Active power filters: A review
M.El-Habrouk, M.K.Darwish and PMehta
Abstract: In recent years there has been considerable interest in the development and applications of
active fdters because of the increasing concern over power quality, at both distribution and consumer
levels, and the need to control reactive power and voltage stability at transmission levels. The existing
approaches are classified and assessed to provide a framework of references for both researchers in
this field and for generators, suppliers and consumers of electrical power who are, or may be,
concerned about the problems associated with power quality and are considering installing active
filters for their particular sets of problems.
1 Introduction
The term active filter is a generic one and is applied to a
group of power-electronic circuits incorporating power-
switchmg devices and passive energy-storage-circuit ele-
ments, such as inductors and capacitors. The functions of
these circuits vary depending on the applications. They are
generally used for controlling current harmonics in supply
networks at the low- to medium-voltage distribution level
or for reactive power and/or voltage control at high-volt-
age-distribution level [l]. These functions may be combined
in a single circuit or in separate active filters.
In the past, there has been a number of surveys on vari-
ous aspects of this topic. Several publications [2-91 have
described the development of active-filtering techniques.
Some of them focus mainly on circuit configurations and
their possible interconnections [2-6].Others review the con-
trol techniques associated with some of these circuits [&9].
However, there is a lack of published material whch pro-
vides an overview such that designers and users of active
filters can evaluate various techniques in a subjective fash-
ion. This contribution is aimed at filling this gap.
To identify the criteria for classifying active filters, a gen-
eralised block diagram of an active power filter is presented
in Section 2. The subsequent Sections deal with the classifi-
cation of active filters based on five identifiable criteria.
2 Classification of active filters
Fig. 1 shows the components of a typical active-power-filter
system and their interconnections. The information regard-
ing the harmonic current, generated by a nonlinear load,
for example, is supplied to the reference-currentlvoltage
estimator together with information about other system
variables. The reference signal from the current estimator,
as well as other signals, drives the overall system controller.
This in turn provides the control for the PWM switching-
pattern generator. The output of the PWM pattern genera-
tor controls the power circuit via a suitable interface. The
0IEE, 2000
IEE Proceedings online no. 2oooO522
DOL lO.l049/ipepa:2oooO522
Paper fmt received 7th December 1999 and in revised form 16th March 2000
The authors are with the Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering,
Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
IEE Proc.-Elertr. Power Appl., Vol. 147, No. 5, September 2000
power circuit in the generalised block diagram can be con-
nected in parallel, series or parallelkeries configurations,
depending on the connection transformer used.
_ _ rr.,
siinnlv
connection nonlinear
transformer load
pattern
variables
switching
effort signal
Fig. 1 Geeerdived block d k g r m , f o r activepower jlters
On the basis of the above, the published work in this
field can be classified using the following criteria.
(U) power rating and speed of response required in compen-
sated systems;
(b) power-circuit configuration and connections;
(c) system parameters to be compensated (e.g. current har-
monics, power factor, unbalanced three-phase system etc.);
(cl) control techniques employed; and
(e) technique used for estimating the reference currentholt-
age.
The following Sections classify the systems according to the
above criteria. This will provide a better understanding in
dealing with these systems, as it shows the merits and draw-
backs of each type.
3 Classification according to power rating and
speed of response required in the compensated
system
Fig. 2 shows the classification based on this criterion. The
power rating of the compensated system and its speed of
response play a major role in deciding the control philoso-
phy to implement the required filter. These two factors fol-
low a reciprocal relationship [10-121. In general, the cost of
any particular system is proportional to the required speed
of response [lo].
403
 active power-system filters
\-
1I low-power
applications
(4 00 kVA)
(100 kVA to 10 MVA)
100 vs-IO ms
response, response, response,
1-phase 3 x 1-phase 3-phase
compensator compensators compensator
Fig. 2 Suhdiviswn of paws systemjiliers crccording to power ratkg and speed of sespome
3.1 Low-power applications
This type of application is mainly concerned with systems
of power ratings below 100kVA. It is mainly associated
with residential areas, commercial buildings, hospitals and
for a wide range of small to medium-sized factory loads
and motor-drive systems. This range of applications
employs sophisticated techniques of dynamic active filters,
especially those with high-pulse-number PWM voltage- or
current-source inverters. Their response time is relatively
much faster than other techniques, ranging from tens of
microseconds to milliseconds, and resulting in a considera-
ble reduction in the power compensation range as stated
above. This type comprises the following two categories.
3.7.I Single-phase systems: Single-phase active fil-
ters [9, 13-30] are generally available in low power ratings.
