suburbans, an engine design that was later enlarged to 478 cubic inches (7.8 liters) for heavy truck
and bus use.

The design really took off after the 1962 introduction of the Buick Special, which offered a 90 degree V6 with an
uneven firing order that shared some parts commonality with a small Buick V8 of the period. Though the Buick Special
was not a spectacular success, it was the first instance of a mass-produced V6 engine designed specifically for
passenger automobiles. In 1983 Nissan produced Japan's first V6 engine with the VG series.

Modern V6 engines commonly range in displacement from 2.5 L to 4.0 L, though larger and smaller examples have
been produced.
V8 engine:

A V8 engine is a V engine with eight cylinders. The United States can be considered the "home of the V8" — it has
always been more popular there than anywhere else, and it is certainly now the preferred arrangement for any large
engine. With the recent exceptions of the Dodge Viper's V10, the similar Dodge Built Ram Tough V10, and the Ford
Triton V10 engine of the same arrangement, there are practically no large engines in the US of post-World War II
design that have not been of this type.

A full decade after Britain's 1904 Rolls-Royce Legalimit, Cadillac produced the first American V8 engine, 1914. It was
a complicated hand-built unit with cast iron paired closed-head cylinders bolted to an aluminum crankcase, and it used
a flat-plane crankshaft. Peerless followed, introducing a V8 licensed from amusement park manufacturer, Herschell-
Spillman, the next year. Chevrolet produced a crude overhead valve V8 in 1917, in which the valve gear was
completely exposed. It only lasted through 1918 and then disappeared. They would not produce another V8 until the
introduction of the famous small block in 1955.

After World War II, the strong demand for larger status-symbol cars made the common straight-6 less marketable. A
straight-8 engine would introduce problems with crankshaft-whip, and would require a longer engine space. In the new
wider body styles, a V8 would fit in the same engine space as a straight-6. Smaller engines, known as small-block V8s,
were fitted in the mid-size car ranges and generally displaced between 4.4 L (270 in³) and 6.0 L (360 in³), though some
grew as large as Ford's 6.7 L (408 in³) 400 Cleveland. As can be seen, there is overlap between big-block and small-
block ranges, and an engine between 6.0 L and 6.6 L could belong to either class. Engines like this (much evolved, of
course) are still in production.

During the 1950s, 1960s and, 1970s, every General Motors division had their own engines, whose merits varied. This
enabled each division to have its own unique engine character, but made for much duplication of effort. Most, like the
comparatively tiny Buick 215 and familiar Chevrolet 350, were confusingly shared across many divisions. Ford and
Chrysler had fewer divisions, and division-specific engines were quickly abandoned in favor of a few shared designs.
Today, there are fewer than a dozen different American V8 engines in production.

V-12 engine:
A V12 engine is a V engine with 12 cylinders in two banks. Like a straight-6, this configuration has perfect primary
and secondary balance no matter which V angle is used and therefore needs no balance shafts. A V12 with two banks of
six cylinders angled at 60° or 180° from each other has even firing with power pulses delivered twice as often per
revolution as, and is smoother than a straight-6 because there is always positive net torque output, as with an engine
with 7 or more cylinders. This allows for great refinement in a luxury car; in a racing car, the rotating parts can be made
much lighter and thus more responsive, since there is no need to use counterweights on the crankshaft as is needed in a
90° V8 and less need for the inertial mass in a flywheel to smooth out the power delivery. In a large, heavy-duty engine,
a V12 can run slower than smaller engines, prolonging engine life

USES OF V-12 ENGINE:

V12 engines used to be common in Formula One and endurance racing. Between 1965 and 1980, Ferrari, Weslake,
Honda, BRM, Maserati, Matra, Alfa-Romeo, Lamborghini and Tecno used 12-cylinder engines in Formula One, either
V12 or Flat-12, but the Ford (Cosworth) V8 had a slightly better power-to-weight ratio and less fuel consumption, thus
it was more successful despite being less powerful than the best V12s. During the same era, V12 engines were superior
to V8s in endurance racing, reduced vibrations giving better reliability. In the 1990s, Renault V10 engines proved their
superiority against the Ferrari and Honda V12s and the Ford V8. The last V12 engine in Formula One, was the Ferrari
044, in the Ferrari cars driven by Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger in 1995.

At the Paris motor show 2006 Peugeot presented a new racing car, as well as a luxury saloon concept car, both called
908 and fitted with a V12 Diesel engine producing around or even surpassing 700 DIN HP. This car will take part in the
24 Hours of Le Mans 2007 race.

V-16 Engine:

A V16 engine is a V engine with 16 cylinders. Engines of this number of cylinders are not common.

A V16 engine is perfectly balanced regardless of the V angle without requiring counter-rotating balancing shafts which
are necessary on large Straight-4 or counterweighted crankshaft like the 90° V8 engine configuration. In addition angles
of 45° and 135° Vs optimal solutions, for even firing and non split crankshaft journals.

V16 engines have been used in certain luxury and high-performance automobiles, mostly for their smoothness (low
vibration) since it is possible to make a V8 or V12 engine as large and powerful as one could possibly want in an
automotive application. Greater numbers of cylinders are also perceived as a status symbol.

Howard Marmon had begun working on the world's first V16 engine in 1927, but was unable to complete the
production Sixteen model until 1931. By that time, Cadillac had already introduced their Cadillac V-16, designed by
ex-Marmon engineer, Owen Nacker. Peerless, too, was developing a V16 .

