Water characteristic curve and physical quality of soil as influenced by water

salinity and sodicity

MR Mosaddeghi1, M Khatar1, AR Dexter2,3, AA Mahboubi1

1
Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamadan, Iran
2
Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation (IUNG-PIB), Pulawy, Poland
3
Unité de Science du Sol, INRA Orléans, Ardon, France

Abstract
This study was done to explore the effect of water salinity and sodicity on soil water
characteristic curve (SWCC) of two non-saline and non-sodic agricultural soils: a clay (with
clay 41.4%, silt 20.0% and sand 38.6%) and a sandy clay loam (with clay 27.1%, silt 19.3%
and sand 53.4%) from Hamadan province, western Iran. All combinations of water EC values
of 0.5, 2, 4 and 8 dS m-1 and SAR values of 1, 5, 13 and 18 were applied (in total 16
solutions). Pure NaCl and CaCl2 salts were used to prepare the solutions. Distilled water was
also used as control. The soils were poured into cylinders to have an initial similar void ratio
of 1.2. In total, 17 solutions × 2 soils in 2 replicates (total 68 soil cores) were prepared. The
soil cores were saturated from the bottom with the corresponding solutions for 24 hrs to
complete the ion exchanges and were drained for 5 hrs on a ceramic plate under vacuum
suction of 100 cm. The wetting and drying processes were repeated 5 times. After that, soil
cores were again saturated with the corresponding solutions. The SWCC of the soil cores was
measured at matric suctions of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 70 and 100 cm on a sandbox and at matric
suctions of 300, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000 and 15000 cm in a pressure plate apparatus.
The van Genuchten-Mualem (VG-M) model was fitted to the SWCC data with the RETC
program. Dexter's index of soil physical quality (S) was calculated using the fitted parameters
of VG-M model. Water quality could affect the shape and slope of SWCC. Saturated water
content and water retention at similar matric suctions were increased with increments of EC
and SAR. The effect of water quality on water retention was noticeable at both low and high
matric suctions. As water EC increased, the soil particles became flocculated and some new
pores were created in soil which finally resulted in higher soil water holding capacity. In
contrast, increases of SAR dispersed soil microaggregates and altered some macropores and
mesopores to micropores which consequently increased water retention especially at higher
matric suctions. The soil physical quality as quantified by S decreased when using low-
quality waters (high SAR values). This might be related to soil dispersion and swelling which
damaged soil structure. The effect of sodicity on S was not significant for high saline waters
(i.e. EC of 4 S m-1) because of the improving effect of salinity. The same trend was observed
for waters with low salinity (i.e. 0.5 dS m-1) due to two opposite processes (soil pores and
structural collapse, and creation of new macro- and mesopores or microcracks due to soil
shrinkage/separation of soil particles) which simultaneously occur when using non-saline
waters. This trend does not imply that soil microstructure was not affected by SAR but means
that the S index alone may not be sufficient to assess the effects of quality of low-saline
waters on soil physical quality.
1 Introduction
Irrigation waters have a wide range of soluble salts in terms of concentration and
composition. Many limitations in irrigated farming systems are due to chemical composition
of irrigation water. Quality of irrigation water is important in arid and semi-arid regions.
Research on the safe limits of salts inirrigation water becomes an indispensable part of
utilizing the regions resources. Several classifications have been proposed to assess irrigation
water quality with respect to its chemical composition (e.g. Richards, 1954; Ayers and
Westcot, 1985). The most-widely accepted new approach is the one introduced by FAO
(Ayers and Westcot, 1985). Salinity (as quantified by electrical conductivity, EC) and
sodicity (as quantified by sodium adsorption ratio, SAR) are two criteria used for water
quality assessment.
Salinity, which characterizes total soluble salts concentration, becomes problematic when
osmotic forces resulting from high ion concentrations restrict ability of plants to withdraw