They are suitable for retrofit applications, such as in com-
mercial or educational buildings with computer loads [3I],
small factories etc., where the current harmonics can be
dealt with at the point of common coupling. Thus several
lower-power filters can be connected on a given distribu-
tion site rather than using one large filter on the incoming
supply. This is due to the large number of the single-phase
loads withn one building and the harmful consequences
the presence of large amounts of harmonic in the neutral
line. This allows for more selective compensation as the
operating conditions vary. On the other hand, residential
loads do not generate such large values of concentrated
harmonics, [I, 321 and hence the effects on the neutral are
not significant. However, in the absence of compulsory har-
monic regulations [33-351, residential customers are not
likely to invest in single-phase active power filters.
The main advantage of single-phase filters is that they
have to deal with low powers and hence can be operated at
relatively hgher frequencies leading to improved perform-
ance.
3.1.2 Three-phase systems: For three-phase applica-
tions, the choice of filterskonfigurations depends on
whether the three-phase loads are balanced or not. At rela-
tively low power levels (IOOkVA), a three-phase system can
use either three single-phase or one three-phase compensa-
tor. For balanced loads, a single three-phase-inverter con-
figuration is employed [2-5, 7, 8, 10-12, 36581. This is
acceptable if there is no requirement to balance currents or
voltages in each phase and the aim is simply to eliminate as
many current harmonics as possible, assuming that the
magnitudes and respective phase angles in each phase are
the same [2-5, 7, 8, 10-12, 3&58]. For unbalanced load
currents or unsymmetrical supply voltages, especially in
404
1
medium-power
applications
high-power
applications
(>IO MVA)
100 ms-1 s
response, response,
3-phase 3-phase
compensator compensator
three-phase four-wire distribution systems, three single-
phase inverter circuits [58] or alternative configurations
[2&30, 551 may provide acceptable solutions. These alter-
native configurations are discussed later on in this paper.
The connection of three single-phase filters is recommended
by some designers [2, 5, 581, especially those who do not
rely upon standard inverter configurations such as lattice
structures, switched-capacitor techniques and power-regula-
tor configuration [20-301. It can incorporate three inde-
pendent currentlvoltage-feedback signals that will balance
the supply currents or voltages.
3.2 Medium-power applications
In this category, three-phase systems ranging from lOOkVA
to lOMVA [2, 5, 591 are mainly considered. Medium- to
hgh-voltage distribution systems [l, 351 and high-power
high-voltage drive systems [2, 51, where the effect of phase
unbalance is more or less negligible, fall within this classifi-
cation. Here the main aim is to eliminate or reduce the cur-
rent harmonics. Because of economic considerations,
reactive-power compensation using active filters at the
high-voltage distribution level is not generally regarded as
viable [l 11 because of the high voltage and its accompany-
ing problems of isolation and serieslparallel connections of
switches. Even if step-down transformers are used, the
resulting high currents are difficult to handle. Alternative
approaches, including capacitive and inductive static com-
pensators as well as quasidynamic systems (such as relay-
controlled LC circuits), tuneable harmonic filters, line-com-
mutated thyristor converters [60], synchronous condensers
[11 and cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators
[6145], are considered more suitable. The speed of
response expected in this range is of the order of tens of
dliseconds.
3.3 High-power applications
The implementation of very high-power dynamic filters is
extremely cost ineffective, because of the lack of hgh-
switching-frequency power devices that can control the
current flow at such power ratings, is a major limitation for
such systems [2, 5, 111. As with medium-power applica-
tions, extra high voltages of a few hundred kilovolts cannot
be tolerated, even by state-of-the-art semiconductor devices
whch can withstand only a few kilovolts. The series-paral-
le1 combinations of these switches is possible, but difficult
to implement and cost-ineffective. Fortunately, the
harmonic pollution in high-power ranges, which include
systems with ratings above IOMVA, is not such a major
problem as in lower-power systems. These high-power
systems include power-transmission grids and ultrahigh-
JEE Proc -Elecrr Powei Appl 1'01 147 N o 5 September 2000
power DC drives as well as DC transmission systems. The supply
impedance
effect of harmonics generated at the low-power side would
be minimised, either naturally or by the installation of
several medium- and low-power active filters downstream
to contribute to the compensation in such cases. The static-
VAR compensation is then the major concern and is filter
usually compensated for by using traditional static power
Fig.4 paralkd activefilter configuration
conditionersifilters [I, 2, 51 as well as several sets of
synchronous condensers connected in parallel [11 and
cascaded multilevel-inverter VAR compensators [61-65].
The required response time for such cases is in the range of nonlinear
load
tens of seconds, which is sufficient for contactors and
circuit breakers to operate after taking the optimal-switch-
7 1
ing decision [l, 111. Power fluctuations in the range of a
few seconds are, on the other hand, treated by the generat-
ing stations' anciliary devices.
active
DC-link

