Maxwell Equations in Differential Forms and Clifford Algebra

David W-J Tian

1 Maxwell Equations Rewritten in Differential Forms

1.1 Applying Differential Forms to Maxwell’s Equations
1.1.1 Faraday and Three Elementary Quantities

In Minkowskian four-spacetime with the metric ηµν = diag(−1, 1, 1, 1), we denote Fµν as the
E ∼ B field tensor, i.e. the Faraday. The covariant form of the four-force vector is

F = fµ dxµ , fµ = eFµν v ν , (1)

where Greek letters µ, ν run over {0, 1, 2, 3}, and E = (E1 , E2 , E3 ) = (Ex , Ey , Ez ), B =
(B1 , B2 , B3 ) = (Bx , By , Bz )1 . Expand Eq1 into componential formalism, thus

F0 = e F00 v 0 + F01 v 1 + F02 v 2 + F03 v 3 ,

(2a)

F1 = e F10 v 0 + F11 v 1 + F12 v 2 + F13 v 3 ,

(2b)

F2 = e F20 v 0 + F21 v 1 + F22 v 2 + F23 v 3 ,

(2c)

F3 = e F30 v 0 + F31 v 1 + F32 v 2 + F33 v 3 .

(2d)
On the other hand, rewrite the temporal derivative of the total energy and the momentum
d m0 c2 d m0 v
p = −eE · v, p = e(E + v × B) (3)
dt 1 − β 2 dt 1 − β 2

into componential formalism,

d mc2
= −e E1 v 1 + E2 v 2 + E3 v 3 ,


p (4a)
dt 1 − β 2

d mv 1
= e E1 + B3 v 2 − B2 v 3 ,


p (4b)
dt 1 − β 2
1
Hereafter in this letter in the proposition-1,2,3, for convenience, we use both {1,2,3} and {x,y,z}
in the subscripts to label the vectoric components.

1
 d mv 2
= −e E2 + B1 v 3 − B3 v 1 ,


p (4c)
dt 1 − β 2

d mv 3
= −e E3 + B2 v 1 − B1 v 2 .


p (4d)
dt 1 − β 2
Eqs2 and Eqs3 together give rise to
 
0 −E1 −E2 −E3
 
E1 0 B3 −B2 
Fµν =
 . (5)
E2 −B3 0 B1 
E3 B2 −B1 0

This (0, 2) antisymmetric tensor is the explicit Faraday.

Recall that
dxµ ∧ dxν = dxµ ⊗ dxν − dxν ⊗ dxµ , (6)

hence the Faraday in Eq5 is a two-form consisting of six Grassmann products,

Φ = F|µν| dxµ ∧ dxν , (7)

where the two vertical lines in F|µν| mean the summation over µ < ν. Hence Eq7 becomes,

Φ = F01 dt ∧ dx + F02 dt ∧ dy + F03 dt ∧ dz + F12 dx ∧ dy + F13 dx ∧ dz + F23 dy ∧ dz

(8)
= E1 dx ∧ dt + E2 dy ∧ dt + E3 dz ∧ dt + B1 dx ∧ dy + B2 dx ∧ dz + B3 dy ∧ dz.

Considering the physical duality of the electromagnetic quantities that2 E → −H, B → D,

we could obtain the dual Faraday for D ∼ H that
 
0 H1 H2 H3
 
−H1 0 D3 −D2 
Gµν =  −H −D
. (9)
 2 3 0 D1 
−H3 D2 −D1 0

Similar to Eq8, we proceed to define the two-form for Gµν that

Ξ = G01 dt ∧ dx + G02 dt ∧ dy + G03 dt ∧ dz + G12 dx ∧ dy + G13 dx ∧ dz + G23 dy ∧ dz

(10)
= H1 dt ∧ dx + H2 dt ∧ dy + H3 dt ∧ dz + D1 dx ∧ dy + D2 dx ∧ dz + D3 dy ∧ dz.

In correspondence to the four-current of the charge density ρ and the current density J,

Jµ = (ρ, J) = (ρ, J1 , J2 , J3 ), (11)

2
This duality is easily seen in Maxwell’s equations in canonical Gibbsian vector form. Attention
that it’s not E → ±D, B → ±H.

2
we would define the three-form for the electromagnetic source that3

Θ = −ρdx ∧ dy ∧ dz + J1 dy ∧ dz ∧ dt + J2 dz ∧ dx ∧ dt + J3 dx ∧ dy ∧ dt (12)

As in Eq8, Eq10 and Eq12, Φ, Ξ and Θ are the three elementary quantities for the realization
of the differential-form expression of Maxwell’s equation.

1.1.2 Maxwell Equations in Differential Form

Proposition 1
∇ × E = − ∂B ,


dΦ = 0 V ∂t (13)
∇ · B = 0.