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water from soil (Hanson et al., 1999; Bauder and Brock, 2001). Reductions in crop growth
occur when average root zone salinity exceeds the crop’s threshold level. However, there are
also toxic effects that affect plant metabolism (and therefore development and yield) that start
at much lower concentrations than are important for the osmotic effects. While salinity can be
detrimental to crop growth, it encourages aggregation of soil particles, resulting in structurally
stable soil with enhanced permeability and hydraulic conductivity and low susceptibility to
shrinking, swelling, and cracking (Buckland et al., 2002).
Soils in arid and semi-arid regions often contain high amounts of exchangeable Na+ (Quirk
and Schofield, 1955), which, if found in amounts excessive to Ca2+ and Mg2+ (i.e. SAR value
higher than 13), can have deleterious effects on soil physical properties.
Both salinity and sodicity influence how soils respond to wetting, therefore, interaction
between the two must be examined in order to assess suitability of irrigation water. In
general, flocculating effects of increased EC counteract the physically deleterious effects of
elevated SAR. Thus salinity couldreduce the negative effects of sodicity on soil physical
properties and soil structure. Non-saline sodic waters will usually disperse
particles/aggregates and result in break-down of soil structure (Ayers and Westcot, 1985;
Curtin et al., 1994). Sumner (1993) reported that soil salinity is important for classification of
sodic soils; critical sodium concentration depends directly on soil solution salinity. As soil
salinity increases, the high salt concentration causes flocculation of soil domains and
persistence of soil structural stability.
In the development of present-day methods of irrigation, the suitability of a particular water
for irrigation depends also upon the physical properties of soil. Thus, saline water should not
be pronounced unfit for irrigation without careful consideration of physical properties of soil
especially hydraulic properties. Water salinity and sodicity could affect soil structure, pore
size distribution and continuity, and consequently alter soil hydraulic properties
(Crescimanno et al., 1995; Dexter, 2004a). Negative impacts of low-quality waters (low
salinity and high sodium concentration) on soil structure and pore characteristics were related
to two important processes: enhanced clay swelling andaggregates destabilization due to
expansion of the diffuse double layer (DDL) and the dispersive effect of sodium. These
processes can decrease the size and continuity of soil pores (Barlow and Nash, 2002) and can
result in surface sealing and crust formation (Shainberg and Letey, 1984).
The effect of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and SAR on particle dispersion and soil
physical degradation also depends on EC (Shanmuganathan and Oades, 1983). The threshold
value of SAR for water infiltration into soil becomes greater when EC increased (Ayers and
Westcot, 1985). Pore sizedistribution and continuity is preferred over pore space when
studying the effects of water quality on soil structure. Speirs and Cattel (2004) studied the
effect of irrigation water with varying SAR on soil structure. The results showed that soil
swelling was enhanced but the continuity of macropores was diminished when using water
high in Na+. These findings show that considering the effects of SAR on soil pore volume
might be misleading.
Soil hydraulic properties (e.g. soil infiltrability, soil water characteristic curve and hydraulic
conductivity) must be known if it is required to quantify water and solute transport in the
vadose zone. These properties contain information about pore size distribution, effects of soil
water availability toplant roots etc. (van Genuchten et al., 1991; Sillers et al., 2001). They
might be influenced by irrigation water quality but the evidence is limited (Dexter, 2004a).
Soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) represents water retention in soil and completely
depends on pore size distribution (Sillers et al., 2001). Chemical properties of soil and/or
water including: EC, SAR, CEC, CaCO3 content, and Fe and Al oxides, could change pore
size distribution and surface features of soil particles and consequently affect SWCC (Bresler
et al., 1982; Rawls et al., 1991).
Shainberg et al. (1971) expressed clay swelling and water retention as a function of ESP such
as soil water retention increased with increases in ESP. Russo and Bresler (1980) found that
when soil solution concentration (C) exceeds 0.05 N, the effect of SAR on SWCC was