The Cadillac V-16 was the most exclusive model of the marque from January 1930 until 1940, with the Cadillac V16
engine. Two types of the V16 were built. From 1930 to 1937, this was a 452 in³ (7.4 L), OHV motor with a 45° V. For
1938, a new design was introduced with 431 in³ (7.1 L), a flathead valvetrain, and an angle of 135°; this resulted in a
much lower car profile. The 431 was in many ways a superior engine, producing as much power as its immediate
predecessor while being far less complex, had a stiffer crankshaft which aided durability and smoothness, and even had
an external oil filter, a rarity for any car at any price in those days. However, it was never as popular or highly regarded
as its 452ci predecessor.
Cadillac revived the V16 concept in 2003 with a General Motors concept car, the Cadillac Sixteen. This car used a 1000
hp (750 kW) OHV V16.BMW also experimented with a V-16, eventually showing a 9-liter version in the Rolls-Royce
100EX concept car, but it has been changed to a v12 for production and size reasons.

APPLICATION OF V-16:

Another use for the V16 powerplant is in large diesel engines. Here, manufacturers tend to work with a common
cylinder size across a wide range of engines, and size the engine by the number of cylinders for different power
requirements. Thus, many users of large diesel engines such as railroad locomotives use V16 powerplants, including
many EMD (Electro-Motive Diesel, Inc., formerly a GM division} locomotives. They are also popular for marine
applications and for large emergency generator sets (which frequently use available marine engines, since weight is
unimportant). In 1939 Chrysler was contracted by the US government to create a new engine for use in fighter aircraft.
Chrysler responded by designing an inverted V16. They tried many designs before choosing a design with a
hemispherical combustion chambered OHV head. The big V16 was rated at 2500 hp. it was finally tested in June of
1945. It was installed in the P-47 Thunderbolt in place of a radial engine. This airplane was designated the XP47H. The
change in engine and aerodynamics increased the top speed from 439 mph to 504 mph. The war ended shortly, and the
hemi V16 was never mass-produced, although the basic design and valvetrain setup live on in today's Hemi V8s.

V24 Engine:

A V24 engine is a V engine with 24 cylinders, suitable only for very large trucks or locomotives.

A very large V24, the AS.6, engine was built by FIAT in the early 30s as a powerplant for the competition airplane
Macchi M.C.72. This engine was in reality formed by mounting two FIAT AS.5 V12 one behind the other, obtaining a
total displacement of over 50L and a power output of about 3100 hp. The two units remained separated (they could be
started separately) but the output shaft was shared. Between the units sat the gearbox that was used to reduce the
propeller speed, and the final output shaft ran between the cylinder banks of the front engine to reach the nose of the
airplane

V angles

The most obvious configuration for a V-twin is a 90°, in which counterweighting can balance the engine, in odd-firing
90 degree Vees. This is seen in the Moto Guzzi and Ducati, but other angles can be seen like the 45° of the classic
Harley-Davidson engine, the 75° Suzuki, the 52° Honda, the 80° Honda CX-500, the 47° Vincent, the 42° Indian, and
the 60° Aprilia.

V-Engine configuration

Engine configuration is an engineering term for the layout of the major components of an internal combustion engine.
These components include cylinders, pistons, crankshaft(s) and camshaft(s).

For many automobile engines, the term block is interchangeable with engine in this context, for example V block and V
engine can often be used interchangeably in American English. This is because the most common forms are all based
on a combined engine block and crankcase that are milled from a single piece of cast metal. The locations of the major
components are largely determined by the shape of this one component.

The standard names for some configurations are historic, arbitrary, or both, with some overlap. For example, the
cylinder banks of a 180° V engine do not in any way form a V, but it is regarded as a V engine because of its crankshaft
and big end configuration, which result in performance characteristics similar to a V engine. But it is also considered a
flat engine because of its shape. On the other hand, some V-twin engines which have none of the typical V engine
crankshaft design features and consequent performance characteristics are also regarded as V engines, purely because
of their shape. Similarly, the Volkswagen VR6 engine is a hybrid of the V engine and the straight engine, and can not
be definitively labeled as either. The names W engine and rotary engine have each been used for several unconnected
designs. The H-4 and H-6 engines produced by Subaru are not H engines at all, but boxer engines.

PRINCPLE COOLING OF V-ENGINE:

V-engine for permitting the engine to be more compact and easy to assemble and to improve engine cooling
performance. In a first embodiment, the branch pipes of the intake manifold of the engine extend at an acute inclined
angle with respect to the centerline of the crankshaft. This inclined arrangement provides a space through which the
cooling water intake pipe and the cooling water discharging pipe can extend. In a second embodiment, the surge tanks
of the intake manifold are longitudinally offset to provide spaces in which the thermohousing of the thermostat
mounted on the cooling water intake pipe and the cooling water discharging pipe can be mounted. In a third
embodiment the axis of an auxiliary machine, such as a generator, is laterally offset from the centerline of the engine
crankshaft to provide a gap and the cooling water pipe extends through the gap.

COOLING OF V-ENGINE:
In a water cooled, two-cycle, crankcase compression, V-6, outboard motor engine, cooling passages are provided on the
outside of the V, near the crankcase. The engine uses an exhaust manifold cooling jacket to preheat the coolant before
supplying it to the engine block cooling passages.

