Direct current

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is the unidirectional flow of electric charge.
Direct current is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and
commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a
conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors, insulators, or even
through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. In direct current, the electric charges flow
in the same direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly
used for direct current was Galvanic current.

Types of direct current

Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a current-
switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic elements (usually) or
electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction.
Direct current may be made into alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator
set.

The first commercial electric power transmission (developed by Thomas Edison in the
late nineteenth century) used direct current. Because of the advantage of alternating
current over direct current in transforming and transmission, electric power distribution
today is nearly all alternating current. For applications requiring direct current, such as
third rail power systems, alternating current is distributed to a substation, which utilizes a
rectifier to convert the power to direct current. See War of Currents.

Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic systems as the
power supply. Very large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of
aluminum and other electrochemical processes. Direct current is used for some railway
propulsion, especially in urban areas. High voltage direct current is used to transmit large
amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current
power grids.
Alternating current
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

City lights viewed in a motion blurred exposure. The AC blinking causes the lines to be
dotted rather than continuous.

An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction remains constant. The usual
waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this results in the most efficient
transmission of energy. However in certain applications different waveforms are used,
such as triangular or square waves.

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to businesses and
residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wire are also examples
of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the recovery of
information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

Transient response
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

In electrical engineering and Mechanical Engineering, a transient response or natural

response is the response of a system to a change from equilibrium. Specifically, transient
response in Mechanical Engineering is the portion of the response that approaches zero
after a sufficiently long time (i.e., as t approaches infinity). (Contrast with steady-state
response)

In electrical engineering a simple example would be the output of a 5 volt DC power

supply when it is turned on: the transient response is from the time the switch is turned on
and the output is a steady 5 volts. At this point the power supply reaches its steady-state
response of a constant 5 volts.

The transient response is not necessarily tied to "on/off" events but to any event that
affects the equilibrium of the system. If in an RC circuit the resistor or capacitor is
replaced with a variable resistor or variable capacitor (or both) then the transient response
is the response to a change in the resistor or capacitor.

In a mechanical system a simple example is a mass/spring/damper system. The transient

response is the position of the mass x(t) as the system returns to equilibrium after an
initial force or a non zero initial condition.

The impulse response and step response are transient responses to a specific input (an
impulse and a step, respectively).

Both mechanical and electrical systems are analogous

Damping
Main article: damping

The response can be classified as one of three types of damping that describes the output
in relation to the steady-state value.

[edit] Underdamped

An underdamped response is one that oscillates within a decaying envelope. The more
underdamped the system, the more oscillations and longer it takes to reach steady-state.
Here Damping Ratio is always < 1

[edit] Critically damped

A critically damped response is the response that reaches the steady-state value the fastest
without being underdamped. It is related to critical points in the sense that it straddles the
boundary of underdamped and overdamped responses. Here Damping Ratio is always 1
(Unity)

[edit] Overdamped

An overdamped response is the response that does not oscillate about the steady-state
value but takes longer to reach than the critically damped case. Here Damping Ratio is >1

[edit] Properties

[edit] Rise time

 Main article: Rise time

Time required for system response to rise from:

0% to 90% (Overdamped); 5% to 95%; 0% to 100% (Underdamped)

of the final steady state value of the desired response.

[edit] Overshoot

Main article: Overshoot

Maximum Overshoot is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from
the desired response of the system.

[edit] Settling time

Main article: Settling time

Time required for response to reach and stay within 2% of final value.

[edit] Steady-state error

The steady state error of a system is the difference between the input and output of the
system in the limit as time goes to infinity, i.e. when the transient response reaches a
steady state. With no overshoot the steady state error is eliminated when the steady state
velocity of the vehicle reaches the desired velocity.

The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the damping constant to the critical damping
constant

The damping ratio is unitless, because it is the result of dividing the units of the damping
constant (N − s/m) by the critical damping constant (N − s/m), which cancels each other
out.

The damping ratio is a parameter, usually denoted by ζ (zeta), that characterizes the
frequency response of a second order ordinary differential equation. It is particularly
important in the study of control theory. It is also important in the harmonic oscillator.