negligible and a single curve was obtained for all values of SAR. The same was true for
SAR=0 and 0.002 N < C < 0.05 N. Within the range 0.02 N < C < 0.01 N and 0 < SAR < 50,
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the volumetric water content depended not only on matric suction but also on both ionic
composition and concentration of the soil solution. For a given matric suction, the soil water
content increased as the soil solution concentration decreased or as the SAR of the soil
solution increased.
Crescimanno et al. (1995) examined the influence of salinity and sodicity on soil structural
and hydraulic characteristics. The soil structural stability was quantified by structural index
(SI) which was proposed by Childs (1940) and modified by Collis-George and Figueroa
(1984). The SI was calculated using data for the high-energy moisture characteristic (HEMC).
The HEMC is the “wet” end of the SWCC. The results showed that SI decreased when ESP
increased.
Lagerwerff et al. (1969), Dane and Klute (1977) and So and Aylmore (1993) reported that
soil pores (especially large ones) were collapsed due to high ESP. Soluble sodium in soil
probably decreased soil macroporosity. Air-entry suction (AES) of the soil water will be
increased, the slope of desaturation zone on SWCC decreased, and the water content changes
become gradual at both AES region and zone of residual saturation. Sodium will also affect
the zone of residual saturation and increase residual water content. Divalent cations such as
Ca2+ and high salt concentration improve the soil structure and aggregation. These changes
will increase the slope of desaturation zone on SWCC and improve soil structure (Barlow and
Nash, 2002). Low SAR and high EC decreased soil water content and increased slope of the
desaturation zone on SWCC (Bresler et al., 1982).
Soil physical quality (SPQ) might be defined in terms of the functioning of the soil in terms
of its physical aspects: hydraulic properties, mechanical properties, aeration, structure, solute
transport, root penetration, workability and trafficability. Different management practices can
result in a number of agricultural and environmental problems resulting from degradation of
soil structure. Soil structure is the key factor controlling aspects of SPQ. Unfortunately, there
was not a single measure or index to evaluate SPQ, and it was necessary to gather the data
and observations of a range of properties to obtain an overall assessment of SPQ (Dexter,
2004a).
Progress has been made recently in quantification of SPQ with a series of papers on "S-
theory" by Dexter (2004a,b,c) which has been used in several studies. It was intended to be
easily and unambiguously measurable using standard laboratory equipment. An index of
physical quality, S, was proposed which is the slope of SWCC at its inflection point when
SWCC was plotted as gravimetric water content vs. logarithm of the matric suction (cm). The
value of the slope, S, indicates the extent to which the soil porosity is concentrated into a
narrow range of pore sizes. Larger values of S indicate the presence of a better-defined micro-
structure and consequently better SPQ. Thus, S might be considered a general index of SPQ.
It is suggested that S can be used to study the effects ofdifferent soil properties and
management practices on SPQ. However, there is limited information on the effects of water
quality on SPQ (Dexter, 2004a).
There are limited references in which the influences of water quality on soil physical quality
and soil structure are quantified. Little information in this regard is available in Iran. Quality
of irrigation waters is low in most arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The sources of good
irrigation water are limited and potential evapotranspiration is high. Surface irrigation with
water from shallow wells is utilized on approximately 40% of irrigated land in Iran. The
quality of the well water is variable, with some areas using water with high sodium and salt
concentrations (Emdad et al., 2004). However, the impact of the water quality on the soil
structure and hydraulic properties is not always recognized. This study was conducted to
investigate the effects of water quality on SWCC and to further examine the "S-theory" for
the effects on SPQ.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Soils, sample preparation and water quality treatments
Two non-saline and non-sodic agricultural soils were selected in Hamadan province, western
Iran. The soil samples were gently collected at a suitable water content from the 0-30 cm
layer to avoid deformation of soil aggregates. Some of the samples were air-dried, ground and