Disc brake In V-engine Vehicle:

The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English),
usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the
form of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically
or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop

Fuel Systemof V-Engine:

Fuels burn faster, and more completely when they have lots of surface area in contact with oxygen. In order for an
engine to work efficiently the fuel must be vaporized into the incoming air in what is commonly referred to as a fuel air
mixture. There are two commonly used methods of vaporizing fuel into the air, one is the carburetor and the other is
fuel injection.
Often for simpler reciprocating engines a carburetor is used to supply fuel into the cylinder. However, exact control of
the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is impossible. Carburetors are the current most widespread fuel mixing
device used in lawnmowers and other small engine applications. Prior to the mid-1980s carburetors were also common
in automobiles.
Larger gasoline engines such as used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection systems (see Gasoline Direct
Injection). Diesel engines always use fuel injection.
Auto gas (LPG) engines use either fuel injection systems or open or closed loop carburetors.
Other internal combustion engines like jet engines use burners, and rocket engines use various different ideas including
impinging jets, gas/liquid shear, preburners and many other ideas.
 PARTS OF V-ENGINE:

Valve mechanism:

The majority of four stroke engines have poppet valves, although some aircraft engines have sleeve valves. Valves may
be located in the cylinder block (side valves) or in the cylinder head (overhead valves). Modern engines are invariably
of the latter design. There may be two, three, four or five valves per cylinder, with the intake valves outnumbering the
exhaust valves in case of an odd number.

Camshaft placement:

Poppet valves are opened by means of a camshaft which revolves at half the crankshaft speed. This can be either chain,
gear or toothed belt driven from the crankshaft and can be located in the crankcase (where it may serve one or more
banks of cylinders) or in the cylinder head.If the camshaft is located in the crankcase, a valve train of pushrods and
rocker arms will be required to operate overhead valves. Mechanically simpler are side valves, where the valve stems
rested directly on the camshaft. However, this gives poor gas flows within the cylinder head as well as heat problems
and fell out of favor for automobile use.

All modern automobile engines place the camshaft in the cylinder head. There may be one or two camshafts in the
cylinder head; a single camshaft design is called OHC or SOHC for (Single) OverHead Cam. A design with two
camshafts per cylinder head is called DOHC for Double OverHead Cam. Note that the camshafts are counted per
cylinder head, so a V engine with one camshaft in each of its two cylinder heads is still a SOHC (SINGLE OVER
HEAD CAM)design. With overhead cams, the valvetrain will be shorter and lighter, as no pushrods are required. Some
single camshaft designs still have rocker arms; this facilates adustment of mechanical clearances.

If there are two camshafts in the cylinder head, the cams normally bear directly on to the valve stems. This is the usual
arrangement for a four-valves-per-cylinder design. This latter arrangement is the most inertia free, allows the most
unimpeded gas flows in the engine and is the usual arrengement for high performance automobile engines. It also
permits the spark plug to be located in the centre of the cylinder head, which promotes better combustion
characteristics. Very large engines (eg. marine engines) can have either extra camshafts or extra lobes on the camshaft
to enable the engine to run in either direction.A disadvantage of overhead cams is that a much longer chain (or belt) is
needed to drive the cams than with a camshaft located in the cylinder block, usually a tensioner is also needed. A break
in the belt can destroy the engine

Cylinder Of Engine:

A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders
are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or iron before
precision features are machined into it. The cylinders may then be lined with sleeves or liners of some harder metal, or
given a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil. Ceramic linings have also been tried, so far unsuccessfully, except with
low-speed "oilless" steam engines.A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, is its cross-sectional area (the square of
half the bore times pi ) times the distance the piston travels within the cylinder (the stroke). The engine displacement is
the swept volume of one cylinder times the number of cylinders in the engine.A piston is seated inside each cylinder by
several metal piston rings which fit around its outside surface in machined grooves; typically two for compressional
sealing and one to seal the oil (In steam engines only compressional sealing rings are used of which there can be from
two to five on the piston; a fine vapour of oil is usually maintained suspended in the steam working in the cylinder. The
rings make near contact with the hard walls of the liner, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil which is essential to
keep the engine from seizing up. This contact, and the resulting wear, explains the need for the hard lining on the inner
surface of the cylinder. The breaking in or running in of an engine is a process whereby tiny irregularities in the metals
are encouraged to form congruent grooves. An engine job or rebore is a process in which the cylinders are machined
out to a slightly larger diameter, and new sleeves and piston rings installed.

Spark plug:
A spark plug (also, very rarely nowadays, in British English: a sparking plug) is an electrical device that fits into the
cylinder head of some internal combustion engines and ignites compressed aerosol gasoline by means of an electric
spark. Spark plugs have an insulated center electrode which is connected by a heavily insulated wire to an ignition coil
or magneto circuit on the outside, forming, with a grounded terminal on the base of the plug, a spark gap inside the
cylinder. Early patents for spark plugs included those by Nikola Tesla (in U.S. Patent 609,250 for an ignition timing
system, 1898), Richard Simms (GB 24859/1898, 1898) and Robert Bosch (GB 26907/1898). Karl Benz is also credited
with the invention. But only the invention of the first commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-
based ignition system by Robert Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 made possible the development of the
internal combustion engine.

