Cayley’s Theorem

Every group is
isomorphic to a group
of permutations.
Proof

 Step 1 Find a set G’ of permutations that is

a candidate for forming a group under
permutation multiplication isomorphic to G.
 Step 2 Prove that G’ is a group under
permutation multiplication.
 Step 3 Define a mapping and show that is
an isomorphisms of G with G’.
Proof (cont.)

 Let G be a given group.

 Step 1 Our first task is to find a set G’ of
permutations that is a candidate to form a group
isomorphic to G. Think of G as just a set, and let SG
be the group of all permutations of G given by
Theorem 2.1. (Note that in the finite case if G has n
elements, SG has n! elements. Thus in general, SG is
clearly too big to be isomorphic to G). We define a
certain subset of SG.
Proof (cont.)

For a  G, let be the mapping of G into G

given by
a(x) = ax
for x  G. (We can think of a as meaning left
multiplication by a). If
a(x) = a(y), then
ax = ay, so
x=y.
Proof (cont.)

Thus a is a one-to-one function. Also, if

y  G, then
a(a-1y) = a(a-1y) = y,
so a maps G onto G. Since a : G → G is
both one-to-one and onto G, a is a
permutation of G; that is, a  SG. Let
G’ = {a | a  G }.
Proof (cont.)

 Step 2 We claim that G’ is a subgroup

of SG. We must show that G’ is closed
under permutation multiplication,
contains the identity permutation, and
contains an inverse for each of its
elements. First, we claim that
ab = ab.
Proof (cont.)

To show that these functions are the same,

we must show that they have the same
action on each x  G. Now
(ab)(x) = a(b(x))
= a(bx)
= a(bx)
= (ab)x
= ab(x).
Proof (cont.)

 Thus ab = ab, so G’ is closed under

multiplication. Clearly for all x  G,
e(x) = ex = x,
where e is the identity element of G, so e is
the identity permutation  in SG and is in G’.
Since ab=ab we have aa-1= aa-1 = e
and also a-1a= e . Hence (a)-1= a-1.
So (a)-1  G’. Thus G’ is a subgroup of SA.
Proof (cont.)

 Step 3 It remains for us to prove now that G

is isomorphic to this group G’ that we have
described. Define  : G → G’ by
(a) = a for a  G.
If (a) = (b) then a and b must be the same
permutation of G. In particular,
a(e) = b(e)
so ae = be and a = b.
Proof (cont.)

Thus  is one-to-one. It is immediate that  is

onto G’ by the definition of G’. Finally,
(ab) = ab.
While (a)(b) = ab.
But we saw in step 2 that ab and ab are the
same permutation of G. Thus
(ab) = (a)(b)
Definition

Regular Representations The

group G’ in the proof of Cayley’s
Theorem is the left regular
representation of G, and the group
G” in the preceding comment is the
right regular representation of G.
Example

 Let us compute the right regular

representations of the group given by the
group table. By “compute” we mean give the
elements of the right regular representation
and the group table.
e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a
Example (cont.)

Here the elements are

e a b e a b e a b 
e     a    b   
e a b a b e b e a 

The table for this representation is just like

the original table with x renamed x as seen
in table. This renaming is the basic idea
of an isomorphism.
Example (cont.)

For example,
 e a b  e a b   e a b 
 a b         e
 a b e  b e a   e a b 

e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a