Prediction and Real-time Monitoring Techniques for Corrosion

Characterisation in Furnaces

Temi M. Linjewile, James Valentine and Kevin A. Davis

Reaction Engineering International

N.S. Harding
N.S. Harding & Associates

William M. Cox
Corrosion Management

ABSTRACT
Combustion modifications to minimise NOx emissions have led to the existence of reducing
conditions in furnaces. As regulations demand lower NOx levels, it is possible (to a degree)
to continue to address these requirements with increased levels of combustion air staging.
However, in most practical situations, a number of adverse impacts prevent the application of
deep combustion air staging. One of the more important limitations is the increased
corrosion that can occur on wall tubes exposed to fuel rich combustion environments.
Current boiler corrosion monitoring techniques rely on ultrasonic tube wall thickness
measurements typically conducted over 12 to 24 month intervals during scheduled outages.
Corrosion coupons are also sometimes used; typically require considerable exposure time to
provide meaningful data. The major drawback of these methods is that corrosion information
is obtained after the damage has been done. Management of boiler waterwall loss and system
optimisation therefore requires a real-time indication of corrosion rate in susceptible regions
of the furnace. This paper describes the results of a program of laboratory trials and field
investigations and considers the use of an on-line technology in combination with innovative
applications of CFD modelling and precision metrology to better manage waterwall loss in
fossil fuelled boilers while minimising NOx emissions.

INTRODUCTION
Combustion modifications, including low-NOx burners (LNBs) and over-fire air (OFA) have
proven to be one of the most cost-effective solutions for minimisation of NOx emissions.
This approach however often leads to the existence of reducing conditions and flame
impingement at waterwalls. As regulations demand lower NOx levels, it is often possible to
address these requirements with increased combustion air staging. However, in most
practical situations, a number of adverse impacts prevent the application of deep staging.
One of the more important limitations is the increased extent of waterwall corrosion. In
utility boilers, for example, staging has increased the frequency and severity of waterwall
wastage, with rates exceeding 2.5 mm/yr in some units. The industry-wide significance of
this problem is pointed out by EPRI estimates indicating that fireside corrosion costs the U.S.
electric power industry up to $590 million per year [1].
The susceptibility of particular units has been attributed to the effects of several features
including fuel selection, tube temperature, and firing system design. Formulating solutions to
this problem can be complicated by the range of potential corrosion mechanisms, which can
involve gas-phase sulphur and/or chlorine in addition to the direct deposition of unreacted
fuel. The physics and chemistry controlling corrosion processes can be highly non-linear.

1
Therefore, brief periods of exposure to unusual conditions can dominate the overall material
loss between inspections. Due to the complex relationships between corrosion and its
controlling factors, in addition to the difficulty in assigning periods of high corrosion to
specific operational factors, the ability to understand, monitor, and manage boiler waterwall
loss could be dramatically improved through the application of predictive modelling
techniques along with a verifiable, real-time corrosion monitoring system.