Internal combustion engines can be divided into spark-ignition engines, which require spark plugs to begin combustion,
and compression-ignition engines (diesel engines), which compress the air and then inject diesel fuel into the heated
compressed air mixture where it autoignites. Compression-ignition engines may use glow plugs to improve cold start
characteristics.

Spark plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces where a combustible mixture should be ignited. In
this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.

The Spark plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto. As the electrons flow from
the coil, a voltage difference develops between the center electrode and side electrode. No current can flow because the
fuel and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the gases
between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases, the gases become ionized. The
ionized gas becomes a conductor and allow electrons to flow across the gap.

As the current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark channel to 60,000 K. The intense
heat in the spark channel causes the ionized gas to expand very quickly, like a small explosion. This is the "click" heard
when observing a spark, similar to lightning and thunder.

The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the end of the spark event there should be a small
ball of fire in the spark gap as the gases burn on their own. The size of this fireball or kernel depends on the exact
composition of the mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion chamber turbulence at the time of the
spark. A small kernel will make the engine run as though the ignition timing was retarded, and a large one as though the
timing was advanced.

Cylinder head:

In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head sits atop the cylinders and consists
of a platform containing part of the combustion chamber and the location of the valves and spark plugs. In a flathead
engine, the mechanical parts of the valve train are all contained within the block, and the head is essentially a flat plate
of metal bolted to the top of the cylinder bank with a head gasket in between; this simplicity leads to ease of
manufacture and repair, and accounts for the flathead engine's early success in production automobiles and continued
success in small engines, such as lawnmowers. This design, however, requires the incoming air to flow through a
convoluted path, which limits the ability of the engine to perform at higher rpm, leading to the adoption of the overhead
valve head design.

In the overhead valve head, the top half of the cylinder head contains the camshaft in an overhead cam engine, or
another mechanism (such as rocker arms and pushrods) to transfer rotational mechanics from the crankshaft to linear
mechanics to operate the valves (pushrod engines perform this conversion at the camshaft lower in the engine and use a
rod to push a rocker arm that acts on the valve). Internally the cylinder head has passages called ports for the fuel/air
mixture to travel to the inlet valves from the intake manifold, for exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves to the
exhaust manifold, and for antifreeze to cool the head and engine.

The number of cylinder heads in an engine is a function of the engine configuration. A straight engine has only one
cylinder head. A V engine usually has two cylinder heads, one at each end of the V, although Volkswagen, for instance,
produces a V6 called the VR6, where the angle between the cylinder banks is so narrow that it utilizes a single head. A
boxer engine has two heads.

The cylinder head is key to the performance of the internal combustion engine, as the shape of the combustion chamber,
inlet passages and ports (and to a lesser extent the exhaust) determines a major portion of the volumetric efficiency and
compression ratio of the engine.

Camshaft placement:

Poppet valves are opened by means of a camshaft which revolves at half the crankshaft speed. This can be either chain,
gear or toothed belt driven from the crankshaft and can be located in the crankcase (where it may serve one or more
banks of cylinders) or in the cylinder head.If the camshaft is located in the crankcase, a valve train of pushrods and
rocker arms will be required to operate overhead valves. Mechanically simpler are side valves, where the valve stems
rested directly on the camshaft. However, this gives poor gas flows within the cylinder head as well as heat problems
and fell out of favor for automobile use. .All modern automobile engines place the camshaft in the cylinder head. There
may be one or two camshafts in the cylinder head; a single camshaft design is called OHC or SOHC for (Single)
OverHead Cam. A design with two camshafts per cylinder head is called DOHC for Double OverHead Cam. Note that
the camshafts are counted per cylinder head, so a V engine with one camshaft in each of its two cylinder heads is still a
SOHC design..With overhead cams, the valvetrain will be shorter and lighter, as no pushrods are required. Some single
camshaft designs still have rocker arms; this facilates adustment of mechanical clearances.If there are two camshafts in
the cylinder head, the cams normally bear directly on to the valve stems. This is the usual arrangement for a four-
valves-per-cylinder design. This latter arrangement is the most inertia free, allows the most unimpeded gas flows in the
engine and is the usual arrengement for high performance automobile engines. It also permits the spark plug to be
located in the centre of the cylinder head, which promotes better combustion characteristics. Very large engines (eg.
marine engines) can have either extra camshafts or extra lobes on the camshaft to enable the engine to run in either
direction.

Crank pin

In a reciprocating engine, the crank pins are the bearing journals of the big end bearings, at the ends of the connecting
rods opposite to the pistons. If the engine has a crankshaft, then the crank pins are the journals of the off-centre bearings
of the crankshaft. In a beam engine the single crank pin is mounted on the flywheel; In a steam locomotive the crank
pins are often mounted directly on the driving wheels.

Big end bearings are commonly plain bearings, but less commonly may be roller bearings,
In a multi-cylinder engine, a crank pin can serve one or many cylinders, for example:

• In a straight engine each crank pin normally serves only one cylinder.

• In a V engine each crank pin usually serves two cylinders, one in each cylinder bank.

• In a radial engine each crank pin serves an entire row of cylinders.

Piston

Components of a typical, four stroke

cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E)
Exhaust camshaft, (I) Intake camshaft,
(S) Spark plug, (V) Valves, (P) Piston,
(R) Connecting rod, (C) Crankshaft,
(W) Water jacket for coolant flow.