Proof

dΦ = dEx ∧dx∧dt+dEy ∧dy∧dt+dEz ∧dz∧dt+dBx ∧dy∧dz+dBy ∧dz∧dx+dBz ∧dx∧dy = 0,

∂Ex ∂Ex ∂Ex ∂Ex
dEx = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Ey ∂Ey ∂Ey ∂Ey
dEy = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Ez ∂Ez ∂Ez ∂Ez
dEz = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Bx ∂Bx ∂Bx ∂Bx
dBx = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂By ∂By ∂By ∂By
dBy = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Bz ∂Bz ∂Bz ∂Bz
dBz = dx + dy + dz + dt.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Substitution of dEi and dBi into dΦ gives rise to
h ∂E
z ∂Ey  ∂Bx i h ∂E
x ∂Ez  ∂By i
− + dt ∧ dy ∧ dz + − + dt ∧ dz ∧ dx+
∂y ∂z ∂t ∂z ∂x ∂t
h ∂E ∂Ex  ∂Bz i  ∂B ∂By ∂Bz 
y x
− + dt ∧ dx ∧ dy + + + dx ∧ dy ∧ dz = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence, 
∂Ez ∂Ey ∂Bx

 − =−
 ∂y ∂z ∂t



∂Ex ∂Ez ∂By ∂B
− =− V ∇×E=− .
 ∂z ∂x ∂t ∂t
∂Ey ∂Ex ∂Bz


− =−



∂x ∂y ∂t
3
Like the variable-transformation operations in ordinary and partial differential equations, the defi-
nition of Θ is just for the mathematical consistence with Φ and Ξ hereafter, as we’ll see in Proposition-2
and Proposition-3.

3
 ∂Bx ∂By ∂Bz
+ + =0 V ∇ · B = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence,
∇ × E = − ∂B ,


dΦ = 0 V ∂t
∇ · B = 0.

This completes the proof. 

Proposition 2
∇ × H = ∂D + J,


dΞ + Θ = 0 V ∂t (14)
∇ · D = ρ.

Proof

dΞ = dHx ∧dt∧dx+dHy ∧dt∧dy +dHz ∧dt∧dz +dDx ∧dx∧dy +dDy ∧dx∧dz +dDz ∧dy ∧dz.

∂Hx ∂Hx ∂Hx ∂Hx

dHx = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Hy ∂Hy ∂Hy ∂Hy
dHy = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Hz ∂Hz ∂Hz ∂Hz
dHz = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Dx ∂Dx ∂Dx ∂Dx
dDx = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Dy ∂Dy ∂Dy ∂Dy
dDy = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Dz ∂Dz ∂Dz ∂Dz
dDz = dx + dy + dz + dt.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Substitution of dHi , dDi and Θ (Eq12) into dΞ + Θ = 0 gives rise to
h ∂H
z ∂Hy  ∂Dx i h ∂H
x ∂Hz  ∂Dy i
− − − Jx dt ∧ dy ∧ dz + − − − Jy dt ∧ dz ∧ dx+
∂y ∂z ∂t ∂z ∂x ∂t
h ∂H ∂Hx  ∂Dz i  ∂D ∂Dy ∂Dz 
y x
− − − Jz dt ∧ dx ∧ dy + + + − ρ dx ∧ dy ∧ dz = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
Hence, 
∂Hz ∂Hy ∂Dx

 − = + Jx
 ∂y ∂z ∂t



∂Hx ∂Hz ∂Dy ∂D
− = + Jy V ∇×H= + J.
 ∂z ∂x ∂t ∂t
∂Hy ∂Hx ∂Dz


− = + Jz



∂x ∂y ∂t
∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz
+ + =ρ V ∇ · D = ρ.
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Hence,
∇ × H = ∂D + J,


dΞ + Θ = 0 V ∂t
∇ · D = ρ.

This completes the proof. 

1.1.3 Remarks

The two propositions above have compacted Maxwell’s equations into two using exterior cal-
culus. Indeed, based on the quantity Θ, we could rewrite the conservation law of the electric
charge using differential forms.

Proposition 3
∂ρ
dΘ = 0 V ∇·J+ = 0. (15)
∂t
Proof

dΘ = dJx ∧ dy ∧ dz ∧ dt + dJy ∧ dz ∧ dx ∧ dt + dJz ∧ dx ∧ dy ∧ dt − dρ ∧ dx ∧ dy ∧ dz = 0.

∂Jx ∂Jx ∂Jx ∂Jx
dJx = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Jy ∂Jy ∂Jy ∂Jy
dJy = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂Jz ∂Jz ∂Jz ∂Jz
dJz = dx + dy + dz + dt,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
dρ = dx + dy + dz + dt.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Substitution of dJi and dρ into dΘ = 0 gives rise to
h ∂J
x ∂Jy ∂Jz  ∂ρ i ∂ρ
+ + + dx ∧ dy ∧ dz ∧ dt = 0 V ∇ · J + = 0.
dx dy dz ∂t ∂t
This completes the proof.

♠ A new quantity on the magnetic monopole is to be added4 .

♣ Discussion on the Chiral Symmetry of differential forms is to be added.