For a damped harmonic oscillator with mass m, damping coefficient c, and spring
constant k, the damping ratio is
The damping ratio is also related to the logarithmic decrement for underdamped
vibrations only, via the following relation

This relation only works for underdamped vibrations because the logarithmic decrement
is the natural log of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes. For the three cases,
overdamped, critically damped & Underdamped, only underdamped has more than 1
amplitude, meaning its the only one to oscillate.

In electrical engineering, an armature is one of the two principal electrical components

of an electromechanical machine--a motor or generator. The other is the field winding,
field magnet. The role of the "field" component is simply to create a magnetic field
(magnetic flux) for the armature to interact with, so this component can comprise either
permanent magnets, or electromagnets formed by a conducting coil. The armature, in
contrast, must carry current so it is always a conductor or a conductive coil, oriented
normal to both the field and to the direction of motion, torque (rotating machine), or force
(linear machine). The armature's role is two-fold: (a) to carry current crossing the field,
thus creating shaft torque (in a rotating machine) or force (in a linear machine), and (b) to
generate an electromotive force ("EMF").

In the armature, an electromotive force ("EMF") is created by the relative motion of the
armature and the field. When the machine is acting as a motor, this EMF opposes the
armature current, and the armature converts electrical power to mechanical torque (and
power, unless the machine is stalled) and transfers it to the load via the shaft. When the
machine is acting as a generator, the armature EMF drives the armature current, and shaft
mechanical power is converted to electrical power and transferred to the load. (In an
induction generator, these distinctions are blurred, since the generated power is drawn
from the stator, which would normally be considered the field.)

A growler is used to check the armature for shorts, opens and grounds.

[edit] Terminology

The parts of an alternator or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical

terms or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology are
frequently used interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical term and
one electrical term. This may cause confusion when working with compound machines
such as brushless alternators, or in conversation among people who are accustomed to
work with differently configured machinery.
Mechanical
Rotor:The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor

Electrical
Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or
motor. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.
Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The
field can be on either the rotor or the stator and can be either an electromagnet or a
permanent magnet.

In alternating current machines, the armature is usually stationary (the stator). In DC

rotating machines other than brushless DC machines, it is usually rotating (the rotor).

The pole piece of a permanent magnet or electromagnet and the moving, iron part of a
solenoid, especially if the latter acts as a switch or relay, may also be referred to as
armatures

Armature Reaction in a DC machine: In a dc machine the main field is produced by

field coils.In both the generating and motoring modes the armature carries current and a
magnetic field is established which is called the armature flux. The effect of armature
flux on the main field is called the armature reaction.

The armature reaction 1) Demagnetizes the main field 2) Cross magnetizes the main
field.

The demagnetizing effect can be overcome by adding extra ampere turns on the main
field. The cross magnetizing effect can be reduced by having common poles.

Stator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about a component of electromotive devices. For the component of a
compressor, see Axial compressor.

Stator of a 3-phase AC-motor

The stator is the stationary part of an electric generator or electric motor. The non-
stationary part on an electric motor is the rotor.

Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device the stator may act as
the field magnet, interacting with the armature to create motion, or it may act as the
armature, receiving its influence from moving field coils on the rotor.

The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field coils on the
stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils are on the rotor. This was
necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is
needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor. The commutator must
become larger and more robust as the power amperage increases.

The stator of these devices may be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

Where the stator is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it is known as the field coil
or field winding.

AC alternators are able to produce power across multiple high-amperage power

generation coils connected in parallel, eliminating the need for the commutator. Placing
the field coils on the rotor allows for an inexpensive slip ring mechanism to transfer high-
voltage, low amperage power to the rotating field coil.

It consists of a steel frame enclosing a hollow cylindrical core ( made up of laminations

of silicon steel ). The laminations are to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor or alternator, which rotates
because the wires and magnetic field of the motor are arranged so that a torque is
developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotor can act serve as the motor's
armature, across which the input voltage is supplied. The stationary part of an electric
motor is the stator. A common problem is called cogging torque.

Electrical generator
In electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The reverse
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by a motor, and motors
and generators have many similarities. The source of mechanical energy may be a
reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an
internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, the sun or solar energy,
compressed air or any other source of mechanical energy.
Electric motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other kinds of motors, see motor.