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passed through a 2 mm mesh. Particle size distribution was determined using the pipette
method. Particle density was measured by the pycnometer method (Klute, 1986). Soil
electrical conductivity (EC) and soil reaction (pH) were determined with an EC-meter and a
pH-meter, respectively. Carbonate content was measured using the back-titration method.
Organic matter content was determined using the wetdigestionmethod (Page et al., 1992).
Some physical and chemical properties of the soils are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical properties of the studied soilsa

Water quality treatments comprised all combinations of water EC values of 0.5, 2, 4 and 8 dS
m-1 and SAR values of 1, 5, 13 and 18 (in total 16 solutions). Reported ranges of EC and SAR
for the surface and subsurface resources of irrigation water in Hamadan province were 0.2 to
8.9 dS m-1 and 0.1 to 17 (Jalali, 2002). Pure NaCl and CaCl2 salts were used to prepare the
solutions. Distilled water was used as control. The following two equations were used to
prepare the solutions with desired EC and SAR:
TA = TC = 10EC (1)

SAR =
[Na ]
+

(2)
[Ca ]
2+

2
where TA and TC refer to total anions and total cations concentrations both in meq l-1 and
[Na+] and [Ca2+] stand for concentrations of sodium and calcium ions in the solutions.
The soils were air-dried
€ and sieved through 2 mm mesh without grinding and/or breaking the
soil aggregates in order to preserve the microaggregates in the soil mass. The soils were
packed into cylinders (with 5 cm height and diameter) to 3 cm thickness and to have an initial
similar void ratio of 1.2 (i.e. porosity of 0.55). In total, 17 solutions × 2 soils in 2 replicates
(total 68 soil cores) were prepared.
The soil cores were saturated from the bottom with the corresponding solutions for 24 hrs to
complete the ion exchanges. Then the cores were drained by displacement technique for 5 hrs
on a ceramic plate under vacuum suction of 100 cm. The drying process was not done by
evaporation, because the salt content of soil solution would have increased with each wetting
and drying and complicated the equilibrium condition of the soil. Wetting and drying
processes were repeated 5 times to equilibrate the composition of exchangeable sites with the
solutions. After that, soil cores were again saturated with the corresponding solutions and
weighed to obtain the saturated water content. These saturated cores were used to measure the
drying curve of the SWCC.
2.2 Soil water characteristic curve measurement
Gravimetric water contents on the drying curve of SWCC of the saturated soil cores were
measured at matric suctions of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 70 and 100 cm on a sandbox and at matric
suctions of 300, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000 and 15000 cm in a pressure plate apparatus
(Klute, 1986).
2.3 SWCC modelling and S calculation
The van Genuchten-Mualem (VG-M) model was fitted on SWCC data of 10-15000 cm matric
suction range using the RETC program (van Genuchten et al., 1991). The SWCC data for
matric suction range of 0-10 cm were not included in the curve fitting, because these data can
not be measured realistically.
The program uses a nonlinear least-squares optimization approach based on Marquardt’s
algorithm to estimate the unknown model parameters from observed SWCC data. The aim of
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the curve fitting process is to find an equation that maximizes the sum of squares associated
with the model, while minimizing the residual sum of squares, SSQ.
The van Genuchten (1980) model of SWCC reads as:
θ s − θr
θ = θr + (3)
n m
[1+ (αh ) ]
where θs and θr are the saturated and residual water contents, respectively; θ and h the
gravimetric water content and matric suction; α is nearly the inverse of matric suction at the
inflection point of SWCC; and m and n are parameters that govern the shape of the fitted
€
curve. If the Mualem (1986) restriction, m = 1 – 1/n, is applied, the VG model becomes:
θs − θr
θ = θr + 1 (4)
n 1− n
[1+ (αh) ]
Dexter's index of soil physical quality (S) was calculated using the fitted parameters of the
VG-M model (Dexter, 2004a). The position and slope of the inflection point of the SWCC
was derived as follows. If the SWCC is plotted as curve of log(h) against θ, then, the matric
€
suction at the inflection point (hi) is:
1
1  n n
hi = +  (5)
α  n −1
Substitution back into VG-M equation (Eq. 4) gives the water content at the inflection point
(θi) as:
1
€
 2n −1 n −1
θ i = θ r + (θ s − θ r ) (6)
 n −1 
The slope, S, at the inflection point is finally obtained by:
1