inductor s mi%
and
coupling
,jcapacitor
active
DC-link

One of the few applications of active filters in high-power filter inductors filter
systems is the Japanese bullet train (Sinkansen) [2, 5, 661, a b
which uses a parallel combination of several active filters. Fig.5 Invcrter b u d activejilter,s
The control and co-ordination requirements of these filters LICurrent fed inverter
h Voltage fed inverter
are, however, complicated [2].

4 Classification according to the power-circuit

configuration and connections

Power-circuit configurations play an important role in the

selection of the applications, as some circuits are suitable
only for certain aspects of control and power ranges, as dis-
cussed in this Section and illustrated in the block diagram
shown in Fig. 3.
/'$7 a b
Fig.6 Switched ccpacitorfilters
4.7 Parallel active filters
This class of filter configurations constitutes those most
important and most widely used in industrial processes supply
nonlinear
[2-91. It is connected to the main power circuit, as shown in

m
the single-line diagram of Fig. 4. The purpose is to cancel
the load current harmonics fed to the supply. It can also
contribute to reactive-power compensation and balancing
of three-phase currents, as mentioned above. Parallel fdters b
have the advantage of carrying only the compensation cur-
rent plus a small amount of active fundamental current
supplied to compensate for system losses. It is also possible nonlinear
to connect several filters in parallel to cater for higher cur-
rents, which makes this type of circuit suitable for a wide
range of power ratings. This configuration consists of four
distinct categories of circuit, namely inverter configurations,
switched-capacitor circuits, lattice-structured filters and
voltage-regulator-type filters. Information on these circuits C

is given in Table 1. Fig.7 Lattice structure configurations

standard switched lattice voltage parallel AF series AF parallel AF

inverter capacitor structure regulator + + + in series with
series AF parallel PF parallel PF parallel PF

Fig.3 Subdiviion of power systtmjZters accordmg to power cirmit configurationsand connections

A F Active filter
PF: Passive filter

IEE Proc-Electr Power Appl.. Vol. 147, No. 5, September.2000 405

 Table 1: Comparisonof different active-power-filterconfigurations

Inverter/converter configurations
Comparison criteria Switched-capacitor Lattice structures Voltage-regulator
CSI VSI filters active filters

No of phases Normally 3-phase l-phase and 3-phase l-phase l-phase l-phase

Function Injects currents at Acts with a Controls filter voltage Controls filter current/ Controls filter voltage
PCC t o eliminate superimposed continuously to voltage directly continuously to
load-current current-control loop control current control current'
harmonics to generate desired indirectly indirectly
waveform
Circuits Fig. 5a Fig. 5b Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Power rating Medium-power Low/medium-power Low/medium-power Low-power Low/medium-power
applications applications applications applications applications
Control complexity Complex (keep Simple (keep Complex Complex Simple (track
inductor current capacitor voltage (optimisation (optimisatioi1 capacitor-voltage
constant) constant) technique) technique) reference)
Speed of response, Medium (-1) Fast (-0.1) Slow (-100) Slow (-100) Fast (-0.1)
ms
No of active devices 6 switches, 6 diodes l-phase: l-phase: 2 l-phase: 4 l-phase:
4 switches14 diodes bidirectional switches bidirectional switches 4switches/4 diodes
3-phase:
6 switched6 diodes
Switching -2-5 -20-30 -2-4 -2-4 -4-6
frequency, Hz
DC energy storage Large DC inductor Large DC capacitor NIA 2 small DC capacitors
(-100 mH) (-4700-9OOOvF) (200 pF)
DC-link voltage or (1.3-1.5) x rated (1.3-1.5) x rated N/A N/A Rated supply voltage
current supply current supply voltage
AC components N/A N/A 1 or 2 AC capacitors 1 or 2 AC capacitors 1 AC capacitor
(4WOpF) (80wF) 1 or 2 (4GIOOpF) 1 small
inductors (1-3 mH) inductor (< I m H )
AC voltage ratings N/A NIA 1.5 x rated-voltage 1.5 x rated-voltage 1.2-1.5 x rated-
AC capacitors AC capacitors voltage AC capacitors
Control method PWM of DC-link Current-controlled Optimised PWM of Optimised PWM of Continuous PAM of
current PWM of DC-link voltage voltage voltage
voltage
Voltage or current Very high rates of Very high rates of Smooth voltage Smooth voltage Smooth voltage
discontinuities current and change voltage and change variations variations variations
(+Idcand -Idc) (+Vdcand-Vdc)
References 12,3, 5, 11, 18,3639, [8, 12-16, 40,47, 124-261
49,52,53,571 48,50,51, 54,55,59,
67-7 11