In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change
the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some
combination of these. A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion
of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during
usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine

Flywheel:

The wheel on the end of the crankshaft that gives the crankshaft momentum
to carry the pistons through the compression stroke

A flywheel has two main functions:

1.Moderating speed fluctuations in an engine through its inertia. Any

sudden increase due to fuelling changes or load on the system will be
evened out.

2.Energy storage medium, as an alternative to the chemical battery.

Piston ring
A piston ring is an open-ended ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of a piston in an internal combustion
engine.

The three main functions of piston rings in internal combustion engines are:

1. Sealing the combustion chamber.

2. Supporting heat transfer from the piston to the cylinder wall.
3. Regulating motor oil consumption.

The gap in the piston ring compresses to a few thousandths of an inch when inside the cylinder bore.

CONNECTING ROD:

In modern automotive internal combustion engines, the connecting rods are most usually made of steel for production
engines, but can be made of aluminium (for lightness and the ability to absorb high impact at the expense of durability)
or titanium (for a combination of strength and lightness at the expense of affordability) for high performance engines,
or of cast iron for applications such as motor scooters. They are not rigidly fixed at either end, so that the angle between
the con rod and the piston can change as the rod moves up and down and rotates around the crankshaft.

The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin (the usual British term) or wrist pin, which is currently most
often press fit into the con rod but can swivel in the piston, a "floating wrist pin" design. The big end connects to the
bearing journal on the crank throw, running on replaceable bearing shells accessible via the con rod bolts which hold
the bearing "cap" onto the big end; typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing and the big end of the con rod
so that pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto the thrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the
pistons and piston rings.

The con rod is under tremendous stress from the reciprocating load represented by the piston, actually stretching and
relaxing with every rotation, and the load increases rapidly with increasing engine speed. Failure of a connecting rod is
one of the most common causes of catastrophic engine failure in cars, frequently putting the broken rod through the side
of the crankcase and thereby rendering the engine irreparable; it can result from overheating, fatigue near a physical
defect in the rod, lubrication failure in a bearing due to faulty maintenance, or from failure of the rod bolts from a
defect, improper tightening, or re-use of already used (stressed) bolts where not recommended. Despite their frequent
occurrence on televised competitive automobile events, such failures are quite rare on production cars during normal
daily driving. This is because production auto parts have a much larger factor of safety, and often more systematic
quality control.

Fuel injection:
Fuel injection is a means of metering fuel into an internal combustion engine. In modern automotive applications, fuel
metering is one of several functions performed by an "engine management system".

For gasoline engines, carburetors were the predominant method to meter fuel before the widespread use of fuel
injection. However, a wide variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion
engine.

The primary functional difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by
forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on the vacuum created by
intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream.

The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from further back in the fuel supply,
from a pump or a pressure container.

Types of fuel injection methods:

1.Throttle body injection method

2.Continuous injection method

3.Central port injection (CPI) method

4.Multi-point fuel injection method

5.Direct injection method

Carburetor
The carburetor, carburettor, or carburetter (is also called carb (in North America) or carbie (chiefly in Australia)
for short, is a device that blends air and fuel for an internal combustion engine. It was invented by Hungarian scientists
Donát Bánki and János Csonka in 1893.

Carburetors were the usual fuel delivery method for almost all engines up until the mid-1980's, when fuel injection
became the preferred method of automotive fuel delivery. A majority of motorcycles still utilize carburetors due to
lower cost, but as of 2005, many new models are now being introduced with fuel injection. Carburetors are still found
in small engines and in older or specialized automobiles, such as those designed for stock car racing.Most carbureted
(as opposed to fuel-injected) engines have a single carburetor, though some engines use multiple carburetors. Older
engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits through the top. This had the
advantage of never "flooding" the engine, as any liquid fuel droplets would fall out of the carburetor instead of into the
intake manifold; it also lent itself to use of an oil bath air cleaner, where a pool of oil below a mesh element below the
carburetor is sucked up into the mesh and the air is drawn through the oil covered mesh; this was an effective system in
a time when paper air filters did not exist. Beginning in the late 1930s, downdraft carburetors were the most popular
type for automotive use in the United States. In Europe, the sidedraft carburettors replaced downdraft as free space in
the engine bay decreased and the use of the SU-type carburetor (and similar units from other manufacturers) increased.
Some small propeller-driven aircraft engines still use the updraft carburetor design, however many use more modern
designs such as the Constant Velocity (CV) Bing(TM) carburetor

The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its pressure. The throttle (accelerator)
linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburettor mechanisms which meter the
flow of air being sucked into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of
fuel drawn into the airstream.

Balanceing of Carburetour

In engines with multiple carburetors, balancing the carburetors is a vital part of engine tuning. Imbalance will not only
mean that the carburetors are operating at less than ideal, but will also unbalance the cylinders that they serve

HOW CARBURETOUR WORKS?