€ 2n −1 n −2
S = −n (θ s − θ r ) (7)
 n −1 
2.4 Statistical analysis
The texture, EC and SAR treatments were arranged in a factorial arrangement and in the main
completely randomized design. All the statistical analyses were undertaken using the SAS
€
statistics software (Helwig and Council, 1982). Means were compared using the Duncan new
multiple range test for P<0.05.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Soil water characteristic curve
Water quality affected the shape and slope of the SWCC of the soils. The examples of SWCC
for different salinity treatments with SAR of 13 are illustrated in Fig. 1. With decreases in
water salinity and/or increases in sodicity, water retention especially at high matric suctions
increased due to decrease of pore sizes during structural destruction, swelling and expansion
of DDL. Shainberg et al. (1971) expressed clay swelling and water retention as a function of
ESP and found that soil water retention increased as soil ESP increased. Swelling and/or
dispersion of soil colloids altered the geometry of soil pores and thus affected the SWCC. The
aggregate break-down would expose some soil surfaces to adsorb water, too. In general, the
higher SAR of irrigation water, the greater the potential for aggregate slaking, soil swelling
and clay dispersion (Abu-Sharar et al., 1987; Curtin et al., 1994; Yousaf et al., 1987). McNeal
et al. (1966) suggested that the swelling of soil clay particles in a confined system causes the
size of large pores to decrease, and that dispersion and transfer of clay platelets further
obstructs soil pores.
The effect of water sodicity on SWCC was greater when water salinity was not high. Russo
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and Bresler (1980) also found that when salinity exceeds a limit, the effect of SAR on SWCC
was negligible. At a fixed SAR, when salinity is low (e.g. 0.5 dS m-1) the macropores and
mesopores collapsed and became micropores. Saturated water content and water retention at
similar matric suctions were increased with increasing EC (Fig. 1) and SAR. The effect of
water quality was more evident for clay soil especially at low matric suctions (Fig. 1) because
the clayey soils have highlycharged surfaces and clay particles to react with the solutions and
to swell. The destruction of macropores resulting from the use of low-salinity water was
pronounced in this soil.

Figure 1 Soil water characteristic curve as affected by water salinity for similar SAR level of 13
The SWCCs for distilled water (control) demonstrated that gravimetric water content at all
matric suctions reduced (Fig. 1). The absence of solutes in this treatment caused DDL
expansion and soil dispersion. Moreover, distilled water does not have sodium ions to
promote swelling and increase of water retention. The difference between SWCC of distilled
water and other salty waters was distinct for clay soil (Fig. 1). Increasing smectite clay
content usually results in increasing potential for sodium-induced dispersion. Once clay
domains swell or disperse, soil pore geometry changes (Bresler et al., 1982), resulting in
reduced pore size, bond weakening and separation of particles (Curtin et al.,1994). The
physical disintegration causes macroaggregates to slake into microaggregates (So and
Aylmore, 1993; Mace and Amrhein, 2001).
The effect of water quality on SWCC was more pronounced for clay soil (Fig. 1). Presence of
clay minerals (especially smectite minerals) imparts considerable surface charges and areas.
Such minerals also tend to swell extensively in the present of low-salt sodic solutions. Hence,
they can impart rather substantial salinity-dependent changes of soil hydraulic properties
(Bresler et al., 1982).
3.2 van Genuchten-Mualem model parameters
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of soil texture, EC and SAR effects on the VG-M model
parameters is shown in Table 1. Residual water content was estimated to be zero for all the
SWCC data. The effect of soil texture on θs and θi were very significant (P<0.01) and
significant (P<0.05), respectively. The effect was significant (P<0.1) on pore size distribution
index (n). Water salinity affected α (P<0.1), n and S (P<0.01). Water sodicity had a
significant effect on S (P<0.05). Interactive effect of EC and SAR on S was significant
(P<0.05). The other interactive effects were not significant.
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Table 1 Analysis of variance of soil texture and water quality effects on van Genuchten-Mualem
model parameters, coordinates of inflection point and Dexter’s index (S)§

The θs and θi values of the clay soil were significantly higher than the sandy clay loam soil
(Table 2) because of soil swelling during wetting which decreased bulk density and increased
porosity and saturated water content. Greater water retention (e.g. θi) in clay soil might be
related to its greater content of clay particles, charged surfaces and smaller pore sizes which
accommodate more water. The value of α was non-significantly greater in clay soil. The
initial pore spaces of the soils were similar but wetting and drying cycles and swelling might
bring about the increment of saturated water content and inverse of the matric suction at the
inflection point of the SWCC. The value of n (which is the slope of desaturation zone and
consider pore size distribution) was non-significantly higher in the sandy clay loam soil. The
S and hi were also non-significantly higher in the sandy clay loam soil.
Salinity did not have a significant impact on θs and θi values. However, the θs decreased in
high salinity treatments. As water salinity increased, the DDL around the soil particles
contracted, and swelling and particle dispersion diminished. These processes ultimately
decreased total pore space and water retention. Results of Russo and Bresler (1980) also
imply increase of desaturation zone slope with solution concentration. For the low-saline
waters, the destructive effects of wetting and drying cycles were greater, so that soil particles
dispersed and resulted in low values of n and S. As water salinity increased, the higher
concentration of soluble salts overcame the effect of wetting and drying and increased n and
S. As SAR increased and EC decreased, soil structure was damaged and macroporosity
decreased so that soil water retention increased. The increase of n means higher slope of
desaturation zone on SWCC and a narrower pore size distribution. The matric suction at the
inflection point (i.e. hi) was reduced with salinity increment. Therefore, as salinity increased,
most frequent pores in the soil got bigger (Table 2).
Table 2 Mean comparisons of van Genuchten-Mualem model parameters, coordinates of
inflection point and Dexter’s index (S) as affected by soil texture and water quality*