rating considerably compared with parallel filters, especially

in the secondary side of the coupling transformer (increas-
ing the 12R losses and the physical size of the filter). The
main advantage of series filters over parallel ones is that
they are ideal for eliminating voltage-waveform harmonics,
and for balancing three-phase voltages [17, 19, 4143, 581.
This, in fact, means that this category of filter is used to
improve the quality of the system voltage for the benefit of
Fig.8 Kdtuge rrguhtor uctivejhx
the load. It provides the load with a pure sinusoidal wave-
form, which is important for voltage-sensitive devices (such
4.2 Series active filters
as superconductive magnetic-energy storage and power-
The active fdter in this configuration produces a PWM
system-protection devices). Note that most of the circuit
voltage waveform which is addeasubtracted, on an instan-
taneous basis, to/from the supply voltage to maintain a supply connection
impedance transformer 1 - (
pure sinusoidal voltage waveform across the load [2, 581.
The main power-circuit configuration is shown in Fig. 9.
The inverter configuration accompanying such a system is
a voltage-fed inverter without any current-control loops.
Series active filters are less common industrially than their
rivals, parallel active filters. This is because of the main active
drawback of series circuits, namely that they have to
handle high load currents, which increases their current Fig.9 Series activefilter configuration
406 IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl.. Vol. 147, No. 5. September 2000
configurations of parallel filters can be used in series config-
urations, but only the inverter configuration is reported in
the literature.
4.3 Other filter combinations
Combinations of several types of filter can achieve greater
benefits for some applications.
4.3.1 Combination of both parallel and series
active filters: To gain the advantages of both series and
parallel inverter-type configurations, a combination of both
types of fdter, shown in Fig. 10, can be used to achieve the
demanding power-system requirements. The demand for
combined filters is limited because of their control complex-
ity and higher cost. The control complexity is due to the
dependency of the switching pattern of both parallel and
series circuits. Consequently, these types of filter have
received less attention than other configurations [2, 5, 72,
731. The arrangement is, however, frequently used for other
purposes in power systems for flexible AC transmission sys-
tems (FACTS) [74].
load
combination
U shows promise for higher-voltage applications; however,
Fig.10 Conlhination oypurullel und .series uctivefilters
connection
Fig. 11 Series uctive and purallel pu.ssive$lrer combination
4.3.2 Combination of series active and parallel
passive filters: To reduce the complexity of the previous
filter combination, the inverter-type series active fdter,
which constitutes a high impedance for high-frequency har-
monics, is accompanied by a parallel passive filter to pro-
vide a path for the harmonic currents of the load [44, 731.
This combination, represented by Fig. 11, permits an
improvement over the characteristics of plain series active
filters and the extension of their capabilities to include cur-
rent-harmonic reduction and voltage-harmonic elimination
[44, 461. The configuration, however appealing, has not yet
been studied thoroughly owing to lack of interest in series
active filters.
4.3.3 Combination of parallel active and passive
filters: This combinatiqn, shown in Fig. 12, represents a
very important mixture of passive and active inverter-type
filters. The active filter is designed to eliminate only part of
the low-order current harmonics while the passive filter is
designed to eliminate the bulk of the load-current harmon-
ics. In such combinations, the system can be designed for
higher powers without excessive costs for high-power
switching [45, 731. The main drawback of thls technique is
that it contains too many power components, especially for
the passive filter. Since passive filters are permanently con-
IEE Proc.-Ele[ectr.Power Appl., Vol. 147, N o 5, September 2000
nected to the system, this approach is only suitable for a
single load with a predefined harmonic source.
PCC nonlinear
load
I < passive
filter
parallel
active filter
nonlinear
load
=i active filter
Fig.13 Activejefilter in series with parullel pcwsivefilter cornhinution
4.3.4 Active filter in series with parallel passive
filters: This configuration, shown in Fig. 13, is a subject of
several publications [46, 57, 73, 75, 761 and is fairly impor-
tant, especially for medium- and high-voltage applications
where the passive filter reduces the voltage stress applied to
the switches in the active filter. For this reason, this concept
further research is still needed to assess the effectiveness of
the configuration.
5 Classification according to the compensated
variable
Active filters are built to improve some of the characteris-
tics of power systems under question. These characteristics
are signified by the system parameters to be controlled,
leading to the subdivisions presented in Fig. 14 and dis-
cussed in the following Sections.
5. I Reactive-powercompensation ('VAR'
correction)
Most researchers normally regard reactive-power compen-
sation [30, 3941, 43, 481 as not requiring active filters.
However, compensation of power factor in conjunction
with current harmonics is fairly popular and is addressed
by many publications. On the other hand, active-filter con-
figurations rarely treat the problem of power-factor correc-
tion on its own owing to the fact that other quasidynamic,
cheaper and slower-in-response reactive-power compensa-
tors are available in the market. This technique (in this case
called active-power filter for reactive-power compensation),
if applied, would normally be suited for low-power applica-
tions, since the currents needed for reactive-power compen-
sation are of the same order of magnitude as the rated
current of the load. It would be a waste of sophsticated
equipment to tackle them without the use of other power-
factor-correction devices, such as thyristor-controlled reac-
tors and capacitors; especially in single-phase systems,
