:.

CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTIUM 325

::lr '
.:.

Political grievances also strained relations between Byzantium and western Euro-
lands. During the fifth and sixth centuries) imperial authorities could do little
hr. t'h*q-.tch as Germanic peoples established successor states t v{he western
frnan empQisigoths, Vandals, Franks, and others imposed ft tule ot'r lands
gtByzantine emleqgrs regarded as their rightful inheritancSffrorse yet) some of
800, for example, the
[d.,upr,rrt powers claidb(imperial authority for themselveyXn
iinkish ruler Charlemagn\eceived an imperial croytd from the pope in Rome,
treby direcrly challenging Byz\tine claims to rmpy)d authoriry over western lands.
lemagne's empire soon disso but in 9 9T Otto of Saxony lodged his own
to rule as emperor over the west-fu landg6f the former Roman empire. Adding
ry to insult, Otto then attacked lartd$ i uthern Italy that had been in Byzantine
ession since the days of Justinian.
Ltudprand
of Cremona

iiliudprand despised Byy'ntine food, drink, dress, and shelter, and\denounced his

BnznruTrNE EcoNoMY AND SoctETY

f;-fuzantium dominated the political and military affairs of the eastern Mediterranean
Lloe"ty
F..-o-_/ because of its strong
-'-o economy.
-------'J Ever since classical times, the territories embraced
-
F.,Uy rtr. Byzantine empire had produced abundant agricultural surpluses, supported large
of crafts workers, _--
and _--r
partrcipated
r-. _-- in _ _-- with lands throughout the Mediter-
.^- trade
i.i.,-.-.^^"-. "
fi:rnumbers _ _
il,ranean. The economic and social assets of the eastern Mediterranean did not disappear
" ^*^the ciassical Roman empire.
["*lrtt
*... -^^'r^^ -' Instead, they continued to provide a solid material
v; foundation for Byzantium, and rhey helped to make the Byzantine empire an economic

il'po*.rhouse of the postclassical era.

Rural Economy and. Society

Until its conquest by Arab forces, Egypt was the major source of grain for Byzantium.
Afterward, Anatolia and the lower Danube region served as the imperial breadbasket.
All these lands produced abundant harvests of wheat, which supported large popula-
tions in Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Antioch, Trebizond, and other major cities.
Throughout most of Byzantium's existence, Constantinople was the largest ciry in
Europe: between the fifth and the eally thirteenth century, its population approached
or exceeded one million people. Only on the basis of a reliable and productive agri'
cultural economy was it possible for a city of this size to survive and flourish.
Byzantine economy and society were stlongest when the empire supported a large The Peasantry
class of free peasants who owned small plots of land. Besides serving as the backbone of
the Byzantine military system, free peasants cultivated their land intensively in hopes of
improving their families' fortunes. As in other societies, however, wealthy individuals
326 PARTIIIITHEPoSTCLASSICALERA,5O0ToI000C.E.

andfamiiiessoughttoaccumulateland,thegrinclq|
as elsewhere . Especially
source of weakh in Byzantrum
Byza*ine empire' wealthy
in the early cenntries of the
and supervtttd the peas-
cultivators ran large estates
antryaSadepend.entclass,Peasanmdidnotbecome
slaves, bur ,r.ia"r did they
remain entirely free' some-
land, forbidden to de-
times they **r. bound to the
part without permission of
their lords' other times
arrangements' wh ere by
th.y worked, r-rnder sharecropping
peasanrs to curtivate their
landl0rds contracted randless
pordon of the yield'
lands in exchange for a large
enough wealth
Rarely did sharecroppers accllmulate
they worked the
to gain their irrd.epe,,d.,,.., often
Sameholdingsforyears-orforlife-ontermssetby
thelandlords' , , -r^
TheinvasionsofthesixthandSeventhcenturles
and afforded peasants an'
broke up many large estates
to opportu,'irvio"ulnasmalln:l*f JT"'!{^*,'rli;
?easants-probabrl, sharecroppers-receive
seects and tend
:::"r:.":##".d ;i;;; n:tt:njl,:i:::r1il1
;'H:;r'ffi
'-"""'n**d*#,ff#ffi**ryl'ilffi
ened the peasantry' L)ver
tne lorrB LUr'r)
the peasants intoi{
eleventh century onward'' they transformed
larger estates. From the tl:^*ife'enth centurv free Peasants
ac'':{
a'p';;;;il;; ot
an increasingtv
il"u*3;nTilT3:::f:i,.:.fiiTH$-*H1,,**o,*gs hadi-po,t*t,$
Decrineof
theFreepeasantrytr,,f
T:'#',*H#t5#Si#t'Jfr '-;;;;.il-*i-t1i,jnl1;;
ial tax coffers at the rate ot i;;eover, the decline *ny'*fi
smar Pcardr'" of the free,1;

;t**,:;*'6;"*1r.T1ffii*il$f:H:ft r*:ffi *${$,ffi€

lFlri:i{iliiK.'I1#J"ii#*f;" ""*;"*sH"::fl itr=#
rial government' Uon( - ^-, ,.--.,...,4 nnlidcal. *1tuI:fl1::'**'""4
political' mi-litary, and econornrc'j
:11 il:Tf:?h::il*t sovernmenq "'51.'i'"""d of its exrstence'
Syr"";Z snte during tfi" l"tt tluee centuries
difficulties for the
'!4

illffii:i"l.fi :;:;T::ffi'"T"r::#ili;,Tfl :iJJ:;J,"#*l[:ii

of Lade'
"JJffi::-.il::%'iJ"1"""*ople as "':1T: industry in classical ti*.,, "nff
a m"lor site of crafts and
Constandnopft *"' "1t""ay
'

Manufacturing
EnterPrises itbecameevenmore#;;il;;1q:l*.ljrilf,Tr:T#:,il#:iJff
worLters, I]ot t_?:
io **y artisans and.crafts
workers enjoyed a reputation
especri ,ifv for rheir glassi
bureaucrats. Byzantine crafts *a fittt *"111 and -*silver'
ware, linen -ooi"'i tLitil" gt*1' ;"-"1ty' in flo
monks'walkrng staiS
"rrd of silkworms
By the late sixth;;;;ti;q]; ":tllJ srlk tery
as well, *"nrl""tr.*r had.addedfr,r-eh-qualiry
and no doubt by other .oo.., the Byzantine empiie' SilL *ut -t
of proir.*-**.rrfu.i,r."d in
tiles to the list
^
 CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTTTUM 727

A manuscript illustration depicts one Byzantine r.r.'oman weaving cloth (left), while another spins thread
(right). Both women veil their hair for modesty. Women rvorkers were prominent in Byzantine textile
productiou.