4
Magnetic monopoles (MAMO) play an important role in standard model of particle physics and
cosmic inflation, for example, the origin of the quantization of electric charge. When discussing the
phase transition of an isolated particle, Dirac (1931) found that MAMO may exist, and its magnetic
e
charge g is related to the unit electric charge e via g = n , where α ≈ 1/137 is the fine structure
2acε0
constant of electromagnetism. The existence of MAMO within the frame of standard model is proved
independently by t’ Hooft and Polyakov (1974). [Ref-1] G ’t Hooft. Magnetic Monopoles in Unified
Gauge Theories. Nuclear Physics B79(2), 276-284 (1974); But I hasn’t read Polyakov yet: [Ref-2] A
M Polyakov, JETP Letter 20, 194 (1974).

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2 Maxwell Equations Rewritten in Clifford Algebra
2.1 Mathematical Preparations
2.2 Applying Clifford Algebra to Maxwell’s Equations
Outlines and principal conclusions:

P = E1 e0 e1 + E2 e0 e2 + E3 e0 e3 − (H1 e2 e3 + H2 e3 e1 + H3 e1 e2 ). (16)

J = −ρe0 + J1 e1 + J2 e2 + J3 e3 . (17)

Define the Dirac operator,

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
D = e0 0
+ e1 1 + e2 2 + e3 3
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x (18)
≡ e 0 ∂0 + e 1 ∂1 + e 2 ∂2 + e 3 ∂3 .

Proposition 4 
∇ × E = − ∂B

∂t




 ∂D
∇×H= + J,
DP = 4πJ V ∂t (19)
∇ · D = ρ,






∇ · B = 0.


♠ The proof of Proposition 4, and an outline of Clifford algebra and its bibliography are be added.

Bibliography5

[1] R L Bryant, S S Chern, P B Gardner, H L Goldschmidt, P A Griffiths. Exterior Differ-

ential Forms. Springer-Verlag, 1991.

(One could learn about the theory and mathematical applications of exterior calculus at quite
a high level with this book. The author Chern was father of modern global analysis, and his
work relies significantly on exterior calculus and moving frames.)

[2] Stephen H Weintraub. Differential Forms – A Complement to Vector Calculus. Academic

Press, 1997.

5
Here are two more books which must be helpful for reading and recalculating this letter, although
I haven’t been able to get them for reference.
[14] Cornelius von Westenholz . Differential Forms in Mathematical Physics. Amsterdam: North-
Holland, 1981.
[15] William Eric Baylis. Electrodynamics: a Modern Geometric Approach. Birkhäuser, 1999.

6
[3] Harold M Edwards. Advanced Calculus. Birkhäuser, 1994 (Reprint version).

[4] Shigeyuki Morita. Geometry of Differential Forms. AMS, 2001. Chapter-2, Chapter-3,
Chapter-4.

[5] Peter Szekeres. A Course in Mathematical Physics – Groups, Hilbert Space and Differen-
tial Geometry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Chapter-16, Chapter-17.

[6] Michael Spivak. A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry, Vol(I), Ed3.

Houston: Publish OR Perish INC., 1999. Chapter-7, Chapter-8.

[7] David Bachman. A Geometric Approach to Differential forms. arXiv:math/0306194v1

[math.GT].

[8] Charles W Misner, Kip S Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler. Gravitation. San Francisco:
W H Freeman AND Company, 1973. Chapter-4: Electromagnetism and Differential Forms.

(The authors made lots of interesting calculations to reexpress the classical electrodynamics
using exterior calculus. The mathematics is junior; this chapter is pretty readable and has
enlightened considerable further discussion.)

[9] Bernard F Schutz. Geometrical Methods of Mathematical Physics. Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press, 1990 (Reprint version). Chapter-4: Differential Forms; Section-5.11:
Rewriting Maxwell’s Equations Using Differential Forms.

[10] Michael Stone. Methods of Mathematical Physics II. Alexandria: Pimander-Casaubon,

2003. Chapter-2: Differential Calculus on Manifolds. Section-2.4.1: Maxwell equations.

[11] Y Choquet-Bruhat, C Dewitt-Morette, M Dillard-Bleick. Analysis, Manifolds and Physics.

Chapter-IV: Integration on Manifolds.

[12] Harley Flanders. Differential forms – with Applications to the Physical Sciences. New
York: Dover Publications INC., 1989 (Revised version). Section-4.6: Maxwell’s Field Equa-
tions, P44.

(This thin book has been a classic ever since its first publication (Dover, 1963). It’s quite
readable, with interesting applications to physics, geometry, group and differential equations.)

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[13] Ismo V Lindell. Differential Forms in Electromagtics 6 . IEEE Press, 2004.

(This is the most difficult and rigorous monograph on the applications of geometric methods
to classical electromagnetism. The exterior calculus in this book is of the most advanced level
I ever encounter to date. I’m quite impressed by this book.)

[14] N Schleifer. Differential Forms as a Basis for Vector Analysis – with Applications to
Electrodynamics. American Journal of Physics, 1983, 51(12): 1139-1145.

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The author himself utilizes ’Electromagnetics’ rather than ’electromagnetism’.