where in certain specific applications the requirement is for
accurate compensation without harmonics generation.
5.2 Harmonic compensation
This is the most important system parameter requiring
compensation in power systems and it is subdivided into
voltage- and current-harmonic compensation as follows.
407
 active power-system filters
t voltage
current
t voltage
current
Fig. 14 Subdivision according to cot?lpcxwiedvariables
5.2.I Compensation of voltage harmonics: The
subject of compensating voltage harmonics [2, 19, 42, 671 is
not widely addressed because power supplies usually have
low impedance. The terminal voltage at the consumer point
of common coupling (PCC) is normally maintained withn
the standard limits for voltage sag and total harmonic dis-
tortion and does not normally vary much with loading.
This problem is usually important for harmonic-voltage-
sensitive devices [l], which require the supply to be purely
sinusoidal, such as power-system-protection devices and
superconducting magnetic-energy storage [77]. Note that
the compensation of voltage and current harmonics is
interrelated. The reduction of voltage harmonics at the
PCC helps a great deal to reduce current harmonics, espe-
cially for the particular cases of nonlinear loads with reso-
nance at the harmonic frequencies. However, the
compensation of the voltage harmonics at the PCC does
not eliminate the need for current-harmonic compensation
for nonlinear loads.
5.2.2 Compensation of current harmonics: Com-
pensation of current harmonics is very important in low-
and medium-power applications and is covered by many
publications [2-5, 10-12, 16, 18, 2&30, 3638, 4446, 521.
As mentioned above, the compensation of current harmon-
ics reduces to a great extent the amount of distortion in the
voltage at the point of common coupling. The magnitude
of the current and its waveform determine many of the
power-system-design criteria. It is always recommended
that the RMS value of the total current be reduced as
much as possible (to reduce cable and feeder losses), which
implies the reduction in current harmonics. This is because
the total RMS value of the nonlinear load current is equal
to the sum of the squares of the RMS values of each of the
individual harmonics. The imposition of harmonics stand-
ards [33-35] will soon oblige factories and establishments to
control the amount of harmonics they inject into the power
system.
5.3 Balancing of three-phase systems
This problem exists mainly in low- and medium-voltage
distribution systems where the currents, and consequently
the voltages, in the three phases are not balanced and are
not spaced in time 120" apart.
5.3.1 Balancing of mains voltages in three-phase
systems: The degree of system imbalance depends on the
amount of current imbalance and the magnitude of the
supply impedance. These can cause the three-phase volt-
ages to be unequal in magnitude and unequally spaced in
time. T h s is due to the presence of a significant amount of
supply impedance. The remedy to this problem is to add to
408
1
compensation
+ current harmonics + VAR
compensation
-*
voltage harmonics +
VAR compensation
current harmonics +
* voltage harmonics
current harmonics
+voltage harmonics
+VAR compensation
6ach phase the corresponding amount of instantaneous
voltage to force it to follow the reference sinusoidal wave-
form. The system, in such cases, is normally of the low-
power category because in medium- and high-power sys-
tems the supply impedance does not have any significant
effect on system performance [2, 751.
5.3.2 Balancing of mains currents in three-phase
systems: As with balancing voltages, this compensation is
mainly concerned with three-phase systems for low-power
applications. The reason is that the magnitudes of currents
to be supplied to the grid depend entirely on the amount of
imbalance in the system, which mostly occurs in low-volt-
age distribution systems for residential loads. The compen-
sator under consideration [2, 49, 75, 781 would sometimes
be forced to supply the rated value of current, which limits
its power-handling capabilities. The power circuit of this
system normally consists of three single-phase type (H-
bridge inverters) having the same energy-storage element.
5.4 Multiple compensation
Different combinations of the above systems can be used to
improve the effectiveness of filters. The following are the
most frequently used combinations.
5.4.I Harmonic currents with reactive power
compensation: The most common and popular filters
are those which compensate for both the reactive power
and the harmonic currents in order to maintain the supply
current completely free of harmonics and in phase with the
supply voltage [4, G9, 13-15, 50, 511. These techniques
have several advantages over other alternatives, as only one
filter is needed to compensate for everything, which is
much more attractive than using many different types of
compensators. However, because of the limits imposed by
the ratings of power switches, one can only use this appli-
cation for low powers. The resulting switching frequency
would need to be lower for higher-power applications
which restricts the filter under consideration to small pow-
ers.
5.4.2 Harmonic voltages with reactive-power
compensation: This combination [2], however rare,
takes place in certain configurations for controlling the
voltage harmonics, which would normally affect indirectly
(using suitable feedback) the reactive-power compensation.
This compensation system is only suitable for low-power
applications.
5.4.3 Harmonic currents and voltages: The prob-
lem of addressing harmonic currents and voltages simulta-
neously can only be treated by using the seriedparallel
IEE Proc.-Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 147, N o . 5 . September 2000
combination of active-filter configurations. This, of course,
is very important and very beneficial in malung both the
supply and the load free from harmonic effects [2, 5, 491.
However, this complex type is normally used only for very
sensitive devices such as power-system-protection equip-
ment and superconducting magnetic-energy storage sys-
tems.
5.4.4 Harmonic currents and voltages with reac-
tive-power compensation: This scheme is the ultimate