APPROACH
The availability of practical tools for analysing corrosion in a coal-fired boiler is limited.
Waterwall corrosion is thought to be dependent upon local waterwall conditions and their
relationship to fuel properties, operating conditions, and boiler/firing system configuration.
Therefore a predictive model requires 3D, two-phase computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
software that incorporates relationships between corrosion rates and these local conditions.
Although there are no broadly accepted correlations a few useful relationships have been
developed.
On-line high-temperature corrosion monitoring is also a developing technology. An
evaluation of existing technologies revealed that no real-time monitoring options had
achieved industry-wide acceptance. It was important, therefore, for any monitoring
technology used to be verified against physical measurements during a period of stable
operation. As boilers are rarely operated in a stable manner for an extended period (e.g. due
to load variation, fuel property variation, and operator tendencies), it was considered useful
that such checks might be undertaken during a period as short as a single operator’s shift.
With these concepts in mind, this paper focuses on the development of CFD tools and field
instrumentation to use in a complementary approach to corrosion management. The
following sections detail progress in these three areas, i.e. CFD modelling, electrochemical
monitoring and surface profilometry, as applied to several coal-fired utility boilers.
CFD MODELING
The predictive modelling tool discussed herein was based on the CFD code GLACIER [2],
which had been tailored for application to reacting, two-phase flow systems. The approach to
modelling the fate of fuel/ash particles provided a convenient basis for implementing
descriptions of phenomena such as deposition and corrosion. The mean path and dispersion
of an ensemble of particles, referred to as a “particle cloud,” were tracked in a Lagrangian
reference frame. Dispersion of the cloud was determined with input from the turbulent gas
flow field. Particle mass, momentum, and energy sources were coupled to the gas flow field
through a particle-source-in-cell technique [3]. Particle reaction processes included coal
devolatilisation, char oxidation, and liquid evaporation. Waterwall deposition was accounted
for by evaluating particle/wall interactions.
Corrosion rates in a boiler can be predicted using GLACIER in conjunction with empirical
correlations relating corrosion rates with predicted properties of the boiler. Although the
mechanisms responsible for the corrosion of furnace waterwall tubes are not generally agreed
upon, recent work indicated there may be three mechanisms for waterwall wastage in U.S.
coal-fired boilers [4-8]:
• Gas-phase attack by reduced sulphur species such as H2S
• Deposition of unreacted fuel and resulting sulphur-based attack
• Chlorine-based attack

2
Currently, the details of these mechanisms are topics of active discussion. However,
laboratory, pilot-scale and full-scale work was performed from which specific correlations
were developed for each of these mechanisms. In addition Reaction Engineering
International and EPRI have applied these correlations within CFD simulations for a number
of utility boilers and, with little modification to the correlations, have been able to effectively
demonstrate their usefulness based on field observations.
Hydrogen Sulphide
The presence of reduced sulphur species near furnace waterwalls is known to result in tube
metal corrosion. Correlations based on laboratory experiments were developed relating
corrosion rates to tube temperature, steel composition, and H2S concentration [4, 5]. By
implementing one such correlation [4] into a post-processor for use with GLACIER, local
corrosion rates may be estimated for coal-fired boilers. The correlation requires local
information regarding tube temperature and H2S concentration as well as the weight %
chromium of the tube material. Recent studies have shown that this gas-phase mechanism
tends to result in a second order effect for boilers that are experiencing high corrosion rates
(>0.5 mm/yr). As illustrated in Figure 1, even at temperatures and H2S concentrations at the
high end of the range encountered in coal-fired boilers, the corrosion rates from gas-phase
sulphur attack are limited.
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.4 Tube Temp = 343 C

Tube Temp = 443 C

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

H2S Concentration (ppm)

Figure 1 - Corrosion rate as a function of tube temperature and H2S concentration, as

predicted by an existing correlation [4]
Deposition of Unreacted Fuel
The magnitude of corrosion rates in the lower furnace of coal-fired boilers that have been
retrofitted with LNBs and OFA has exceeded that expected from a strictly gas-phase attack
involving sulphur. The presence of sulphur in wall deposits has been implicated as a possible
explanation for this behaviour [9]. Providing a detailed description of the sulphur-containing
material depositing on waterwalls requires more than a simple description of fuel pyrolysis
and oxidation. For example, fuel-sulphur can exist in multiple forms including pyritic,
organic and sulphatic forms. In addition, during pulverisation, much of the pyritic fraction
can be separated from the organic matrix (herein referred to as excluded). The thermal
decomposition and oxidation of the sulphur can occur at rates that are dissimilar to the bulk