I ,important addition to the economy, and Byzantium became the principal supplier of
i:,this fashionable fabric to lands in the Mediterranean basin. The silk industry was so
' important to the Byzantine economy that the government closely supervised every
' step in its production and sale. Regulations allowed individuals to participate in only
, one activity-such as weaving, dyeing, or sales-to preverlt the creation of a monop-
, oly in the industry by a few wealthy or powerftil enrrepreneurs.
' Trade also helped to sustain the Byzantine economy. Situated astride routes going Trade
. east and west as well as north and south, Constantinople served as the main clearing-
. house for trade in the western part of Eurasia. The merchants of Consrantinopie main-
tained direct commercial links with manufacturers and merchants in ceniral Asia,
. Russia, Scandinavia, northern Europe, and the lands of the Biack Sea and the Mediter-
ranean basin. Even after the early Islamic conquests, Byzantine merchants dealt regu-
larly with their Muslim counterparts in Persia, Syria, Palestine, and. Egypt except dur-
ing periods of ouuight war between Byzantium and Islamic srates. Byzantium
dominated uade to such an extent that trading peoples recognized the Byzantine goid
coin, the bezant, as the standard currency of the Mediterranean basin for more than
half a millennium, from the sixth through the twelfth centuries.
Byzantium drew enormous wealth simply from the control of trade and the levy-
ing of customs duties on merchandise that passed through its lands. More important.
' Byzantium served as the western anchor o? a Eurasian Lading network that'rerrirrei
the silk roads of classical times. Silk and porceiain came to Constantinople from China,
spices from India and southeast Asia. Carpets arrived from Persia, woolen textiies
from western Europe, and timber, furs, honey, amber, and slaves came from Russia
and Scandinavia. Byzantine subjects consumed some commodities from distant lands,
but they redistributed most merchandise, often after adding to its value by further
processing-by fashioning jewelry out of gems imported from India, for example, or
by dyeing raw woolen cloth imported from western Europe.
Banlcs and business partnerships helped to fuel Byzantine trade. Banks advanced The Organlzatton
loans to individuals seeking to launch business ventures and thus made trade possible of Trade
 CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZAI{TIUM 129

The Wealth and Commerce of Constantinople

The Spanish rabbi Ben1hry.in of Twd.elo rrayeled. throwghout Ewrope, north Africa, and. southwest Asia between
1165 and. 1173 c.z. Ifu &y hape ventared. as far as Ind.ia, and. he mentionad. both Indin nnd' China in his
trayel account. His rnain p\osewa.tilo record the cond.itions of Jewish comrnwnities, but he ako des*!1d'
.the
wany land.s and abowt thyee builQrad. iitits that he visited. His narels tooh place d.uring an era of political d.ecline
for tbe Byzantio, ,*pr\ if#e *ill foand. Con*antinople a flowrishing and. prosperous city.
\
it.-..'

i:'fn. circumference of the ciry of Constan\ople is eigh- ment there. And in that ol6e men from all the races of
+:
reen miles; half of it is surrounded by.the s.q, and half the world com e befo{the emperor and empress with
;: Uy land, and it is situated - -- upon two arms - - th\sea)
of one jugglery and withfrjugglery, and they introduce lions,
;:i..,.,Y J
'
--.E- --:--- -- -'t-\
i:' f .l r--h r.1 T\r I .r \ l
i1.'coming from the sea of Russia [the Black Sea], \d one leopard s, bery{and wild asses) and th.y engage them in
ii.,fto* rJre sea of Sepharad fthe Mediterranean]. \ comb at wlth one another; and the same thing is done
:;,:'.' AII sorts of merchants come here from the lan with b{ds. No entertainment like this is to be found in
iitnrUyton, from the land of Shinar [Mesopotamia], ftod anyy'tter land.
il:.,,Persia, Me dia [western Iran], and all the sovereignty of From every part of the Byzantine empire tribute is
!l,,th. Iand of Egypt, from the land of Canaan [Palestine], ought here every year, and they filI strongholds with
i1.;','.trd tn. empire of Russia, from Flungary, PatzrnaL<w g$qrents of silh, purple, and gold. Like unto these
;.:::::' /
sto\\ouses and this wealth there is nothing rn rhe
!_,.{IJkraine
'I
',-,:-':,
] ,I(hazaria fsouthern Russia], and the lanYof
i.',Lombardy [northern Italy] and Sepharad fSpain]. wholNorld to be found. It is said that the tribute of
;:tr.' Constantinople is a busy city, and merchants y'ome to the ciry\ounts every year ta 20,000 gold pieces, de-
o,, it from every country by sea or 1and, and tht is none rived both\om the rents of shops and markets and from
l:,;,1.., r r : , / r
.', like it in the world except Baghdad, thertreat city'
of the tribute oXmerchants who enter by sea or land.
;.': Islam. In Constantinople is the church ofilagia Sophia, The Greek\habitants are very rich in gold and,pre-
',, and the seat of the pope of the Gr ee$ since Greeks do cious stones) and\hey go clothed in garments of siik and
il-'not obey the pope of Rome. Thg{e are also as many gold embroidery, \ld they ride horses and look like
.,, churches as there are days of rffiear. . And in this princes. Indeed, the\nd is very rich in all cloth stuffs
, church [Hagia Sophia] therefre pillars of gold and si]ver, and in bread, meat, and\ine.
:i; and lamps of silver and ggfd more than a man can count. Wealth like that of Con\anrinople is not to be found
2'7:. '
'of
?:,'r.,. '' Close to the walls the palace is also a place of in the whole world. Ffere als\ ai:e men iearned in ail the
i, amusement belonging to the emperor, which is called
j
::' i.'

books of the Greeks, and they \t and drink, every man

ii'.,,
;ir:::rr: '
;';:11':
,' the Hippodrome , and every year on the anniversary of under his vine and his fis-tree .

7g:::t'
t,t:'i the birth of Jesus the e mperor gives a great e ntertain-

souRcE: Benjamin of Tudela. Tbe Itinerory of Benjornin of Tud.ela. Trans. by M. N. Adler. London:
H. Frowde, 1907. (Translation slighdy modified..)

How is it posible t0 a.cclant flr the prlsperity thar Benjawin of Twdnla fownd. in Constantinople?

:employed rwenty thousand workers as palace staff. Peacocks strutted through gardens
filled with sculptures and fountains. Most famous was a gold fountain in the shape of a
pineapple that spouted wine for imperial guests.
Aristocrats maintained enormous palaces that included courtyards, reception halls, Housing in
libraries, chapels, and quarters for members of the extended family as well as se.rvants Constantinople
and slaves. Women lived in sepa-rate apartments and did not receive male visitors from
 :ffi'
ffi ;:.#&
iiffi
;;t+H

33oPAR.TIIIITHEPOSTCLASSICALERA,5O0ToI000C.E. ffi
,ffi r|41
ana Par-
womel often did t"t pgtttipT: T,b"tq"tts
il,B

outside the household' Indeed'

lH

*i"t not"ta freeiy or when the iff^itt

*ttt likely to become so ,#
.:64

ties, especially when :-'"0e,#

awoman's honor' :'i:i#

;ti;i;;;;"v courd compromise of const^ntinople occupied.less splendid dweliings'

';:i,ffi
,i:.ei€
...:i";'

The less priviiegeJcl^Js"s

"ri'-*

in r;;;;; their shops, while clerks and !'E!

. |i1A

usually lived
:tiH

Ardsans and crafts -orr*, "bo',r" ''.i#

,:in
:.'#
governmentofficialslivedinmultistclry"pu,.*",,.buildings.Workersandthepoor .
.:,.if
._:in
,:ax
lai

occupieddangerousandrickery""t*t"t"'t'"'ittgkitchensandsanitaryfacilities .
:iH,

-"!*lilr"f*?XT;, *""rh, ttre ciry had its attractions. As the heii to Rome, con-as
:1+i

.:
-"3j

,li#
Attractions ol and exercise as well
which -.r" tit"t of relaxation
, ;,:|i4
'

stantinople was a city oi u";nr, '!::'f4

.::::ttj

ConstantinoPle . ,.,V:
'):51

hygienicbathing.Tavernsandrestaura,,t,off.,.dsettingsforsocialgatlrerings-
p"p"r"tlt:ll1tt^tt at-taverns-and
checkers, chess, ano dice games
*t" "'ptJ4if striptease' Mass en-
'.
-:!i;

'::i
in the foirnof ,ong, durr.", and ;€
theaters provided.rr,JaJrr"*.rrt to the impertal
tertainment toot pr"tt lt' the
Hippodrg*:' " large-stadium "dl1:t"t between wild -+g

athlet"ic matches, cortests -:q'3

'-ti!

palace. There Byr"";*.:;;...il"^..rr.a

rqE

acrobats, and dwarfs'

- ,;i:-!a

juggrers, !-i.fi

animals, and circuses ["irrri"L

clowns, . . ,:.:i!i
'::1'

tftt tf-tariof races that took place incen-

the '':.s ' -..i|:_

Most popul"' of tf" Clty;s p"stimes *ttt ,ii

Greens snd Blues ran high, and until the seventh
Hippodrome. Sp...".lri, p"Jr.irr.f3,.l*-:;;s fans formed wo factions- ,:+
.i',-:*

::1.1

to puuli. air*ru""."t. Racin!

tury they oft"r, .orrtriilitJJ .i"J tiu"rrv weit bevond the Hippodrome ,+

the Greens and the ;fi;;;;;f,rr*"d *"tlT^ltsought to influence

fought * tt'"
._..,i

','-€

Greens and Blues frequently '*tit l*

th1 other' On oue occasion'
Greeus and Biues ..J

imperial officials to atil' o""

g'oop by Jus- .:,E

opririig ;;r"st the hightaxes imposed

3ver
united and mounted a ser-ious popular
.,i.4

ffi
.i-at:1
t,'*

:*
tinran. In532tr"v oL"Jtr'e Hippodrom" killing 1'?"'g-:-o i::T.";1:r'r:Tt:"J:'ffiL;:;
thousands or r: ,:4
after
J*y-q""ff"a tf'e aistorUance' btironly
',:j:l:

to rebuild the ciq' ',rt

and fustinian took rhe opportunitv
left constanunople ;;il;i.r, uit*.t" Gi"er'ts and Blues had
lavish scare. By th. lut. sevenrh ..rr*ry].hJ;J;y
on a character of civic soci-
The partles but they i"t';;;giy tooL o"'tl"'"
faded. '*n*ta' offi'cials at the imperial court'
eties, and leaders of tf-'" *o grouPs became rtspJtttd

ClnssIcAL HPRITAGE
AND ONTHODOX CTTNISTIANITY
his name a'd his faitir to
of the Roman empire gave both
The first chrisuan emperor developed
*n .,.rro#.u*.i nyr"rr,i* christianirv
constantireopre. Like ;;";y;;;"; christianity of the
a fuith differ.* no- the
early
atong distinctive lines, ;J;;;;. a much deeper
Roman empire. Th. p;;;ffi.*o
ft.lftfir. of classical Greece had
legacy helped to
western Etrrope, and the classical
influence in Byzantiu"r'irr"i r"
shape Byzantirr. .ao.uJor, "rrJ.*fr*."f
a*.tof,.rrt as well as Orthodox Christianiry'
matters of doc-
with their western counterparts on
Byzantine church r""a.lJ air^greed differences between
By the mid-eleventh century'
trine, rirual, una tf'o"ft u"tf'6r1fy g""t that'tl-reir leaders formally di-
churches had becomi
the eastern
^nd
-t"""t 'o
i"to the f"'*'"" Orthodox and Roman
Catholic
vided Medir"""""u"'Cil';,"*ty
churches.

The LegacY of Classical Greece

Blzantium and Rome
AtthoughlocaiinhabitantsspokeGl3k,theofficiallanguageofearlyConstantinople
was Larin, the language of
Rome. T.ir" .onrr"lii." U"lt*n
code of laws';;;;p"ared
in Latin' After the sixth
was apparent in lustiiian's

I
r__
CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTiUM 33 1

ffii eenrury, however, Greek replaced Latin as the language of government in the Byzan-
ffirtin" empire. Byzantine scholars often did not learn to read Latin' and they drew in-
#jtilff..*"Iinspiration from the New Testament (originally composed in Greek) and
ffi.l philosophy and literature of classical Greece rather than classical Rome.
tt,
'ih. l.g^ry
of classical Greece was especially noticeable in Byzantine education. An Byzantine Education
ffii
ffi'educational sysrem was necessary because of the large bureaucracy that administered
ffit ;; empire: government machinery called for large numbers of literate and intelligent
Byzantine a-ristocrats often hired. tutors to provide private instruction for
ffi_.,individuats.
*',rh.ir children, girls as well as boys. But the bureaucratic workforce emerged mosdy
ti from a state -organized school system that offered a primary education in reading,
i .witing, and grammar, followed by studies of classical Greek literature, philosophy,
fi. Although mosr peasants and mffJtriurban workers h_ad 1o formal education, basic
,tlit.ru.y was widespread in Byzantfii€'society. Alongside the bureaucrats, Byzantine
fi ;.r.n""as,
$. manuficturers, clefgy)
merchants) manufacturers) clergy, anct military personner
and mrlrtary personnel usuany had at least a primary
usually nao Pnfrrary
At the pinnacie of the itate educational system.was a school of higher learn-
fr'"d,r."rioo.
in law, medict"::1"d
f; ing in Constantinople that offered advanced instruction founding in 425 c.s. until
fhlo.t;
almost continuciusiy from its
ii ,pttt This school functioned yezus later in 1453'
Ft,' ,tt. end of the Byzantine empire more than one thousand
1 Like the educational ryit.*, Byzantine scholarship
Et,:,,' .r r , .t, 1 ---- -^,-- D-,---rt-^ ^^L^l^--Li^ .^11-.t.4
^1"^ reflected
also t}..c cultural
the Byzo,ntine
Scho larship
i.,, t.e".v of classical Greece . Byzantrne scholars concentrated on the humanities-liter-
:t* r lr - - -, L-- ----l- ^-- rL^- ^^ +L- ..i^^.^" or medicine' 'Fherr
They
ii rrot., history, and phiiosophy-rather
rnmrrpnrari^" on
than on the natural
-^h,-^l sciences ^. -oJi.i-.
^- TJ^--" Dlotn Aristotle,
Arictntle and nther nrominent figures,
other prominent fisures-
".
-. --^.t,--^s commentaries
,t-, produced l{omer, Plato,
i1.,. r"a their works served as rexrbool$ studied in schools alongside writings from classi-
ii:.,. ' .. n- -'. - ,-,1-r.
:, cal times..by Byzantines with a, literary
tt-- ,-' ,,-- ^r--^--:^- -^^^iA^-^A
education considered +L-,-.-1,,^^
themselves r[,- the .li-o-t heirc
direct heirs
ii: of ciassicai Greece, ald they went to great lengtis to preserve and transmit the classi-
:;:
i. ."1I i.g".y. r---^-- r^)^^) -l-^^!
Indeed, almost t:+^-^--. ^-J
^n literary
all and ptulosophical
^L:l^-^^l-i^^l ,,,^.1,"
works of classical (]reecp
^€-l^".i-^l Greece that thct

l,,1'iurvive
z:t:'.. '1.
-^
'- have come down to the present I
in copies made between the tenth and twelfth
';:,,,,,',..1.11
1i.., centuries in the Byzantine empire.

tsyzantine Church
gi fn. most distincriye fearure of By22n1ing Christianity was its close relationship with Church anC State
trt-
:t-, imperial government. From the time of Constantine on, caesaropapist emperors
the im
:i, '--,-,-,1 ,--t 1^-t--^r--:- --^r:-:^.-^ ^-J +L^^r^-i-^l
theological matters. Cn^ctanrinp
Constantine hi-"alf
himself inter-
inter-
fuarticipated activeiy in religious and '-^r+o..
in theologicai debates, even when the issues at stal(e had little or no direct polit-
j":v-ened
ical implication. In 325 C.2., for example, Constantine organized the Council of
p. Nicaea, which brought together bishops, spokesmen, and leaders from all the impor-

i'tant Christian churches in order to consider the views of the Arians. Followers of a
i,;,triest from Alexandria named Arius (250-336 c.e.), the Arians taught that Jesus had
i;. been a mortal human being and that he was a crealion of God rather than a divine
ir:i., .1 L
^ -*-
;,,being coerernal with God. Yet many Christian theologians
held to the contrary: that
i in a unique and mysterious way Jesus was both a mortal human being and a manifesta-
iltion of God lumself, that Jesus simultaneously possessed ftilly human and firllyy dlvlne divi
Ejnrtor.r. Although he originally favored Arian views, Constantine came to accept the
lalternative and personally attended sessions of the Council of Nicaea in order to sllp-
i port it. His presence eniouraged the council to endorse his preferred view as ortho-
it-:dox and to condemn Arianism as heresy.

#'' Throughout Byzantine history the emperors treated the church as a department
fi,
of state. They appointed individuals to serve as patriarch of Constantinople-the
p';highest ecclesiastical offi.cial in the Byzantine church, counterpart of the pope in
a1ll
JJ'{-
PARTIIIiTHEPoSTCLASSICALERA,500ToI000c.e,

Rome-and they rnsuucted

p at'archl
!]*:P ",i"d !i:':- ::1]ilffit:T: ;T: .$
supported imperial n"'nt "'id ""'oo'^t:*i:rt'*::: lili::ili""i'*i"i"stic"'$
:milUxJi'"1,'"T:';:;T"Tfi
autnorrLrs!' 4'u rL E---a-
ed with those of the
larger. soctery'
wa9 icol-
i
when imperial views clashed YtT:T:: :#;"il -.- ^
Bvzrnti.re^ er
Cv Byzantrne
by emperors
The most dirT sive tttittf^tt"f
":i':::Ts'J:l*Ji"r'ai"""andProtest'$
po[ry-implemented
c'e')' l
Bv the dme of lro\ r;

Iconoclasm uv e*pt[&" rir t']g"ti';;?4ii

oclasm, inaugurated
rure, Byzantiuq h* 1'#r"*1t*" ;;'"91;fu;;73p:tt'*:tr; .Hli: $X'
:
popurar
i; ;".'lhev inspired'lhe
*r m::#ffi:Jl:i*:T:'4+i['';;
*o
p""oo"g"t' Leo' however' became con- '
worship of
imagination ""to*igii"t;;;;91i1V sinfui, tantamount to the
u.rr.r*iol of religious im"g.s'w", (which literallv
vinced that the tt;;;;li; of iconoclasm
physical idols' In zzu-J-t'n""i-'u"'tta #",u": their use in
*.*, ,,the breardng oi*rrr,,;, desuoying.reutn'* Tlij^:Iottng the empire'
The poticy Ur#atllJt
,p*f..a p.;r.r,, and riots throughout
churches. iconoclasm rageo rn
rtw Debates about
*"r. .*.r"i.;;;ffi ri"ig ,rr"
abandon their ef-
since icons
i;J".d'*, i' Saa lia .f" iconoclasts
Bvzantium for more *fr o"t" the wi-llingness of Byzanune
forts. Meanwhile, tlte to*out"y &Ttlt"":* "gA"
theologi*
emperors to involve
*;;;"t iitttttv in religious and
the conunumg:lll3;te
of ciassi-
gy';;J"" 61tti5d"nity'reflected
fromiewish sources' As it
In its theology,
cal Greek oL""'onf"""i'uJ"
fu;sillj;;;;g'd sought ways to harmontze
the Roman .*plr.,^rrtJolog,"is
attracred adherents in

&*ffiu* giide*D*'w
r 1 :'^,.'^.1- Of
whitewashing an lmage
prepared abo*r 900 c"E. depicts an iconoclast
This illustration from a Psalter
a wall'
]esus parnted on
 CFIAPTER. 13 | THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANTIUM 333

Christianity with other, long-established cultural traditions, notably Greek philoso-

phy. A faith embracing both Christian revelation and Greek reason, ttrey recognized,
would have a powerftil appeal.
The influence of Greek philosophy in Christian theology was especially promi- Greek Philosophy and
Byzo"ntine Theology
nenr in Greek-speaking Byzantium. Theologians invested a great deal of time and in-
rellectual energy in the examination of religious questions from a philosophical point
of view. They looked to classical philosophy, for example, when seeking to under-
,stand the nature of lesus and the extent to which he possessed both human and di-
vine characteristics. Although tirese debates often became extremely technical, they
illustrare the continuing influence of classical Greek philosophy. Debates about Jesus'
nature represented an effort to Lrnderstand Christian doctrine in light of the terms
and concepts that classical philosophers lad employed in their analysis of the world.
A school maintained by the patriarch qfiConstantinople provided instruction for
,,clergy and church officials in advanced'"rilieology of this sort. Though it differed in
,many ways from Mediterranean society of classical times, Byzantium built its own
cultural and religious traditions on a solid classical foundation'

Monssticism snd PoPuIs,r PietY

other high church officials con-
[.,e".r"rop"pisr emperors, powerful patriarchs, and
fi;i"t""a themselves with theological and ritual matters and rarely dealt direcdy with the
*-hy pop.rl"tion of the Byzantine church. For their part the Byzantine laity had little
or church administration, and they posi-
&, i"r*.J,
in fure points of theology high-level
fltivelv'-resented policies like iconoclasm that infringed on cherished patterns of wor-
h.. . f"t religious inspirarion, the laity looked less to the church hierarchy than to the
iinip.
:. tocal monasteries.
Asce tictsm
i , Byzantine monasticism grew out of the efforts of devout individuals to lead espe-
l.bi"ity trnty lives. Drawing inspiration from early Christian ascetics in Egypt, Mesopo-
ptr*i", and Persia, these individuals observed regimes of extreme ascelicism and self-
#enial. Some abandoned society altogether and went to live in *re desert or in caves
ffi hermits. Others dedicated themselves to celibacy, fasting, and prayer. During the
century a few men and at least two women demonstrated their ascetic commit-
fuents by perching for years at a time atop tall pillars.
St. Simeon Stylite , the first and
nort fr-orrt of these "pillar saints," attracted the attention of admirers from as far
ay as Gaul.
:Because of the extreme dedication of hermits and ascetics, disciples often gathered Byzantlne
ound them and established communities of men and women determined to follow Monastlclsm
i€-ir example. These communities became the earliest monasteries of the Byzantine andSf. Basi/
[qh. They had few ruies until St. Basil of Caesarea (329-379 c.n.), the patriarch
Eeonstantinople during the mid-fourth century, urged them to adopt reforms that
lhanced their effectiveness- In Basilian monasteries, monks and nuns gave r'rp their
FrConal possessions and lived communaily. They obeyed the rule of elected superiors,
H rll .o-*onity members devoted themselves to work and prayer. After the fourth
the Byzanorre empire-
$tury, Basilian monasticism spread rapidly throughout ML Athos
f.Unlike their counterparts in western Europe and other lands, Byzantine monas-
ryes tbr the most p"rt did not become centers of education, study, learning, and
hotarship. Yet *oi"steries under the ruie of St. Basil had a reputation for piety and
$b,tion that endeared them to the Byzantine laity. Basilian monks went to great
$mtrt i" search of mystical union with God through me ditation and prayer' Some
controlled breathing and intensely focused gaz-
$btoyed special techniques such as
p.to bring divine illumination. Others retired to remote destinations to iead a strict
 CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OIJ tsYZAN'| I uM 335

::existence. Most famous of the austere monasteries are those of Mt. Athos, a cold and
:r,windswept peninsula in northern Greece that has been the site of monasteries since
the ninth century C.r. Since the eleventh century, monastic authorities have made
,1dt. Athos off-limits for all females, both human and animal, out of concern that
,,.they might inspire carnal thoughts among the monks. The strict devotion of the
,,,fironks of Mt. Athos and other Basilian monasteries inspired piety among the Byzan-
:, tine laity because the monks represented a religious faith more immediate and mean-
i ingful than that of the theologiar-r.s and ecclesiastical bureaucrats of Constantinople.
r Monks and nuns also provided social services to their communities. They pro-
.vided spiritr-ral counsel to local laity, and they organized relief efforts by bringing
-:rfosd and medical attention to communities struclc by disasters. They won the sup-
;port of the Byzantine populace, too, when they vigorously opposed the policy of
i iconoclasm and fought to restore icongo churches and monasteries. Tensions some
-
i times arose between clergy and laity beC4gse monasteries often owned extensive tracts
. of land, and the monks had differenf'€conomic interests from the peasants who
.worked the iand. Nevertheless, by setting examples of devotion and by tending to
the needs and interests of the laity, monks helped to maintain support for their faith
in the Byzantine empire.

Tensions between Eastern and Westeri Christianity

Byzantine Christianity developed in tension particularly with the Christian faith of
. western Europe. During the centuries following Constantine's legalization of Chris-
::irrn,
i:tianiry, church leaders in Jerusalem, Aiexandria, Antioch, Constanlinople, ald Rome
lidxercised great influence in the larger Christian cornmunity. AfterArab peoples con-
ilquered most of southwest Asia and introduced Islam there in the seventh century,
the influence of the pauiarchs in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch declined, Ieav-
ing only Constantinople and Rome as the principal centers of Christian authority.
The tensions that developed between Constantinople and Rome mirrored politi- Constantinople
cal strains between Byzantine and western European societies. The specific issues that and Rome
divided the two Christian communities, however, were religious and theological. One
. of them was the iconoclastic movement of the eighth and ninth centuries. Western
;,theologians regarded religious images as perfectly appropriate aids to devotion and
].resented Byzantine claims to the contrary, whereas the iconoclasts took offense at the
t efforts of their Roman counterparts to have images restored in Byzantium.
r In later centuries, Christian churches based in Constantinople and Rome dis-
agreed on many other points. Some ritual and doctrinal differences concerned forms
of worship and the precise wording of theological teachings-relatively minor issues
that by themselves need not have caused deep division in the larger Chrislian com-
murtity. Byzantine theologians objected, for example, to the fact that western priests
shaved their beards and used u.nleavened instead of leavened bread when saying Mass.
Other differences concerned substantive theological matters such as the precise rela-
tionship between God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit-all regarded as manifestations of
God by most Christian theologians.
Alongside these ritual and doctrinal differences, the Byzantine patriarchs and Schlsm
Roman popes disputed their respective rights and powers. Patriarchs argued for the
autonomy of all major Christian jurisdictions, including that of Constantinople, while
popes asserted the primacy of Rome as the sole seat of authority for all Christendom.
I Ultimately, relations became so strained that the eastern and western churches went
:separate ways. In 1054 c.p. the patriarch and pope mutually excommunicated each
rother, each refusing to recognrze the other's church as properly Christian. Despite
 5OO TO 1OOO C.E.
PART IiI I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA,
336

effortsatreconciliation,theresuitingschismbetweeneastefnandwesternchurches
n::ir,.:."*'.[fti1il,tffi"#*:J""t'h:'.*:ili::iilil.'?J;:,*:i:'.':f
chur'
Christian
;;;;;' the Roman Catholic church'

Tnr IxruuENcE oF BYzANTIUM

IN ENSTERN EUNOPE,
and sometimes traced
elves Rorna,ial ('Romans"), 11tt':tt":t
Byzantines called thems
the' lineage to ancesrors who went"to
*.#:"i; JS ffi::ffi ",":::f**'*#:;:t#trJff."t"r1:l i
#ilT'##;#;;tr o"q Me diter rane an s o ci etv of
pol;
tn. fU.&t tt-*"*U"ti" had formed a coherent
ciassical times. Unde, dr;;.
litical and economic unit'
al trade and'tYi::*::::X**::LtilffiJJ:Ti
a dynamic sociery founded
onr
:l*T:,n:?"ff.Hffi fffi:*iil:".;, r,"*.'.i
thersramicraithhadJ;;;ili;il"3*i"::"'::"y:*l'ff :H::Tn'#;f ;
3;,:'j;ffi?*1"ffi'"fl::T;i.i+FF;i"*',.':i:.':i:t'lheno*hernrimi j
r{emmedinand*,"'ffi
Hemmed ;:':i'{gi*:*ll#''',':J:t3ffi ::il",i**''
in and t"tttl:;T*"J".i*.1.gt""*g century' the late eleventh ,i
"bgl
"'frAsiffi^'fr1"'i;ffi
its Mediterranean ffi il;F:lr:jl&:,:*:::;,:^Tff$i:Ti':Jiff
lnfluence wi4lrLu' "",;1, :'i:i
.i*L.r.i"t, and cultural relations;i
f*l'lJ:'*'t**::1ffi;f; *i!n;;;-p"f "'1"3"""#'i^"''1ti'1
."m. to in the fifteentrr;ent|fl :;:
an end
.li. ;
^l:t..b::,iii""J*
*rop il.':l$:"'ffiilil.'
n diter''
e and trre e as ter Me
;L'J1ffil ;;5tflTnT,"Jr:JJ;
raneanbasinthatdevelopedqdelnvzanlL;r;t:lf *::lm'#:"'H;*Tifi il:'
ffi:il?i1$*11ffJ:f T"TrxiJr'ffi ,#;ilsurvivesandcontinuestoshape
in Russia and eastern Etuope'
the lives of millions ot people

qnd Foreign Pressures

Domestic Problems
when B asii II, " the B ul g ar- S laver ,''
*' o :*, li 1 t" l.?
*" IJ.1lli'i}t'Jffi:':T'1j
ffini,"*il;:ff :i:ffir:C3::"t*,T*n:"ru::'$;T|.X..'T:
il,lT,i;Htrl;iliJi'll?xf
iuffering
wcar\rruDouo
from serious mternal t:"d;:*f:,::*l?,i,1T'iJo"l*il*ffi'
ned decline frorn:
fact, it had entered a long,o"":L:l:i*:i:"::i;ili",
IonB u"""*,."uri.*'.ig' to explai
verses,
verses' In
*niJ ii "*er fully recovered'
'**'a Both domest
expraul n.ro
proUl.*s help

this decline.
Soc ia| Problems
D o mestic pro bre ms
"'.*"' i::::*kg:,T,*: :l;',:H **.'#ffitiTft fi:ffi
erals who governed aristocracies$
with the locar
":iifif.ITf#iffffi;;;;;;;
r..-i#:i**nin:n*i::it*'#.#ffi '*$1.';r'*"*rut€
Some of ttrese Powern
ai"op'"ai"o*r"""3*i'$
:i;"r**i::li['::i';ilT:i1:iidil;;f
tr"" vast
"';;;;;i"ttJ
tr''t rtt" undS oeasantry
svstem and iQ
Moreover, the elite "tto"tt'lated militarv
increasing pressure' Formerlv +:
q*k?:l;:h;;;;m's
;'J;:i:H';T::"fi ll"':'#,,ff 'ri*,Tlft:x1f :!fiIlTJ':'T*T?#e
jtclining;l;itP;t from free p""'"t"t caused
recruits available
$
; 'o"J'"t"i-ltJ arso race d rresh ro rei
gn chale' geq

Challenges r :H:,?:
came
Pl: ffi trl'*.t;;:#$;;tium
representatives of a dynanJ a-nd expanding
western European s$
From the west
from the West ,.t
-:1

::1
.rt
'.4
fr,
,fr
 CFIAPTER 13 { THE COMMOI{\A/EALTH OF BYZANTIUM J37

Mep [13 .2]

The Byzantine empre and its
neighbors, about II00 c.s.
ftety. Beginning in the eleventh century vigorous econom-ic development in western
ffitrrope supported a remarkable round of military and political expansion. During the
i6aily eleventh century, the Normans-a Scandinavian people who had seized Normandy

ffp northern France) and setded there-estabtshed themselves as an independenr power

ffisouthern Italy. By midcentury Norman adventurers led by Robert Guiscard had taken
$$ontrol of southern Italy and expelied Byzanrine authorities there.
$r. : During the rwelfth and thftteenth centuries, the Normans and other wesrern Eu-
For an interactlve version
of this map, go to
p:ropean pe oples mounted a series of crusades-vast military campaigns intended to
\4,'V'fw'mhhe. corn/
ffii,ecapture ]erusalem
and other sites holy to Christians from Muslims-and took the bentley3chl 3maps.
l.:oPportuniry to carve out states in the heart of tire Byzantine empire. Venetian mer-
$:ihants even managed to divert the fourth crusade (L202-I204) from its original
$mission in the eastern Mediterranean to Constantinople . Venetians had become
fprominent in the commercial iife of the eastern Mediterranean, and they viewed the
gl,fourth
*ivsr ur Lr
crusade
ur4u! 4o ar vPPvr
as iu opportunity
Luruly to ursr positron
strengthen their
LU )Lrtrrburcll against -DyzallLurc
Pulruurl dBd.u-tsl. Byzantine LUTII'
com-
i''petition. As it happened, the expedition never got beyond Constanrinople, which
crusaders conquered and sacked in 1204. Byzantine forces recaptured the capital in
i;126I, but the destruction of Constantinople dealt dre Byzantine empire a blow from
which it never completelv recovered.
As Europeans expanded into Byzantine territory from the west, nomadic Turkish Challenges
peoples invaded from the east. Most important arnong them were the Muslim from the East
g!.Saljuqs, who beginning in the eleventh century sent rvaves of invaders into Anatolia.
Given the military and financial problems of rheByzantine empire, the Saljuqs found
Anatolia ripe for plunder. In 107I they subjected the Byzantine army to a demoraliz-
ing defeat at the batde of Manzikert. Byzantine factions then turned on each other
338 PART III I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, 5OO TO lOOO C.E'

I)ur ing the sack of Constantinople in 1 204 , crusading forces seized ald carted away B.vzaniine treasures of ail
sorts-including the great bronze horses that norv stand over the entrance to St. Mark's basilica in Venice.

in civil war, allowing the Saljuqs almost free rein in Anatolia, By the late rwelfth ce
rury, the Saljuqs had seized much of Anatolia, and crusaders from western Euro

tium survived until the mid-fifteenth century, but the late Byzantine empire enjoye(
Iittle autonomy and continually faced fresh challenges from Italian merchants, west
ern European adventurers" and Turkish nomads. In 1453, after a long era of declint
the Byzantine empire came to an end when Ottoman Turks captured Constantinopl4
and absorbed its territories into their own expandittg realm.

Early Relations between Byzantium and Slavic Peoples

By the time Constantinople fell, Byzantine traditions had deeply influenced the polin
and cultural development of Slavic peoples in eastern Europe and Russia' Close r
tions between Byzantium and Slavic peoples date from dre sixdr century. When Jus
ian deployed Byzantium's miiitary resollrces in the western Mediterranean, SlaV{
peoples from the north took advantage of the opportunity to move into ByzanUrll
 CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZAI{TIul\4 339

,tterritory. Serbs and Croats move d

:,;into the Ballcan peninsula, and Bulgars
'lestablished a powerful kingdom in the
i:lower Danube region.
,,1 Relations benveen Byzantium and
i.::Bulgaria were especially tense. By the
.eighth cenrury, however) as a resr-rlt of
lits wealth and sophisticated diplo-
',.,^^ry, Byzantium had begun to influ-
tt'.n.. Bulgarian politics and society.
:;','syzantine
emperors recognized Bul- ::n-

iilt';garian rulers, enhancing their status ("

'i:;r. ,,.

i';lr,^,o lesitimefe sove.rei

tar legitimate gns, Byzantium
sovereigns. Rvz,anfirr m -{i.i;.'.
i , -,..:

.',4nd Rrrlserts
i;i"';:,n.^A
entered into
Bulgaria enfered into political,
noliticnl i+;i '