in sophistication since it controls harmonics and reactive
power [2, 5, 491. This technique requires the use of the par-
alleVseries active-filter combination. It is not employed very
often because its control is rather difficult and the informa-
tion available on it in the literature is very limited.
6 Classification based on the control technique
Fig. 15 shows a convenient method of classifying the pres-
ently available control techniques. These techniques fall
into the main categories of open- and closed-loop controls.
The closed-loop controls can be further subdivided into
other techniques as shown in Fig. 15.
6. I Open-loopcontrol systems
Open-loop systems sense the load current and the harmon-
ics it contains. They simply inject a fixed amount of power
in the form of current (mainly reactive) into the system,
which may compensate for most of the harmonics and/or
reactive power available. These systems do not check how
successful the compensation has been. T h s has been the
case with some of the traditional filtering techniques. Such
techniques inay include switched passive-filter banks, which
are not discussed in this paper, in addition to the following
techniques:
(U) harmonic elimination by tlurd-harmonic injection [23,
791,
(b) harmonic-cancellation devices [23], and
( c ) systems with known constant load-harmonic pattern
1261.
6.2 Closed-loop control systems
As opposed to open-loop systems, the closed-loop tech-
niques incorporate a feedback loop wluch senses the
required variables under consideration. These systems are
more accurate from the point of view of the amount of
harmonic and reactive-power reduction they can achieve.
Almost all new techniques in use are of this type. These
controllers usually employ digital signal processors (DSPs).
Control loops, considered in this Section, should not be
confused with the frequently used inner-hysteresis control
loops which are now used as a standard block in most cur-
rent-controlled voltage-source inverters.
active power-system filters
Fig. 15 ,%bdivirioM according to control techniylres
IEE ProcElectr. Power Appl.. Vol. 147. No. 5, September 2000
6.2. I Constant-capacitor-voltage technique: This
technique, which is suitable for single- and three-phase
inverter configurations with a capacitor in the DC link,
relies on the fact that the capacitor voltage is the voltage
source which controls the current waveform simply by con-
necting the capacitor to the mains supply through the
smoothing inductor. The resulting current is then control-
led by ordinary PWM techniques. Because energy is sup-
plied to or taken from the D C capacitor, the voltage across
its terminals fluctuates. To keep this voltage within limits, a
reference voltage is chosen. The error difference between
the actual capacitor voltage and its reference value deter-
mines the active component of power necessary to compen-
sate for losses in the filter. This error difference is added to
the current-controller error signal to determine the overall
system error to be processed by the current controller [2-8,
12-17, 19, 40, 43, 4 U 8 , 50, 51, 67, 751. This technique is
very popular, as is clear from the large number of refer-
ences provided.
6.2.2 Constant-inductor-current technique: This
control technique, on the other hand, is suitable for stand-
ard converters with an inductor in the DC link. The opera-
tion of the system is then very similar to that of the
constant-capacitor-voltage system when the capacitor volt-
age is replaced with the inductor current. Two main meth-
ods are used to implement this technique:
(i) Current pulse-width modulation: As in the constant-
capacitor-voltage case, the PWM control is used to provide
the appropriate pulses to represent the average value of the
current signal in a specific time interval [3, 10, 11, 18,
36-39, 41, 44, 45, 491.
(ii) Current pulse-amplitude modulation: This new control
method [52] provides active filters with a basis for ampli-
tude modulation of the required current waveform.
Although the concept is well established, it is not possible
to implement it with present power-electronics technology
~521.
6.2.3 Optimisation techniques: The optimisation
procedure for switched-capacitor and lattice-filter circuits is
the same [9, 20-271. The rate of rise of the current and the
amplitude depend mainly on the size of the capacitors and
the initial voltages on them. These factors are functions of
the switching patterns, and they provide considerable flexi-
bility in shaping the waveform of the current drawn by the
filter. The key to controlling these filter configurations is to
determine the appropriate switching function for the
switches. The main task of the system controller is to mini-
mise a predetermined number of individual load-current
harmonics, in addition minimising either the THD or the
fundamental component of the filter current. However, this
is not performed instantaneously. A time delay exists
THD minimisation
minimum filter current
409
between the detection of a change in the harmonic current
and the application of the new set of switching angles
obtained from the optimisation procedure. This system is
mainly suitable for constant or slowly varying loads.
6.2.4 Linear-voltage-control technique: This
method is only suitable for the voltage-regulator type of
active filter [29, 301. The voltage across the output capacitor
is linearly controlled through the continuous charging and
discharging. The capacitor-voltage reference is calculated
from the harmonic reference and includes the rate of
change of the load-current harmonics [30]. The continuous
and smooth variation of the capacitor voltage, in contrast
to the sudden changes of the inverter-voltage waveforms,
ensures that the current change in the supply/filter loop is
controlled and hence the switching frequency is further
reduced. The main advantage of this technique lies in the
fact that no sudden variation of voltage is caused on the
supply side. This, in fact, reduces the amount of high-fre-
quency harmonics injected into the supply due to the pres-
ence of the PWM inverter.
6.2.5 Other techniques: Other control techniques exist
[53, 54, SO]. They simply provide small changes to the
aforementioned techniques, providing simply newer or bet-