3
coal. In addition, the aerodynamics of the typically smaller denser excluded pyrite can result
in particle trajectories that vary from the bulk coal. In order to more accurately model the
transport and deposition of sulphur within a coal-fired boiler, the following steps can be
taken:
• Computer-Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy (CCSEM) characterisation of
the fuel
• Separate treatment of the thermal decomposition and oxidation of excluded pyrite and
included sulphur forms (pyritic and organic)
The thermal decomposition and oxidation of excluded pyrite has been studied in detail and
the model of Srinivasachar and Boni [10] was the basis for the approach implemented in
GLACIER [11]. CCSEM analyses can be
used to define the size of the pyrite 1.2

particles and the amount in Carbon

Fraction of Initial Remaining

1
excluded/included form. Although the Total Sulfur
Pyrite
evolution of pyritic and organic sulphur 0.8
Organic Sulfur
from within the coal matrix is not well
0.6
understood, a complementary lab-scale
study [12] has provided insight for the 0.4
detailed modelling approach. This study
0.2
of four coals suggested that organic
sulphur was released in proportions 0
roughly equivalent to that of the bulk coal 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

as illustrated in Figure 2. However, % Burnout

sulphur from pyrite, while also released in

a nearly proportional manner during Figure 2. Sulfur release during coal char
oxidation, was preferentially released oxidation [12]
during pyrolysis. The extent of pyrite
decomposition seemed to vary from coal to
coal indicating that an accurate accounting may require coal-specific testing.
Based on these models for pyrite and organic sulphur evolution, as well as EPRI laboratory
studies to quantify the impact of sulphur deposition on waterwall wastage, corrosion rate
correlations have been developed and evaluated using several test cases. In general terms
this CFD-based effort illustrates that this approach can be used with very good agreement
between predicted and observed corrosion rates. Figure 3 is an example of this comparison
for a large pulverised coal-fired boiler.

4
 Rear Wall Side Wall Front Wall Center Wall

(max = 2 mm/yr) (max = 0.65 mm/yr) (max = 2.35 mm/yr) (max = 0.73 mm/yr)

> 1.75
(scale for simulations) mm/yr

Figure 3 - Field measurements and CFD-based predictions of waterwall wastage

The figure shows a comparison between measured ultrasonic tube wall thickness contours for
the waterwall and CFD predictions. This and the other test cases suggest that this tool can be
applied to a range of firing configurations, firing rates and fuel types.

Chlorides
The critical role of chlorine in specific boiler environments has been accepted for many
years. The experience in the UK power industry has been documented in several studies at
various scales [6] and the impact of chlorine in corrosion processes within waste boilers is
well recognised. Further, the potential for chlorine-associated corrosion in biomass-fired
boilers has recently been investigated by Nielsen et al. [7]. However, the mechanism by
which this corrosion process occurs and the conditions under which chlorine plays an
important role within coal-fired boilers are not established. Recently, efforts have been made
to reconcile conflicting conclusions in this area and to focus on quantitative correlations
under relevant conditions [8]. These correlations, which involve coal chlorine content, heat
flux, and tube temperature, were added to the corrosion predictor model and evaluated
through application to a few boilers that were (1) experiencing severe corrosion problems and
(2) burning high chlorine coal. In each case, the location and approximate rate of corrosion
indicated agreed reasonably well with field observations.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MONITORING

The CFD tools mentioned previously provide valuable insight in diagnosing existing
corrosion problems and in identifying the potential impact of fuel, firing system, or boiler
modifications. However, effective management of corrosion within a boiler often requires
real-time measurements. Serious tube damage can occur in relatively brief time frames due
to a number of potential irregularities that can be difficult to identify from control

5
instrumentation, such as excursions in fuel properties, equipment failure, malfunction of
sensors providing feedback for control loops, or operator error. A real-time sensor that can
detect the overall contribution of such effects on the relative corrosivity of the combustion
gas to the tube material allows the damaging conditions to be recognised and addressed
immediately. Real time sensing complements CFD modelling in other ways; high
temperature corrosion mechanisms in coal-fired boilers are not well understood and the
robustness of the available empirical correlations is not well known. At best such
correlations should be considered only to be semi-quantitative in nature. In addition, it is
often difficult to develop a complete and accurate description of the various inputs for a
model of a coal-fired boiler (e.g., fuel and air distribution, wall deposition conditions). A real
time electrochemical sensor therefore can provide important verification of the validity of the
input description, and a ‘safety net’ if unanticipated or undisclosed circumstances – such as
an unexpected change in fuel supply source – place the boiler at risk.

