Definition

Suppose (G,*) and (G’,) be a group. A map

  G  G’ is a homomorphism if
(a*b) = (a)  (b)
for all a,b  G.

For any groups G and G’, there is always at least

one homomorphism   G  G’, namely the
trivial homomorphism defined by (a) = e’ for all
a  G, where e’ is the identity in G’.
Example
 Example 1 Let   G  G’ be a group homomorphism
of G onto G’. We claim that if G is abelian, then G’ must
be abelian.
 Solution Let a’,b’ G’. We must show that a’b’= b’a’.
Since  is onto G’, there exist a,b  G such that  (a) = a’
and (b) = b’. So
a’b’=  (a)(b)
= (ab) (Since  is homomorphism)
= (ba) (Since G is abelian, we have ab = ba.)
= (b)(a) (Since  is homomorphism)
= b’a’. (Since  is onto G’)
Example
 Example 2 Let Sn be the symmetric group on n
letters, and let   Sn  Z2 be defined by
0 if  is an even permutation,
    
1 if  is an odd permutation.
Show that  is a homomorphism.
Example
 Example 3 Let F be the additive group of
all functions mapping R into R, let R be the
additive group of real numbers, and c be
any real number. Let c  F  R be the
evaluation homomorphism defined by for g
F. Recall that, by definition, the sum of
two functions g and h is the function g + h
whose value at x is g(x) + h(x). Thus we
have
Properties of Homomorphism
 Definition Let  be a mapping of a set X
into a set Y, and A  X and B  Y. The
image  [A] of A in Y under  is
{ (a) | aA}.
The set  [X] is sometimes called the
range of  . The invers image  -1[B] of B in
X is
{xX |  (x) B}
Theorem
 Let  be a homomorphism of a group G
into a group G’.
1. If e is the identity in G, then (e) is the
identity e’ in G’.
2. If a  G then  (a-1) = (a)-1.
3. If H  G, then  [H]  G’.
4. If K’  G’, then  -1[K’]  G.
Definition
Let   G  G’ be a
homomorphism of groups. The
subgroup
-1[e’] = {x  G| (x) = e’}
is the kernel of , denoted by
Ker().
Theorem
Let   G  G’ be a group homomorphism,
and let H = Ker(). Let a  G, then the set
-1[(a)] = {x  G| (x) = (a)}
is the left coset aH of H, and is also the right
coset Ha of H.
Consequently, the two partitions of G into left
cosets and into right cosets of H are the same.
Proof
 We want to show that
-1[(a)] = {x  G| (x) = (a)} = aH.
Suppose that (x) = (a). Then
(a)-1(x) = e’
where e’ is the identity of G’. By Theorem
we know that (a)-1 = (a-1), so we have
(a-1)(x) = e’.
Proof (Cont.)
 Since  is a homomorphism, we have
(a-1)(x) = (a-1x) = e’.
So (a-1x) = e’.
This show that a-1x  H = Ker(), so a-1x=h
for some h  H , and x = ah  aH.
This show that
-1[(a)] = {x  G| (x) = (a)}  aH.
Proof (Cont.)
 To show containment in the order
direction, let y  aH, so that y = ah for
some h  H. Then
(y) = (ah) = (a)(h) = (a) e’ = (a),
so that y  {x  G| (x) = (a)}.
This show that
aH  {x  G| (x) = (a)} = -1[(a)].
Example
 Let D be the additive group of all
differentiable functions mapping R into R,
and let F be the additive group of all
functions mapping R into R.
Then differentiation gives us a map
  D  F, where ( f ) = f ’ for f  D.
We easily see that  is a homomorphism,
for ( f + g) = ( f + g)’= f ’+ g ’)=( f ) + (g).
Example (Cont.)

 Now Ker()= {f  D | (f) = f ’= 0}.

Thus Ker() consists of all
constant functions.
Corollary

A group homomorphism
  G  G’ is a one-to-one
map iff
Ker() = {e}.
Proof

 IfKer() = {e}, then for every

a  G, the elements mapped into
 (a) are precisely the element of
the left coset a{e} = {a}, which
show that  is one to one.
Proof (Cont.)

 Conversely, suppose  is one to

one. We know that (e) = e’, the
identity of G’. Since  is one to one,
we see that e is the only element
mapped into e’ by , so Ker() = {e}.
Definition

A subgroup H of a group G is
normal if its left and right cosets
coincide, that is, if aH = Ha
for all a  G.
 Note that all subgroups of abelian
groups are normal.
Note
 We mention in closing some terminology found
in the literature related to Ker () and to  [G].
 A map   A  B that is one to one is often
called an injection.
 A homomorphism   G  G’ that is one to
one is often called a monomorphism.
 A map of A onto B is often called a surjection.
 A homomorphism that maps G onto G’ is often
called an epimorphism,
this is the case iff [G] = G’.