ter performance over their predecessors. These techniques
may include the use of state-of-the-art adaptive, predictive
and sliding-mode controllers, which are normally dificult
to implement without the use of DSPs. These techniques
can be implemented in either the time domain or the fre-
quency domain.
7 Classification according to current/voltage-
reference-estimation technique
As shown in Fig. 1, the reference currentholtage to be
processed by the control loops constitutes an important
and crucial measure for subdividing active-filtering tech-
niques. Fig. 16 illustrates these estimation techniques,
which cannot be considered to belong to the control loop
since they perform an independent task by providing it
with the required reference for further processing. Despite
the fact that some references do not mention their source of
compensating-current reference, these estimation techniques
can be classified as follows.
7.1 CurreniYvoltage-referencesynthesis
(continuous time-domain control)
T h s technique uses an analogue signal filter to determine
the harmonics contained in the main supply current. This
technique is preferred because of the simplicity of its imple-
mentation, using analogue devices, in the time domain.
However, it suffers from a serious drawback, in that the
phase and magnitude errors introduced by the signal active
filter employed are considerable. Two main categories
emerge.
current/voltage- current/voltage-
reference synthesis reference calculation
highpass-filter method
lowpass-filter method
410
(a) High-pass-filter method: The use of a high-pass filter is
straightforward for removing low-order frequencies in the
load-current signal. The resulting high-frequency compo-
nents constitute the desired reference [3]. T h s filtering tech-
nique is, considered to be equivalent to differentiation,
which makes this technique vulnerable to noise.
(6) Low-pass-filter method: However indirect, this method
is preferred over the high-pass-filter method because it
reduces the effect of differentiation in the resulting filtered
component. Filtering the fundamental component and then
subtracting it from the total load current yields the desired
reference [3, 51, 671. As mentioned above, the system suf-
fers from large magnitude and phase errors.
7.2 CurrenVvoltage-reference calculation
(discrete-timeor frequency-domain control)
The calculation of harmonics is usually adopted because of
the main drawback of the technique described in Section
7.1 which incorporates phase-angle and magnitude errors.
Most conventional methods of calculation can be classified
either as time-domain or frequency-domain. Other modern
techniques exist.
7.2.I TTme-domain approaches: The following seven
subdivisions of time-domain approaches are mainly used
for three-phase systems except for the fictitious-power-com-
pensation technique which can be adopted for single- or
three-phase systems.
(i) Instcmtaneous-rec~~tive-poweralgorithm: In this technique,
suitable only for three-phase systems, the instantaneous
power of the load is calculated. It consists of a D C compo-
nent and an oscillating component. The oscillating compo-
nent is separated over a certain interval of time (an integral
number of cycles). The reference signals are then calculated
by distributing the total current equally to each of the three
phases. This operation takes place only under the assump-
tion that the three-phase system is balanced and that the
voltage waveforms are purely sinusoidal [S, 40, 41, 501. If,
on the other hand, this technique is applied to contami-
nated supplies, the resulting performance is proven to be
poor [SI.
(ii) Synchronous-detection ulgorith: This technique [8],
which is very similar to the previous one, relies in the fact
that the three phase currents are balanced. The average
power is calculated and divided equally between the three
phases. The signal is then synchronised relative to the
mains voltage for each phase. This technique, however easy
to implement, suffers from the fact that it depends to a
great extent on the harmonics in the voltage signal.
(iii) Constant-active-power algorithm: The instantaneous
and average powers of the load are calculated. The active-
power component of the system is controlled to keep the
instantaneous real power constant, while maintaining the
imaginary power to zero. This technique performs fairly
+ synchronous detection
time + constant active power
domain +
'
constant (unity) power factor
fictitious power compensation
-
--* synchronous frame
7
frequency + synchronous flux detection
domain conventional Fourier and FFT
sine multiplication
modified Fourier series
other
algorithms
IEE Proc.-Elecir Power Appl., Vol. 147, No. 5, September 2000
well under ordinary conditions. However, the performance
deteriorates when the supply is contaminated [7].
(iv) Constant- (unity-) power-fuctor algorithm: This is
another technique, which is very similar to that in (iii)
above, except the fact that it forces the instantaneous cur-
rent signal to track the voltage-reference waveform. This
implies that the power factor would be fured to unity and
the system would only be suitable for the combined system
of VAR and current-hamionic compensation [7, 81.
(v) Fictitious-power-compensationalgorithm: This technique
relies on the principle of fictitious power compensation
developed in [1&12]. Despite the opposition to the theory
by [81-83], this principle was proven to operate satisfacto-
rily. The system controller is designed to minimise the
undesired component of power. In this aspect, it is similar
to the instantaneous-reactive-power algorithm but with a
different definition of power. This approach is suitable for
both single- and three-phase systems. However it involves a
large amount of computation.
(vi) Synchronous~~unze-basedalgorithm: This algorithm
relies on the Park transformations to transform the three-
phase system from a stationary reference frame into syn-
chronously rotating direct, quadrature and zero-sequence
components. These can easily be analysed since the funda-
mental-frequency component is transformed into DC
quantities [84]. The active and reactive components of the
system are represented by the direct and quadrature com-
ponents, respectively. The high-order harmonics still remain
in the signal; however they are modulated at different fre-
quencies. These are the undesired components to be elimi-
nated from the system and they represent the reference
harmonic current. The system is very stable since the con-
troller deals mainly with DC quantities. The computation is
instantaneous but incurs time delays in filtering the DC
quantities. This method is applicable only to three-phase
systems.
(vii) Synchronous-Jux-detection algorithm: This technique is
similar to that in (vi) above, in applying Park transforma-
tions to transfer the system into synchronously rotating
direct, quadrature and zero-sequence frames of reference.
However, it applies the transformation on the flux linkage
of the filter inductance, which is then controlled using the
output voltages and currents in separate integral loops [U].
The presence of these integral loops incorporates time
delays, which depend on the frequency response of the spe-
cial feedfonvard and feedback integrators.
7.2.2 Frequency-domain approaches: Frequency-
domain approaches are suitable for both single- and three-
phase systems. They mainly derived from the conventional
Fourier analysis and include the following three subdivi-
sions.
(i) Conventional Fourier and FFT algorithms: Using fast
Fourier transforms, the harmonic current can be recon-
structed by eliminating the fundamental component from
the transformed current signal and then the inverse trans-
form is applied to obtain a time-domain signal [3, 18, 37,
391. The main disadvantage of this system is the accompa-
nying time delay. This technique needs to take samples of
one complete cycle (or an integral number of cycles) to gen-
erate the Fourier coefficients and it is therefore suitable for
slowly varying load conditions.
(ii) Sine-multiplication technique: T h s method relies on the
process of multiplying the current signal by a sine wave of
the fundamental frequency and integrating the result. T h ~ s
results in a loss of all the high-order harmonics using a
IEE PIOC-Electr Power A p p l , Vol 147, No 5, September 2000
simple low-pass filter [13, 28, 461. The performance is still
slow (more than one complete mains cycle). This technique
is similar to the Fourier techniques presented above; it is,
however, differently implemented.
(iii) ModiJed-Fourier-series techniques: One of these tech-
niques was developed in [30]. The principle behind it is that
only the fundamental component of current is calculated
and t h s is used to separate the total harmonic signal from
the sampled load-current waveform. The practical iniple-
mentation of this technique relies on modifying the main
Fourier series equations to generate a recursive formula
with a sliding window. This technique is adapted to use
two different circular arrays to store the components of the
sine and cosine coefficients computed every sampling sub-
cycle. The newly computed values of the desired coefficient
are stored in place of the old ones and the overall sums of
the sine and cosine coefficients are updated continuously.
The computation time is much less than that of other tech-
niques used for single-phase applications. This technique is
equally suitable for single- or three-phase systems.
Another modified Fourier-series technique was devel-
oped in [55]. It relies on the decomposition of the three-
phase signals into synchronously rotating direct and quad-
rature axes. The technique is used to compensate for all
‘nonactive’ components of load-current signal. The nonac-
tive current definition in the dq reference frame is used to
generate the desired supply currents. Sliding-window
computation techniques are used (similar to that above) to
calculate the reference value of the filter current. This tech-
nique is suitable only for three-phase systems.
7.2.3 Other algorithms: There are numerous optimisa-
tion and estimation techniques, and all the utilities and
libraries for estimation can be used to perform t h s task.
However some new methods arise, such as the neural-
network and adaptive-estimation techniques which are
fairly accurate and have, of course, much better response
[9, 53, 54, 8&88]. Unfortunately, presently available
control hardware is not suitable for implementation of
these techniques.
8 Conclusions
The review and classification of published work in this field
shows that there has been a significant increase in interest
in active filters and associated control methods. This is due
to increasing concern about power quality and the availa-
bility of suitable power-switching devices at affordable
prices. To facilitate understanding and selection of particu-
lar configuration and control techniques for a given appli-
cation, the classification is based on five main criteria. The
power-circuit configurations of active filters and the ratings
of the compensated systems define the two broad catego-
ries. The other three classification criteria are based on the
control strategies, control techniques and reference-estima-
tion methods generally employed. The review also takes
into account the criteria for selecting passive components,
and the switching frequencies and losses for the various
configurations are also discussed.
Control circuits constitute a minor portion of the total
cost of active filters. This is because the new generation of
microcontrollers and digital signal processors (DSPs) can
operate at extremely high frequencies and at very low cost.
The number of instructions and operations performed per
second is phenomenal. Thus the most complex control
requirements can be incorporated without a great deal of
concern about this part of the cost for any system.
41 1
 The manner in which the paper has classified the differ-
ent aspects of active filters, although not providing a
detailed analysis, should help research workers, users and
suppliers of electrical power to gain an overview and inspi-
ration for further research on this subject. It is obvious
from the survey that a great deal more work still needs to
be done; particularly as the problems associated with gener-
ation, transmission, distribution and consumption of power
become more serious.
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