Fixed-venturi, in which the varying air velocity in the venturi alters the fuel flow; this architecture is employed in
most downdraft carburetors found on American and some Japanese cars

Variable-venturi, in which the fuel jet opening is varied by the slide (which simultaneously alters air flow). In
"constant depression" carburetors, this is done by a vacuum operated piston connected to a tapered needle which slides
inside the fuel jet. A simpler version exists, most commonly found on small motorcycles and dirt bikes, where the slide
and needle is directly controlled by the throttle position. These types of carburetors are commonly equipped with
accelerator pumps to make up for a particular shortcoming of this design. The most common variable venturi (constant
depression) type carburetor is the sidedraft SU carburetor and similar models from Hitachi, Zenith-Stromberg and other
makers. The UK location of the SU and Zenith-Stromberg companies helped these carburetors rise to a position of
domination in the UK car market, though such carburetors were also very widely used on Volvos and other non-UK
makes. Other similar designs have been used on some European and a few Japanese automobiles. These carburetors are
also referred to as "constant velocity" or "constant vacuum" carburetors. An interesting variation was Ford's VV
(Variable Venturi) carburetor, which was essentially a fixed venturi carburetor with one side of the venturi hinged and
movable to give a narrow throat at low rpm and a wider throat at high rpm. This was designed to provide good mixing
and airflow over a range of engine speeds, though the VV carburetor proved problematic in service.

Function of carburetour

Under all engine operating conditions, the carburetor must:

1.Measure the airflow of the engine

2.Deliver the correct amount of fuel to keep the fuel/air mixture in the proper range (adjusting for factors such as
temperature)

3.Mix the two finely and evenly

History and development Of Carburator:

The carburetor was invented by the Hungarian engineer Donát Bánki in 1893. Frederick William Lanchester of
Birmingham, England experimented early on with the wick carburetor in cars. In 1896 Frederick and his brother built
the first petrol driven car in England, a single cylinder 5 hp (4 kW) internal combustion engine with chain drive.
Unhappy with the performance and power, they re-built the engine the next year into a two cylinder horizontally
opposed version using his new wick carburetor design. This version completed a 1,000 mile (1600 km) tour in 1900
successfully incorporating the carburetor as an important step forward in automotive engineering.

The word carburetor comes from the French carbure, meaning 'carbide' . To carburete means to combine
with carbon. In fuel chemistry, the term has the more specific meaning of increasing the carbon (and therefore
energy) content of a fuel by mixing it with a volatile hydroca.

The Fuel Injector:

A fuel injector is nothing but an electronically controlled valve. It is supplied with pressurized fuel by the fuel
pump in your car, and it is capable of opening and closing many times per second.

When the injector is energized, an electromagnet moves a plunger that opens the valve, allowing the
pressurized fuel to squirt out through a tiny nozzle. The nozzle is designed to atomize the fuel -- to make as
fine a mist as possible so that it can burn easily.
The amount of fuel supplied to the engine is determined by the amount of time the fuel injector stays open.
This is called the pulse width, and it is controlled by the ECU. The injectors are mounted in the intake
manifold so that they spray fuel directly at the intake valves In order to provide the right amount of fuel, the
engine control unit is equipped with a whole lot of sensors.
Cam Shaft
We know about valves that let the air/fuel mixture into the engine and the exhaust out of the engine. The
camshaft uses lobes (called cams) that push against the valves to open them as the camshaft rotates;
springs on the valves return them to their closed position. This is a critical job, and can have a great impact
on an engine's performance at different speeds.
Camshaft Basics:

The key parts of any camshaft are the lobes. As the camshaft spins, the lobes open and close the intake
and exhaust valves in time with the motion of the piston. It turns out that there is a direct relationship
between the shape of the cam lobes and the way the engine performs in different speed ranges.

Camshaft Configurations for V-Engine:

1)Single Overhead Cam: This arrangement denotes an engine with one cam per head. So if it is
an inline 4-cylinder or inline 6-cylinder engine, it will have one cam; if it is a V-6 or V-8, it will have two
cams (one for each head).
The cam actuates rocker arms that press down on the valves, opening them. Springs return the valves to
their closed position. These springs have to be very strong because at high engine speeds, the valves are
pushed down very quickly, and it is the springs that keep the valves in contact with the rocker arms. If the
springs were not strong enough, the valves might come away from the rocker arms and snap back. This is
an undesirable situation that would result in extra wear on the cams and rocker arms
On single and double overhead cam engines, the cams are driven by the crankshaft, via either a belt or
chain called the timing belt or timing chain. These belts and chains need to be replaced or adjusted at
regular intervals. If a timing belt breaks, the cam will stop spinning and the piston could hit the open valves.

2)Double Overhead Cam

A double overhead cam engine has two cams per head. So inline engines have two cams, and V engines
have four. Usually, double overhead cams are used on engines with four or more valves per cylinder -- a
single camshaft simply cannot fit enough cam lobes to actuate all of those valves.

The main reason to use double overhead cams is to allow for more intake and exhaust valves. More valves
means that intake and exhaust gases can flow more freely because there are more openings for them to
flow through. This increases the power of the engine.

Development and features of V-Engine:

The Premium V design was initiated as a response to the advanced dual overhead cam V8 engines introduced by
European and Japanese competitors of Cadillac in the late 1980s. At that time, Cadillac was using the aluminum HT
Overhead Valve (OHV) V8 which had been pushed hastily into production after the failure of the V8-6-4 of 1981.

Cadillac was developing new models like the Allanté and updated Eldorado and Seville STS which they hoped would
compete against the best from BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Lexus, and Infiniti. They developed a laundry list of items that
must be included in these new models, including sophisticated steering, braking, and suspension technologies, which
became known as the Northstar System. One key element was a high-tech V8 engine with all of the features and
performance of the competitors' offerings.

