UPS TECHNICAL SEMINAR

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

INTRODUCTION

AC power problems have been recognized by the utility companies, computer manufacturers and end users as a
subject that must be addressed.
The power problems extend from spikes, noise, brown-outs and frequency variations to complete back-outs.
These problems can be corrected individually using surge suppressors, filters, regulators, and amplifiers, but only
a true on-line Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) can solve all these problems collectively.
The utility power is one of the causes of power problems, but other factors also play a key roll in causing power
disturbance such as:
• The load itself, switch-mode power supplies reflect high percentage of distortion on the main
power feeder.
• Improper power distribution load and isolation.
• Improper system grounding.

The purpose of this paper is to explain:

• The architecture and operation of different UPS designs available on the market.
• The technology utilized in some UPSs.
• Effects of switch mode power supplies on the utility power and the UPS.
• MTFB definition and calculation.
• Proper UPS grounding scheme.

I. UPS OPERATION

The main building blocks of any given UPS (on-line, off-line or stand-by) are the charger, inverter, static switch or
static disconnect and battery. The charger converts AC to DC power which float charge is the battery and feeds
the inverter. The inverter converts DC to AC power, and the static switch or static disconnect is a solid-state device
used to apply or disconnect AC power. The battery stores DC power that is used as a back-up power source when
the utility power is not available.
Organizing and operating these basic blocks comprise the principle operations of the UPS.
There are three basic designs:
*Stand-by UPS
STATIC DISCONNECT SWITCH

UTILITY LOAD

CHARGER DIVERTER

BATTERY

Stand-By UPS Power Flow

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In this mode, the utility power is fed to the load through the static disconnect switch with some degree of filtering
against noise and spikes. The charger is "ON" and applying a float voltage to the battery. The normal status of the
inverter is "OFF". In case of a power outage, the static disconnect is switched "OFF", preventing the inverter from
back feeding the utility power, and the inverter is commanded to start. The delay time between disconnecting the
static switch and transferring to inverter power is referred to as "TRANSFER TIME". This time varies from 2 to 6
milliseconds depending on the UPS design and the manufacturer. The transfer time is witnessed at the UPS output
as a load voltage interruption (load power will interrupt for 2 to 6 milliseconds). Upon the return of the utility power,
the inverter is commanded to stop and the static disconnect is commanded "ON". The "TRANSFER TIME" is
witnessed during this transfer as well.
*Off-line STATIC DISCONNECT SWITCH

FERRORESONANT
TRANSFORMER
UTILITY OR LOAD
MOTOR-
GENERATOR

CHARGER DIVERTER

BATTERY

Off-Line UPS Power Flow

The off-line UPS has the same operation and building blocks as the stand-by UPS, except for the addition of an
energy storage device (motor generator or ferro-resonant transformer). Some loads are not able to tolerate the 2
to 6 millisecond load-power interruption during the "TRANSFER TIME", so the energy storage device discharges
its internal energy and provides ride-through power during the "TRANSFER TIME". The variance in the output
voltage performance during the ride through is dependent on the energy storage device, percentage and type of
load applied at the output of the UPS.
*On-line STATIC DISCONNECT SWITCH

UTILITY

CHARGER DIVERTER

UTILITY LOAD

BATTERY

On-Line UPS Power Flow

The on-line Ups also consists of a charger, inverter and static switch. In normal operation, the charger applies float
charge to the battery and is also supplying the inverter with regulated DC power. The inverter converts the DC to
a regulated, isolated AC power. The inverter output is also synchronized in frequency, voltage and phase to the
bypass input power that is used as a back-up source in case of shut down. During normal operation, the static
switch is in the "OFF" mode.
In case of power failure, the charger is stopped and the inverter draws its power from the battery without any
switching since the inverter is continuously operating. When the utility power is restored, the charger automatically
starts and the normal operation is resumed by providing charge voltage to the battery and DC power to the inverter.
The static switch serves as a back up power source. In case of inverter failure or manual shut down, the load
power is automatically transferred to the static switch without interruption.