Sodicity did not have a significant impact on θs, α, n, hi and θi values (Table 2). The θs and θi
were increased with SAR due to soil swelling and dispersion upon wetting and drying cycles.
Results of Russo and Bresler (1980) showed increases of θs and θr with sodicity increase and
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concentration decrease. The n value decreased with increment of SAR. The effect of SAR on
S was decreasing. As SAR initially increased (e.g. up to 5), the soil structure resisted the
destroying impact of SAR and the soil physical quality (i.e. S) did not significantly decrease.
SWCCs in Russo and Bresler (1980) also showed decrease of desaturation zone slope with
sodicity increase. However, high values of sodicity caused destruction of soil structure that
significantly decreased S. The interactive effects of texture and salinity on almost all of the
studied parameters were not significant (Table 1).
3.2 Soil physical quality
The effects of water salinity and sodicity on soil physical quality (as quantified by S) of clay
and sandy clay loam soils were also shown in Fig. 2. The value of S was decreased when
using lowquality waters (low EC and high SAR values). For both soils, the soil physical
quality (SPQ) enhanced when saline water was used.
The value of S was significantly decreased with increasing SAR value (Fig. 2). With increase
of SAR, sodium ions will be adsorbed by colloid surfaces and swelling-shrinkage resulted in
damage of soil microstructure particularly in clay soil. Large hydrated Na+ ions physically
and chemically separated the soil particles. This separation occurs when hydrated Na+ ions
dominate the DDL around the clayplatelets, resulting in high swelling pressures and single
clay platelets becoming suspended in solution (Keren and Shainberg, 1981). The decrease of
S means degradation of soil structure and lower soil physical quality (Dexter, 2004a). The
effect of sodicity on reducing S was decreased when salinity of water increased because of
the counteracting effect of salinity. The EC of 8 dS m-1 was an exception. The same trend (i.e.
non-significant changes of S with increase of SAR) was observed for waters with low salinity
(i.e. 0.5 dS m-1). This interesting result might be due to two opposite processes which
simultaneously occur when using non-saline waters. The first is that sodicity caused soil pores
and structural collapse and the second is creation of new macropores and mesopores
(microcracks) due to soil shrinkage (i.e. separation of soil particles) during drying. Therefore,
the result is non-significant decrease of S when using sodic and non-saline waters. This trend
does not mean that soil microstructure was not affected by SAR but means that the use of a
single parameter, S, may not be sufficient to assess the effect of quality of low-saline waters
on SPQ.

Figure 2 Effect of water salinity and sodicity on soil physical quality (S) of the studied soils
4 Conclusions
Water quality affected the soil water characteristic curve of the soils. With water salinity
decrease and/or sodicity increase, water retention especially at high matric suctions increased.
The effect of water sodicity on SWCC was greater when water salinity was not high.
Saturated water content and water retention at similar matric suctions were increased with
increasing EC and SAR. The effect of water quality was more evident for the clay soil than
for the sandy clay loam especially at low matric suctions.
Effects of water salinity and sodicity on soil physical quality (as quantified by the index, S) of
the soils were significant. The value of S was decreased when using low-quality waters (low
EC and high SAR values). For both soils, the soil physical quality (SPQ) improved when
saline water was used. The value of S was significantly decreased with increasing SAR value.
The effect of sodicity on reducing S was decreased when salinity of water increased because
of the counteracting effect of salinity. The same trend (i.e. non-significant changes of S with
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increase of SAR) was observed for waters with low salinity (i.e. 0.5 dS m-1). This trend does
not mean that soil microstructure was not affected by SAR but means that S alone may not be
sufficient to assess the effect of quality of low salinity waters on SPQ.
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