The "Northstar" V8, as it was then known, was an evolution of the Lotus-designed Chevrolet LT5 all-aluminum DOHC
32-valve V8 used in the Corvette ZR-1. Archrival Ford Motor Company was developing a similar engine at that time as
well, and Ford's Modular engine would precede the Northstar into production with its introduction on the 1991 Lincoln
Town Car. Both continue in production at 4.6 L of displacement.

Capable of producing 300 hp (224 kW), the Northstar featured a unique die-cast aluminum 90° V8 block with 102 mm
(4 in) bore spacing split into unitary upper and lower halves. The lower crankcase assembly supported the crankshaft
without conventional main bearing caps. An oil manifold plate with an integrated silicon gasket forms the oil gallery
under this.

Cast-iron cylinder liners were specified and the forged aluminum pistons included valve clearance, making Northstar a
non-interference engine, with bronze pin bushings and free-floating piston pins used.

The one-piece cast aluminum cylinder heads extend around the "maintenance-free" cam-drive chain case. Direct-acting
hydraulic valves are used with a lubrication passage drilled through the cylinder head lengthwise. The intake valves are
inclined at 25°, while the exhaust valves are canted to 7° with center-mounted platinum-tipped spark plugs. The cam
covers were fabricated from magnesium for light weight.

Eight thermoplastic tubes were used in the induction system, leading to sequential fuel injection. Direct ignition was a
novelty for the time, with an electronic system adjusting spark and fuel injection timing as well as the shift points for
the new 4T80-E transmission.
One notable feature, advertised at the time, was the fail-safe cooling mode which allowed the engine to continue
running for a limited time without any coolant at all. It alternated banks of cylinders to maintain cool temperatures,
allowing a Northstar-equipped car to be driven with no coolant for about 100 mi (161 km) with no damage.

Another unusual feature of some Northstar-equipped cars is a liquid-cooled alternator used on Cadillac's Seville,
DeVille, and Eldorado. The liquid-cooling helped prolong the life of the alternator in these electronic-laden models,
though GM reverted to a traditional air-cooled setup for 2001 to eliminate potential leak points and extraneous
tubing.All engines of this family share the same Northstar bellhousing pattern.

Later developments included variable valve timing, which can vary intake by up to 40° and the exhaust by up to 50°.
This system was devised for the longitudinal LH2 version, and has not, to date, been used on the transverse front wheel
drive engines due to packaging considerations.

GM Premium V engine:

The Premium V family of automobile engines is General Motors' modern 90° v engine architecture. The family is most
associated with Cadillac's Northstar V8, but the family has also seen use at Oldsmobile (as the Aurora L47 V8 and
"Shortstar" LX5). The Oldsmobile variants are no longer in production, but the Northstar family has expanded with
new longitudinal and 4.4 L supercharged versions. The Northstar name is now used outside Cadillac as well, with the
Pontiac and Buick versions now carrying that moniker. Alfa Romeo is rumored to be another future user of the
Premium V in the US-market Kamal.

L47

Aurora's engine bay

The L47 Aurora engine was a special V8 designed for the Oldsmobile Aurora, based on the Northstar engine. It is a
DOHC 4.0 L (3995 cc) V8 which produced 250 horsepower (186 kW) and 260 ft·lbf (353 N·m) of torque. The bore is
87 mm and the stroke is 84 mm. The L47 has a 10.3:1 compression ratio and uses premium fuel.

Although most of the Northstar's features, including the coolant loss system, remained intact, the decreased bore
increased weight unacceptably. To reduce it, Oldsmobile used a one-piece glass-filled thermoplastic intake manifold
and simplified AC Rochester sequential fuel injection. A new die-cast structural aluminum oil pan incorporated baffling
to reduce oil starvation in hard driving. A starter interlock prevents the starter from engaging if the quiet L47 is already
running.

A highly modified version of this engine was used by General Motors racing division initially for Indy Racing League
competition starting in 1995, then was later used in the Cadillac Northstar LMP program in 2000. Both engines retained
the 4.0 L capacity, but the Northstar LMP version was twin-turbocharged.

The Aurora engine was introduced in 1994 for the 1995 model year, and General Motors has not used this engine since
the demise of the marque in 2004.

LX5
Intrigue's engine bay

The LX5 V6 is a DOHC engine from Oldsmobile, introduced in 1999 with the Oldsmobile Intrigue. It was produced by
the Premium engine group at GM and was thus called the Premium V6, or PV6, while it was being developed. It is
based on the L47 Aurora V8, which is itself based on the Northstar engine, so engineers called it the Short North,
though Oldsmobile fans have taken to calling it the Shortstar.

It is not a simple cut-down V8. Although it has a 90° vee-angle like the Northstar and Aurora, the engine block was
engineered from scratch, so bore centers are different. It has chain-driven dual overhead cams and 4 valves per cylinder,
but is an even-firing design with a split-pin crankshaft similar to the modern GM 3800 engines. The LX5 displaced
3.5 L (3473 cc) and produced 215 hp (160 kW) and 230 ft·lbf (312 N·m). Bore is 89.5 mm and stroke is 92 mm.

The cost of building this engine was high, and it was not used in many vehicles. It was said at the time that a family of
premium V6s would follow, with displacements ranging from 3.3 L to 3.7 L, but only the LX5 was ever produced. It
was entirely different from any other V6 in the GM inventory, and as with the Aurora V8, production stopped with the
demise of Oldsmobile.