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process, that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, accomplished by a
generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives often perform both tasks if
the locomotive is equipped with dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in household
appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and
fan-forced ovens.

Commutator (electric)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A direct electrical current flows through the circuit, driven by the battery. The
commutator itself is the orange and blue curved segments. The brushes are dark gray and
in contact with the commutator segments, and the rotor winding is violet. The rotor
winding and the commutator segments are rigidly fixed to the rotor. As the rotor turns, the
current in the winding reverses every time the commutator turns through 180 degrees.
This reversal of the winding current compensates for the fact that the winding has rotated
180 degrees relative to the fixed magnetic field (not shown). The current in the winding
causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a rotational force (a torque) on the winding,
making it turn.

A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current in an electric

motor or electrical generator. A commutator is a common feature of direct current
rotating machines. By reversing the current in the moving coil of a motor's armature, a
steady rotating force (torque) is produced. Similarly, in a generator, reversing of the coil's
connection to the external circuit produces unidirectional current in the circuit.

Electric arc
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Arcing)

Jump to: navigation, search

A 3000 volt electricity arc between two nails

Electricity arcs between the power rail and electrical pickup "shoe" on a London
Underground train

An electric arc can melt calcium oxide

An electric arc is an electrical breakdown of a gas which produces an ongoing plasma

discharge, resulting from a current flowing through normally nonconductive media such
as air. A synonym is arc discharge. The phenomenon was first described by Vasily V.
Petrov, a Russian scientist who discovered it in 1802. An archaic term is voltaic arc as
used in the phrase "voltaic arc lamp".

[edit] Uses

On a commercial basis, electric arcs are used for welding, plasma cutting, for electrical
discharge machining, as an arc lamp in movie theater projectors, and Followspots in stage
lighting. Electric arc furnaces are used to produce steel and other substances. Calcium
carbide is made in this way as it requires a large amount of energy to promote an
endothermic reaction (at temperatures of 2500 °C).

Low-pressure electric arcs are used for lighting, e.g., fluorescent tubes, mercury and
sodium street lamps, and camera flash lamps.

Electric arcs have been studied for electric propulsion of spacecraft.

Diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Figure 1: Closeup of the image below, showing the square shaped semiconductor crystal

Figure 2: Various semiconductor diodes, below a bridge rectifier

Figure 3: Structure of a vacuum tube diode

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (except that thermionic diodes may also
have one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes
between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional
current property. The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor.

The directionality of current flow most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the
rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current
to pass in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block it in the
opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off
directionality but have a more complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which
depends on the particular type of diode technology. Diodes also have many other
functions in which they are not designed to operate in this on-off manner.

Early diodes included “cat’s whisker” crystals and vacuum tube devices (called
thermionic valves in British English). Today the most common diodes are made from
semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium.

Diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Figure 1: Closeup of the image below, showing the square shaped semiconductor crystal

Figure 2: Various semiconductor diodes, below a bridge rectifier

Figure 3: Structure of a vacuum tube diode

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (except that thermionic diodes may also
have one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes
between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional
current property. The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor.

The directionality of current flow most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the
rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current
to pass in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block it in the
opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off
directionality but have a more complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which
depends on the particular type of diode technology. Diodes also have many other
functions in which they are not designed to operate in this on-off manner.

Early diodes included “cat’s whisker” crystals and vacuum tube devices (called
thermionic valves in British English). Today the most common diodes are made from
semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium.

Thyristor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Circuit symbol for a thyristor

An SCR rated about 100 amperes, 1200 volts mounted on a heat sink - the two small
wires are the gate trigger leads

The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and
P-type material. They act as a switch, conducting when their gate receives a current
pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they are forward biased (that is, as long as
the voltage across the device has not reversed).

Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous;[1] others
define SCRs as a subset of thyristors, along with gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), triode ac
switch (triac), static induction transistor (SIT), static induction thyristor (SITH) and
MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT). Among the latter, the International Electrotechnical
Commission 60747-6 standard stands out.

Non-SCR thyristors include devices with more than four layers, such as triacs and DB-
GTOs.[2]