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II. UPS Main Blocks Operation

Section One provides a brief description of three different UPS designs and operations. This section details the
operation of each of the basic blocks of the UPS.
The charger utilizes Silicon Control Rectifiers (SCR) to covert AC power to DC power. The regulation is carried
out by controlling the SCR conduction angles allowing the rectifier to supply stable DC output power.
For a three phase UPS system, two different charger designs are available.
- Single bridge (six pulse).
The charger design utilizes six SCRs (two SCRs per phase).
One SCR controls the positive half cycle and the second controls the negative half cycle.

(+)

1 3 5
øA
øB
øC
(I)
4 6 2
(-)

Single Bridge Charger

The single bridge charger generates current harmonics on the AC input power. The total current distortion for a
single bridge charger is typically 27% to 35%. The main components of these harmonics are made of the 5th order
(frequency - 300 Hz) and the 7th order (frequency - 420 Hz).

Input Current Distortion (27% to 35%)

The single bridge is typically used in UPSs rated 150 kVA and below. It is small in size and utilizes fewer
components than the dual-bridge charger.
NOTE: Input current distortion can be further reduced to 10% by adding a tuned filter at the input of the UPS.
Dual bridge (12 pule).
The dual bridge charger is made of:
• Two single-bridge chargers (total of 12 SCRs).
• Isolation transformer with single primary winding (DELTA) and two secondary windings (DELTA)
and (WYE). Each secondary winding is feeding a single-bridge.

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Dual-Bridge Charger

1 3 5
øA'
øB' (+)
øC'

4 6 2
øA (-)

øB
øC 1 3 5
øA''
(-) øB''
øC''

4 6 2

*Dual-Bridge Charger

The dual-bridge charger design eliminates the 5th and 7th harmonics, thus reducing the total harmonic distortion
(THD) to 12%. The main harmonic component is the 11th order (frequency - 600 HZ).

Input Current Distortion (12%)

The dual-bridge design is typically used in UPSs rated 200 kVA and above.
Note: Input current distortion can be further reduced by adding a tuned filter at the input of the UPS.
• Inverter

The inverter utilizes two types of semiconductors:

A. Transistor
+

C1

C2

-
C1
L2
L3
N

Transistorized Inverter

Transistors are typically used on UPSs rated 150 kVA and below. The transistorized UPSs are smaller in size since
they use fewer components. The limiting factor for not using transistors on higher rated UPSs is the current rating
of the transistor itself; for that reason, a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) inverter is used.

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B. SCR
(+)

C' C B' B A'

(-)
Auxilary
SCR's
Main
SCR's
Delta/Zig aug Output Transformer

øA
øB Output B
øC
µ

Output
Filter

SCR Inverter

SCR-based inverter designs are used on UPSs in the 200kVA power rating and above. But the determining factor
of the inverter performance is the switching method of the semiconductor (transistor on SCR) in order to produce
AC output power.
The two basic switching technologies are:
- Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) switching technology

+E The fundamental frequency

of the signal produces
the desired sine wave.

-E

PWM Switching

The semiconductors are switched "ON" and "OFF" multiple times each half cycle. The number of pulses and the
frequency are dependent on:
• Percentage of load on the UPS output
• DC bus voltage (inverter increases its switching frequency as the battery discharges).
• Type of load applied at the UPS (high-crest factor or non-linear loads will cause the inverter to increase its
switching frequency to supply the peak current without deforming the output voltage waveform).
The PWM inverter has superior performance: 1) low voltage transient for 100% step load change, 2) faster
feedback response and recovery time, 3) low output voltage distortion when supplying 100% non-linear loads with
high crest factor and 4) static stop feature for inverter reverse power protection.