L37:

The L37 was the original Northstar V-Engine. It is tuned for responsiveness and power, while the later LD8 is designed
for more sedate use. The L37 code has been used on all high-output transverse Northstars, even as the exact engine
specifications evolved.

The original L37 was specified at 290 hp (216 kW), but 1993 production examples were rated at 295 hp (220 kW). The
engine topped out at 300 hp (224 kW) from 1996 through 2004 on the STS, DTS and ETC models, making these some
of the most powerful front wheel drive cars ever built, the most powerful title still belonging to the 1970 Cadillac
Eldorado with 400 hp (500 in³, 8.2 L).

A revised high-output L37 will be used in the 2006 Cadillac DTS Performance version. It produces 291 hp (217 kW)

V-Twin Engine:

A V-twin is a two cylinder internal combustion engine where the cylinders are arranged in a V configuration.
In a true V-twin engine, for example Harley Davidson engines, the two cylinders share a single crank pin (also known
as a journal) on the crankshaft, therefore the "twin" nomenclature. Two cylinder, V shaped engines with separate crank
pins for each cylinder are more properly called "V-2" engines, however, proper identification of V-2 engines is
uncommon. They are frequently referred to as V-twin engines, too, although this is technically incorrect.

Configurations of V-Twin Engine:

The most obvious configuration for a V-twin is a 90°, in which counterweighting can balance the engine, in odd-firing
90 degree Vees. This is seen in the Moto Guzzi and Ducati, but other angles can be seen like the 45° of the classic
Harley-Davidson engine, the 75° Suzuki, the 52° Honda, the 80° Honda CX-500, the 47° Vincent, the 42° Indian, and
the 60° Aprilia.

The signature Ducati engine, a transverse 90° twin with the front cylinder approximately parallel to the ground and the
rear cylinder vertical, is sometimes referred to as an "L" twin.

TYPES OF MOUNTINGS V-TWIN ENGINE:

Transverse mounting

Both two-cylinder V engines are common on motorcycles. The engine can be mounted in transverse position like on
Harley-Davidsons, Ducatis and many recent Japanese motorcycles. This transverse position gives the motorcycle a
reduced frontal area. The main disadvantage of this configuration is that the rear cylinder and the front cylinder will
receive different air-flows making air cooling somewhat problematic especially for the rear cylinder.

Longitudinal mounting

The longitudinal two-cylinder V as seen on Moto-Guzzis and some Hondas is less common. This position is well
adapted to transmission shafting. When used in motorcycles, this approach has the slight disadvantage of causing a
torque reaction that tends to lean the motorcycle slightly to one side. However, many motorcycle manufacturers have
corrected for torque reaction by rotating the transmission input shafts and/or the balance and drive shafts opposite that
of the crankshaft so that there is approximately equal mass turning clockwise and counterclockwise at any time, thereby
physically canceling the effect.

INVENTORS OF ENGINE

1206: Al-Jazari designed a reciprocating piston engine.

1509: Leonardo da Vinci described a compression-less engine.

1673: Christiaan Huygens described a compression-less engine.

17th century: English inventor Sir Samuel Morland used gunpowder to drive water pumps.

1780's: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and
hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.

1794: Robert Street built a compression-less engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a
century.

1806: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen.

1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. It was compression-
less and based on what Hardenberg calls the "Leonardo cycle," which, as this name implies, was already out of date
at that time.

1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines. This
scientifically established the need for compression to increase the difference between the upper and lower working
temperatures.

1826 April 1: The American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compression-less "Gas Or Vapor Engine".

1838: a patent was granted to William Barnet (English). This was the first recorded suggestion of in-cylinder
compression.

1854: The Italians Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci patented the first working efficient internal combustion
engine in London (pt. Num. 1072) but did not go into production with it. It was similar in concept to the successful
Otto Langen indirect engine, but not so well worked out in detail.

1856: in Firenze at Fonderia del Pignone (now Nuovo Pignone, a subsidiary of General Electric) Pietro Benini was
realizing a working prototype of Barsanti-Matteucci engine, supplying 5 HP. In subsequently years was developed
more powerful engines, with one or two pistons, fine as steady power source in replacement of stream engine.

1860: Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822 - 1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine closely similar in
appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam beam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel
in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be
produced in numbers.

• 1862: Nikolaus Otto designed an indirect-acting free-piston compression-less engine whose greater efficiency
won the support of Langen and then most of the market, which at that time, was mostly for small stationary
engines fueled by lighting gas.
• 1870: In Vienna Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart.
• 1876: Nikolaus Otto working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach developed a practical four-stroke
cycle (Otto cycle) engine. The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder
compression engines or even the four stroke cycle, and after this decision in-cylinder compression became
universal.
Karl Benz

• 1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his internal combustion engine, a reliable
two-stroke gas engine, based on Nikolaus Otto's design of the four-stroke engine. Later Benz designed and built
his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobiles, which became the first automobiles in production.
• 1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson’s engine had one power phase per
revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes making it more efficient than the Otto cycle.
• 1891 - Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They
build the first cold start, compression ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping
station. An experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone
in the same year.
• 1892: Rudolf Diesel developed his Carnot heat engine type motor burning powdered coal dust.
• 1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for the diesel engine.
• 1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, in which the
corresponding pistons reach top dead centre at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.
• 1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) using
peanut oil ( biodiesel).
• 1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the
specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named Daimler-Mercedes after his daughter. In
1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG