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Module 4

Motivation
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Learning Objectives
1. Define motivation and distinguish direction and intensity
of motivation.
2. Describe a content theory of motivation.
3. Compare and contrast the main content theories of
motivation: manifest needs theory, learned needs
theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG
theory, Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory, and self-
determination theory.
4. Distinguish extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and describe
their relationship.
5. Distinguish content and process theories of motivation.
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Learning Objectives (cont’d)
6. Compare and contrast the main process theories of
motivation: operant conditioning theory, equity theory,
goal theory, and expectancy theory.
7. Describe and distinguish the concepts of reinforcement,
punishment, negative reinforcement, and extinction.
8. Describe how to use the equity and goal-setting
motivation theories.
9. Discuss the main concepts and managerial implications
of expectancy theory.
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Major Determinants of Performance
• Person:
– Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to
learning that a person brings to a task or job.
• Knowledge is what a person knows.
• Skill is the capacity to perform an activity.
• Receptiveness to learning is how quickly a person acquires
new knowledge.
– Accurate role perceptions—how well individuals
understand the behaviors they are expected to perform
as members of the organization.
• The expected goals (outcomes) to be achieved.
• How to go about achieving the goals.
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Major Determinants of Performance
• Person (cont’d):
– Motivation—an internal state that energizes, directs, and
sustains behavior; it is a consequence of:
• The desire to fulfill unmet needs.
• The desire to resolve cognitive dissonance (conflicting
thoughts that produce anxiety).
– Work Motivation—the amount of effort a person will
exert to achieve a certain level of job performance.
• Situation:
– Performance environment—factors that impact
employees’ performance but are essentially out of their
control.
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Determinants of Performance
Person:
Ability
Motivation
Accurate Role
Perceptions

Performance

Situation:
Environmental
(Constraints and
Facilitators)

FIGURE 7–
7–1
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Motivation: Direction and Intensity
• Direction
– What (i.e., the target or goal) a person wants to
achieve.
• Clarifying direction results in accurate role perceptions.
• Differences in employee direction and organizational
direction create conflicts between employees and the
organization.
• Intensity
– The degree to which people try (make the effort) to
achieve their targets.
• Lack of intensity results in employees who perform poorly
in attaining personal or organizational goals.
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Theories of Motivation
• Content motivation theories
– Theories that focus on the content of what factors
(needs) motivate people.
• Process motivation theories
– Theories that address how and why people become
motivated.
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Needs
• Need
– A human condition that becomes energized when people
feel deficient in some respect.
– Needs provide direction for motivation:
• When a need is energized, people are motivated to satisfy
it; once satisfied, the need no longer motivates.
• Hedonism
– Early motivation theory that assumes people are
motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek
pleasure, avoid pain).
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Content Theories of Motivation
• Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)
• Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)
• Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
• ERG Theory (Alderfer)
• Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)
• Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
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Content Theories of Motivation
• Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)
– The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the
desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs.
• Latent needs—needs which an individual may have but are
not evident in their current behaviors.
• Primary (instinctive) needs—physiological needs.
• Secondary (learned) needs—psychological needs.
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Content Theories of Motivation
• Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)
– The theory assumes that people’s behavior in
organizations is based on three principal needs:
• Need for Achievement (nAch)—the need to excel at the
tasks they are performing.
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)—the need to establish and
maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people.
• Need for power (nPow)—the need to control things,
especially other people; reflects a motivation to influence
and be responsible for other people.
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Content Theories of Motivation
• Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
– The theory assumes that a higher order need is not
manifest and cannot remain manifest unless lower order
needs are satisfied.
• Physiological needs—air, water, food, sex, and sleep.
• Safety and security needs—freedom from danger.
• Social needs—receive love and affection from others.
• Ego and esteem needs—to be respected by others.
• Self-actualization—the need for self-fulfillment.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self
Actualization

Ego
and Esteem

Social

Physiological and Survival

Safety and Security

Source: Based on A. H. Maslow. 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 50:370–396.
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Content Theories of Motivation
•Alderfer’s ERG Theory
– The theory compresses Maslow’s five need categories into
three: existence needs, relatedness needs, growth needs.
– Four components of motivation
• Satisfaction progression—moving to higher-order needs as
lower-order needs are satisfied.
• Frustration—failure to satisfy a need.
• Frustration regression—reverting to a previously satisfied
need after failing to satisfy another need.
• Aspiration—satisfaction of the growth need increases its
importance and the desire for more growth.
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Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Growth Needs
1. Internal Self-Esteem Needs
2. Self-Actualization Needs

Relatedness Needs
1. Social Needs
2. Social Esteem Needs
3. Interpersonal Safety Needs

Existence Needs
1. Physiological Needs
2. Material Safety Needs
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Growth Opportunities
• Challenging Job • Autonomy
• Creativity
• Organizational Advancement
•
•
Interesting Work
Achievement
Satisfying
• Responsibility • Participation Existence,
Relatedness,
Relatedness Opportunities and Growth
• Friendship
• Interpersonal Security
•
•
Quality Supervision
Work Teams
Needs
• Athletic Teams • Social Events
• Social Recognition • Merit Pay

Existence Opportunities
• Heat • Air Conditioning • Clean Air
• Lighting • Rest Rooms • Drinking Water
• Base Salary • Cafeteria • Safe Conditions
• Insurance • Job Security • No Layoffs
• Retirement • Health Programs • Time Off
FIGURE 7–
7–4
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Content Theories of Motivation
• Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
– The theory posits that there are two sets of needs
(motivators and hygienes) that affect individual
motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.
• Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)—long-term needs
related to job content; to having sense of achievement
(growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.
• Hygienes (dissatisfiers)—job context needs that must be
met for an individual to avoid dissatisfaction; they do not
necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.
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(a) Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction School

Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s
High D B
versus
Traditional
View of
Satisfaction
Low C A
and
Dissatisfaction
Low High
Satisfaction
(b) Traditional view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Great dissatisfaction Great satisfaction

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Content Theories of Motivation
• Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
– The theory seeks to explain both the causes of
motivation and how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic
motivation.
• Extrinsic motivation—performance of a behavior to acquire
an external reward that will satisfy a lower-order need
(e.g., working for wages).
• Intrinsic motivation—performance of a behavior that in and
of itself is rewarding (e.g., completing a crossword puzzle)
and satisfies a higher-order need.
– Increases in extrinsic rewards can decrease the level of
intrinsic motivation in the performance of an activity.
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Operant Conditioning Theory
• Equity Theory
• Goal Theory
• Expectancy Theory
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Process Theories of Motivation
•Operant Conditioning Theory
– The theory posits that people learn to behave in a
particular fashion as a result of the consequences that
have followed their past behaviors.
• Operant conditioning—a learning process based on the
results produced by a person “operating on” the
environment. The reaction of the environment is to reward,
punish, or ignore the person.
• Reinforcement—occurs when a consequence makes behavior
more likely to be repeated.
• Extinction—occurs when a consequence or no consequence
makes behavior less likely to be repeated.
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Process Theories of Motivation
•Operant Conditioning Theory
– Learning process steps:
• Stimulus (S)—any situation or perceived event to which an
individual responds.
• Response (R)—any behavior or action taken in reaction to a
stimulus.
• Consequence (C)—any event (positive or negative) following
a response that makes the response more (or less) likely to
recur.
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Process Theories of Motivation
• General Operant Model: S → R → C
Ways to Strengthen the S → R Link
1. S → R → C+ (Positive Reinforcement)
2. S → R →
// C– (Negative Reinforcement)
3. S → R → (no C–) (Avoidance Learning)

Ways to Weaken the S → R Link

1. S → R → (no C) (Nonreinforcement)
2. S → R → C– (Punishment)
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d)
– Making a response more likely by:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Avoidance learning
– Making a response less likely by:
• Punishment
• Nonreinforcement
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d)
– Schedules of reinforcement
• Fixed ratio— a specific number of responses must be made
before reinforcement (consequence) occurs.
• Variable ratio—the number of responses before
reinforcement varies around an average number of
responses
• Fixed interval—a certain amount of time must past before
reinforcement occurs.
• Variable interval—the amount of time before reinforcement
varies around an average time interval.
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Equity Theory
– Theory states that motivation is affected by the an
individual’s perception of the equity (“fairness”) of the
outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their
inputs (efforts), compared to the outcomes and inputs of
other people (referent others).
– Referent other ratio comparisons:
• State of equity—ratio comparison is satisfactory.
• Overreward—ratio comparison favors the individual.
• Underreward—ratio comparison favors the referent other.
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The Equity Theory Comparison

OUTCOMES PERSON
OUTCOMES REFERENT OTHER

??
INPUTS PERSON
INPUTS REFERENT OTHER
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Equity Theory (cont’d)
– Responses to a perceived state of inequity:
• Alter inputs of the person
• Alter outcomes of the person
• Alter inputs of the referent other
• Alter outcomes of the referent other
• Distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes
• Choose a different referent other
• Leave the situation
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Goal Theory
– The theory states that people will perform better if they
have difficult, specific accepted performance goals or
objectives.
• People will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend
to achieve.
• Difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals.
• Specific goals are better than vague goals.
• People must accept goals as their own if they are to work
toward achieving them.
• People must commit to goals to achieve them.
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Process Theories of Motivation
• The Goal Setting Process
Personal → Present → Goal → Goal → Consequences
Values Situation Setting Characteristics

How the Am I 1. Self-set 1. Difficulty 1. Performance

world consistent
2. Participative 2. Specificity 2. Satisfaction
should be with my
values? 3. Assigned 3. Acceptance 3. Rewards
4. Do your best 4. Commitment
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Process Theories of Motivation
• Expectancy Theory
– The theory posits that rational people will exert high
levels of effort to perform at high levels so they can
obtain valued outcomes.
• Direction—which alternative to choose?
• Intensity—how much effort to implement the alternative?
• Valence—the degree to which a person perceives an
outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable.
– Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon
performance and they should also equitably distribute
outcomes based on performance.
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The Expectancy Theory
of Motivation
E2
a
Outcome A (Va)

E2
Effort Performance b
Outcome B (Vb)

E2
c
Outcome C (Vc)

E P P O
E1 E2

1. Effort Performance Expectancy (E P; E1)

2. Performance Outcome Expectancy (P O; E2)
3. Valences (V) of Outcomes (Vo)
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Thank You