.;npo*mercial, and cr'rltural relations' .i! r

i;i:.,l;.7 --L^,-^ ^f D--l*^"-:^.^ {:-:l:^^ lr

i',,Members of Bulgarian ruling
-""1:.^* families
i', often went to Constantinople for a
formal education in Greek language
*a fiteratr-rre and fbllowed Byzantine
examples in organi zng their court
and capital.
Cvril and Methodius
to Baikur lands, and Bulgars and other
Slavic peoples began to convert to
Orthodox Christianiry. The most fa-
mous of the missionarie s to the Slavs
This illustration fi orn a r\^'elfth-centur)r malLuscript
were Saints Cyril and Methodius) rwo
depicts ninth-centltry incursions of Bulgarians iuto
brothers from Thessalonilci in Greece. Byzantine territory, culminating in a lecture by the
During the mid-ninth century Cyril Bulgarian krng to the Byzanrine emperor, shown here
and Methodius conducted missions i,vith bound hands.
in Bulgaria and Moravia (which in-
i anded much of the modern Czech,slovakian, and Hungarian territories). \\4ri1e there,
, they devised an alphabet, known as the Cyrillic alphabet, for the previously illiterate
,:,Slavic peoples. Though adapted from written Greek, the Cyrillic alphabet represented
.. the sounds of Slavic languages more precisely than did the Greek, and it remained in use
i.. in much of eastern Europe until supplanted by the Roman alphabet in the twentieth
tcenttrry. In Russia and most other parts of the former Soviet lJnion, ttre Cyrillic
alpha-
-bet survives to the present day.
.. The crealion of a written Slavic language enabled Slavic peoples to organize com- Mi"ssions to the Slavs
,plex political structures and develop sophisticated traditions of thought and literature.
More immediately, the Cyrillic alphabet stimulated conversion to Orthodox Chris-
.tianity Missionaries translated the Christian scriptures and church rituals into Slavonic,
,and Cyrillic writing helped them explain Chriitian values and ideas in Slavic terms.
,Meanwhile, schools organtzed by missionaries ensured that Slavs would receive reli-
;,'gious instruction alongside their introduction to basic literacy.
As a result, Orthodox
iCtrristianity deeply influenced the cultural traditions of many Slavic peoples.

qnd Russis
be gan to org anLze large states: the Russians '
created several principalities governed from
Srategically situated on the Dnieper River
34O PART III I THE POSTCLASSICAL ERA, s0o TO 1000 c.E.

along the main trade route linking Scandinavia and Byzantium, ICev became a
wealthy and powerful center) and it dominated much of the territory between the
Volga and the Dnieper from the tenth to the thirteenth century. Russian merchants
visited Constanrinople in large numbers and became well acquainted with Byzantine
society. Russian princes sought alliances with Byzantine rulers and began to express
an interest in Orthodox Christianity.
The Conversion About 989 Prince Madimir of ICev converted to Orthodox Christianity and or-
of Prtnce Vladimir dered his subjects to follow his example. Madimir was no paragon of virtue: he lauded
drunkenness and reportedly maintained a harem of eight hundred girls. After his
conversion, however, Byzantine influences flowed rapidly into Russia. Cyrillic writ'
ing, literacy, and Orthodox missions all spread quicldy throughout Russia. Byzantine
teachers traveled north to establish schools, and Byzantine priests conducted services
for Russian converts. For two centuries ICev served as a conduit for the spread of
Byzantine cuitural and religious influence in Russia.
Byzantine arr and architecture dominated ICev and other Russian cities. Icons in
the Byzantine style encouraged popular piety, and religious images became a princi-
pal form of Russian artistic expression. The onion domes that are a distinctive feature
of early Russian cfurches were the result of architects' efforts to imitate the domed
structures of Constantinople using wood as their principal buildrng material.
The Growth of Kirv The princes of ICev established firm, caesaropapist control over the Russian Or-
thodox church-so called to distinguish it from the Eastern Orthodox church of the
Byzantine empire. They also drew inspiration from Byzantine legal tradition andl
compiled a writren law code for their lands. By controlling trade with Byzantium and:
other lands, they gained financial resources to build a flourishing society. In the',
eleventh century ICev reportedly had four hundred churches and eight large market':
places. By the early twelfth century its population approached thirty thousand, and a
fire in I I24 consumed six hundred churches.
Eventually, Russians even claimed to inherit the imperial mande of Byzantium. Ac-'
cording to a popular theory of the sixteenth century, Moscow was the world's third,
Rome: the first Rome had fallen to Germanic invaders in the fifth centlrry) whereas fhe,,
second Rome, Constantinople, had fallen to the Turks a thousand years later. Moscow:
survived as the third Rome, the cultural and religious beacon that would guide the,
world to Orthodox Christian righteousness. Inspired by this theory, missionaries took,
their Russian Orthodox faith to distant lands. During the sixteenth and later centuries,.
they brought Siberia into the fotd of the Orthodox church, crossed the Bering Suait,
dirp"t.hed missions to Alaska and even northern California. Thus, long after the'l
"ttd
collapse of the eastern Roman empire, the ffiantine legacy continued to work its in-j
fluence throush the oufward reach of the Ru3$ian Orthodox church.

The Byzantine empire originated as a

survivor of the classic al era. Byzantium inherited a hardy economy, a set of gov-
erning institutions, an imperial bureaucracy, an official religion, an established
church, and a rich cultural tradition from classical Mediterranean sociery and
the Roman empire. Byzantine leaders drew heavily on this legacy as they dealt
with new challenges. Throughout Byzantine history, classical inspiration was
especially noticeable in the imperial office, the bureaucracy, the church, and the
 CHAPTER 13 I THE COMMONWEALTH OF BYZANITIUM 34L

educational system. Yet in many ways Byzantium changed profoundly over the
course of its thousand-year history. After the seventh century the Byzantine em-
pire shrank dramatically irr size, and after tfie eleventh century it faced relentless
foreign pressule from western Europeans and nomadic Turkish peoples. Chang-
ing times also brought transformations in Byzantine social and economic orga-
nization. Yet from the fifth to the twelfth century and beyond, Byzantium
brought political stability and economic prosperity to the eastern Mediterranean
basin, and Byzantine sociery served as a principal anchor supporting commer-
cialandculturaIexchangesinthepostclassicalworld'Throughitspolitical,eco-
nomic, and cultural influence, Byzaufiium also helped shape the development of
the larger Byzantine commonwealtlg..*g eastern Europe and the eastern Med.iter-
ranean basin.

RntUn 'of rConsrarl'!''!

Life of St. B-asil of C-aesarea

'..
Trans fer Ro *an gov€rnmeni to,' Constantinople
ii
"f :,.-...,

Reign of,]"ustrnian,
''

Reign:of
t ? '
...,.:''
Leo III
.,.: :
' ',' '
. .'.....

Iconoclasuc .orr*o*rrn