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- Six Step Switching Technology

Wave
Shape

Six-Step Switching

In the six-step switching technology, the semiconductors are switched "ON" and "OFF" six times each half cycle.
The six pulses are constant regardless of:
• Percentage of load on the UPS output.
• DC bus voltage
• Type of load applied at the UPS (linear, non-linear). Since the number of pulses is constant (six), the
inverter is not able to supply high-peak currents (non-linear loads) but, in turn, will "current limit" causing
an increase in the UPS output voltage distortion. Typically, a six-step inverter is capable of supporting 50%
non-linear load with a 9% to 12% output voltage distortion (THD).
The performance of the inverter is also limited and 1) cannot support 100% step-load change, 2) has slower
feedback response and recovery time, 3) cannot support above 50% non-linear load and 4) for reverse power
protection, an assembly with power fuses is installed on the output of the inverter that prevents cascade damage
in case of inverter failure. These fuses will also clear in case of user mis-operation of the UPS during transfer to
and from bypass.
• Static Switch
The static switch consists of two SCRs per phase (total of six) connected back to back. The forward biased SCR
will trigger the positive half cycle and the reversed biased triggers the negative half cycle. The static switch is used
to apply or disconnect AC power by gating the SCR "ON" or "OFF" consecutively. Two different static switch
designs are available.
- In-Line
The static switch assembly is installed in series with the main power line.

ISN

STATIC SWITCH
0.5

CHARGER INVERTER ISN OSN

OUTPUT
FUSES

In-Line Static Switch

To apply power, the SCR’s are gated "ON" continuously. This design is typically used on UPSs rated 150 kVA and
below.

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Wrap Around
For UPSs rated 200 kVA and above (high power), a wrap-around static switch is used. In this configuration, the
static switch is installed in parallel with a circuit breaker.
STATIC
SWITCH

CBJ

RECTIFIER/BATTERY
CHARGER INVERTER
CBJ CBJ

Wrap-around Static Switch schematic

The operation of the static switch is the same as the in-line’s except the static switch is triggered momentarily (up
to 10 seconds) allowing enough time for the mechanical circuit breaker to open or close and assume the load
power.

III. SWITCHMODE POWER SUPPLIES

Switchmode power supplies (SPS) are widely used in data processing and office machine products. The usage
of SPS’s has these advantages:
• Gain in efficiency
• Performance enhancement
• Remarkable reduction in size
• Reduction in weight
• Cost savings
These are the key factors in selecting and utilizing switchmode power supplies. While these features greatly
benefit the computing equipment, the SPS’s have some potential problems that must be recognized in order to
achieve a safe and well-operating system.
The SPS’s are one form of non-linear loads. They draw the current from the power source in a non-sinusoidal or
non-linear form. Under his condition, the current flows in relatively short duration pulses during the peak portion
of each voltage half cycle.

SINEWAVE
HIGH
CREST-FACTOR

Non-Linear Current Waveform

The repetitive duration of this waveform increases the ratio of the peak current to the root mean square (RMS).
This ratio is defined as the crest factor (CF). In linear loads (or a clean sinusoidal current waveform), the CF is
1.414, but on some switchmode power supplies, the ratio CF can be as high as 3.

CF = Ip

I ms

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Recommendation to reduce the effects of non-linear loads:
Non-linear loads can cause multiple problems on the electrical distribution network. These problem vary from
nuisance tripping of circuit breakers to major failures of power transformers due to overheating. These problems
can be reduced or even eliminated through proper design and guidelines.
The following is a summary of problems that can be caused by non-linear loads. Also, some guidelines are offered
that will allow you to design or improve the quality of power in your building.
1. SYMPTOM: Neutral conductors and connection overheating. This leads to the failure of the neutral
conductor that can cause damage to the loads.

The neutral current can be as high as 173% of the phase nominal current and balancing the phase line currents
on a three-phase electrical system will not necessarily reduce the neutral current. The neutral current is rich with
harmonics, mainly consisting of the 3rd harmonics (frequency - 180 Hz). These harmonics add up in the neutral
wire of the power source and cause the current value to increase above the phase current.

FUNDAMENTAL = 60 HZ

5th

1A

3rd

question FUNDAMENTAL = 60 HZ

5th

1A

3rd

question FUNDAMENTAL = 60 HZ

5th

1A

3rd

Neutral Current

1: SOLUTION: Properly size the neutral wire to handle the excessive harmonics current. It is
recommended to size the neutral cable 200% of the phase current. It is also
recommended to run a separate neutral wire for each output load; using a shared neutral
wire will increase the current that can cause overheating.

2. SYMPTOM: Power transformer overheating and insulation damage that results in transformer failure.

2. SOLUTION: Select three phase transformers with the following characteristics:

• Low internal impedance, preferably below 7%. Low impedance transformers provide
better performance and less voltage distortion (peak voltage reduction). (Refer to
Symptom 4.)

• Three-legged core construction with a delta primary and wye secondary will eliminate
the transmission of the 3rd harmonics (frequency - 180 Hz) to the primary winding, thus
reducing the effects of the non-linear loads on the main utility power source.

• Select transformers with thermal protection devices; this will prevent cascading failures.

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Where a substantial portion of the load consists of single-phase switchmode power supplies (SPSs), a site power
survey should be conducted to determine the peak and RMS current values. If this data is not available, a
conservative derating factor can be applied:
1.414 X RMS PHASE LOAD CURRENT divided by the PEAK LOAD CURRENT
This will typically result in a derating factor of 0.75 and may be even lower where the peak current is unusually
high. The transformer design and construction will also affect the derating factor. Ask the transformer
manufacturer for their recommendations.
3. SYMPTOM: Incorrect current measurement which leads to system overload, transformers overheating
and cable undersizing.

3. SOLUTION: The current waveform of a switchmode power supply is very distorted. Using an average
current measurement method will result in lower readings than the actual current flowing.
It is recommended to measure the current using a true RMS current meter. This method
of measurement will include the fundamental (60 Hz) and all other harmonics which reflect
the actual current.

4. SYMPTOM: Increase in the voltage distortion by reducing the peak voltage )current limit) and/or
deformation of the voltage waveform.

Peak Voltage Distortion

4. SOLUTION: The recommendation detailed in Solutions 1, 2, and 3 will help eliminate this problem on
the utility power source, transformers and power distribution equipment.

Effects of non-linear loads on UPS:

Symptoms described in 1, 2, 3, and 4 can also have the same effects on power protection equipment (UPS). The
solutions detailed above should also apply , but additional points must be considered as well. The UPS converts
the utility AC power into DC voltage then converts it back to a regulated AC output voltage. This sequence takes
place during normal and emergency (on battery) modes of operation for an on-line UPS, and only during
emergency mode for stand-by and off-line UPS. In all three systems, the UPS isolated the load from the main
utility power and the UPS is considered the power source. Therefore, the UPS must be properly rated and sized
to handle non-linear loads. The UPS as specified, generates a clean, well-regulated AC output; the voltage
specifications are set by the UPS and computer manufacturer. The UPS output voltage regulation is typically +/-
1% of the nominal value, and the total output voltage harmonic distortion (THD) should not exceed the 5% voltage
distortion limit. Increasing the voltage distortion can cause:
• Overheating of the power supply internal to the computing equipment.
• Impair the ride-through capability of the computer.
• Reduce load performance and regulation.
• Communication errors and data loss.
These problems and others can lead to hardware damage and extended down time.

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The following shows the effects of a non-linear load on the output voltage of three different UPSs.

Different UPS Output Voltage Distortion with Non-Linear Loads

The above indicates that the same computer load or non-linear load has three different effects on different UPS
designs. These effects are reflected in an increase in the output voltage distortion (THD) and reduction in the
overall performance and characteristics of the UPS.
To avoid major problems with the UPS and expensive repair cost after the installation, the following should be
clearly defined by the user and fully specified by the UPS manufacturer:
"The UPS shall be capable of supporting 100% non-linear loads with a crest factor of 3
without increasing the output voltage harmonic distortion above 5%. If the UPS is not
capable of supplying 100% non-linear load with crest factor of 3, the UPS manufacturer
shall specify the power derating factor, and the maximum load-crest factor the UPS can
support without increasing the output voltage harmonic distortion above 5%.

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4. MTBF CALCULATION and DEFINITION

The term "uninterruptible" in the UPS implies that the system never fails. However, like any electrical system,
failure will occur at some point in time. The reliability of the system is a function of the component selected, the
environment of the UPS and the proper operation and maintenance of the UPS.
Terms and Definitions
Reliability - The reliability of the system is the probability that the system will fulfill its task under the given
conditions for the predetermined period of time.
Instantaneous Failure Rate - The instantaneous failure rate " " is the probability that the system operated up to
time "t" will experience a failure during subsequent interval "dt" which follows.
For the majority of material, the interval " " with respect to time is illustrated by the curve:

λ
A B C

Reliability Curve

This may be considered in three distinct periods:

Period A: Infant Mortality - This period corresponds to the failure due to initial
burn-in of the components.
Period B: Normal Life Span - During this period, the rate of failure is both low and
stable.
Period C: Old Age - During this period, components have aged and normal
failure due to wear and tear are anticipated.
Average Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) - the MTBF is the time (in average statistics) that passes between
two successive failures of a component or system. The MTBF us represented by the equation:
MTBF = 1
λ

The MTBF can be calculated in two ways:

1. Theoretically: Calculated using the reliability data available for the individual components and
the constraints applied by them,
or
2. Empirically: Based upon failure reported on installed equipment operating within its normal
environment. The latter method reflects the quality of the material in its own
environment.
Average Repair Time - Mean Time to Repair (MTTR): The average MTTR is the time necessary to re-establish
normal operation of the system from the occurrence of the fault or failure.

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System Configuration and Data Calculation:
The UPS principle module is comprised of four basic sections:
1. Rectifier (R)
2. Battery (B)
3. Inverter (I)
4. Static Switch (SS)
The electrical scheme of the UPS:
STATIC SWITCH (SS)

BYPASS AC
INPUT (S2)

CRITICAL
LOAD
RECTIFIER/BATTERY CHARGER (R) INVERTER (I)

BATTERY (B)

UPS Electrical Scheme

The reliability of the UPS:

(S2)

CRITICAL
(SS) LOAD

(R) (B) (I)

UPS Reliability Scheme

In the reliability layout, as seen by the load, the principle module, comprised of Rectifier (R), Battery, (B), and the
Inverter (I) are in series and the sum is in parallel with the Bypass AC Input (S2). The subsystem which comprise
the Static Switch (SS) is in series with the parallel configuration.
During normal operation, the UPS is supplying power to the load. Any failure in the principle modules (either R, B
or I) will cause a power transfer from the UPS Inverter to the Bypass AC Input (S2) through the Static Switch (S2).
Although the principle module has failed (MTBF UPS), the load was not effected. A load power failure (MTBF
TOTAL) is caused only when both the UPS principle module and the Bypass AC Input (S2) fail at the same time.
1 = λr = 1 + 1
MTBF T MTBF UPS + MTBF S2 + MTBFUPS • MTBVS2 MTBF SS
MTTR*

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5. Grounding

Proper grounding procedures are essential to the operation of an uninterruptible power system (UPS), as well as
personal safety and critical load equipment protection. The National Electric Code (NEC) and applicable local
codes must be followed.
The following drawings provide various source and load configurations for properly grounding the UPS. If your
configuration is not one of the six drawings, please contact MGE UPS Systems, Technical Support Services.

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