Monitoring high temperature corrosion in a reliable, effective, and timely manner is a

challenging task. Techniques that have been effective for identifying corrosion after-the-fact
include visual inspection and ultrasonic tube-thickness measurement. Under conventional
combustion conditions, corrosion rates in a boiler typically should be less than 0.25 mm/yr
and off-line inspection techniques allow plant personnel to track tube damage rates during
scheduled outages. However, as a result of the widespread introduction of reducing
combustion conditions for NOx control, and the increased time between scheduled outages,
costly tube failures due to waterwall corrosion have become more common. Retrospective
damage quantification techniques provide little insight into the causes of corrosion and make
it difficult to do much more than repair the damage, often during forced outages. Corrosion
coupons could be used to evaluate corrosion rates between outages, and additional analyses
may provide some understanding of a particular mechanism involved. However, accurate
control of the operating temperature of such coupons is difficult and the results of coupon
tests are notoriously unreliable. Corrosion damage may occur over a period of several
months and the resulting information is therefore of limited value in improving control or
evaluating the impact of specific operating conditions, or even characterising fuel properties,
though the use of specially tailored coupons, in combination with optical or scanning
microscopy, has proven useful in pilot plant studies [8].

On Line Corrosion Monitoring Equipment

In order to obtain a real-time indication of corrosion risk, a measurement system based on

electrochemical sensing was utilised, The system comprised a temperature-controlled
electrochemical sensor, signal conditioning and data acquisition modules, a temperature
controller, cooling air supply and a computer for data processing. The instrumentation data
acquisition modules and temperature controller were enclosed in a rugged dust-free metal
enclosure. Air cooling enabled the operating temperature of the sensor elements to be
controlled at the same temperature as the adjacent boiler tubes.
The principle of operation of the instrument is that spontaneous fluctuations in the electrical
potential and current signals measured occur during corrosion. The fluctuations are
converted to a digital signals and supplied to a computerised data acquisition unit. An
estimate of the rate of corrosion, ICorr,, is obtained by replacing the polarisation resistance
(Rp) in the standard Stern-Geary equation and converting the corrosion current value so
obtained to an equivalent metal loss rate by application of Faraday’s Law [13]:

6
 B
I Corr =
Rn
where B is the Stern-Geary coefficient.
Corrosion rate is computed as a product of the corrosion current density and the material
constant. The material constant is a term encompassing the atomic mass of the sensor plate
material, Faraday’s constant, number of electrons produced in the anodic reaction (2
electrons in this case), and the density of the plates.

Laboratory and Pilot-scale Corrosion Tests

During the past two decades, efforts have been made to take real time corrosion monitoring
technologies, which have been used successfully in low temperature applications, and exploit
their usefulness in higher temperature combustion environments. Although these adaptations
have been successful in certain industries [14], the power industry has been slow to take up
the technology. Following a preliminary evaluation of available technologies,
electrochemical sensing technology was identified as a promising option for further
development and evaluation [15].

Tests for studying the ability of the corrosion sensors to respond to changing combustion
stoichiometry were conducted in a pilot-scale combustion test facility at the University of
Utah. Figure 4 shows the results of a particular test where stoichiometry was varied from
0.85 to 0.95. It is clear from the figure that the corrosion rate is influenced by combustion
stoichiometry.

0.25
S.R. = 0.90 S.R. = 0.95 S.R. = 0.90 S.R. = 0.85
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0
1/26 13:40 1/26 20:20 1/27 3:00 1/27 9:40 1/27 16:20 1/27 23:00

Date/Time
Figure 4 - Corrosion rate responding to changes in combustion stoichiometry.

It is manifested that the more reducing the conditions, the higher is the corrosion rate. Harb
and Smith [16] report that reducing conditions are a consequence of poor combustion
conditions resulting in low oxygen concentration, increased CO concentrations and the
presence of H2S.

Full-scale Plant Corrosion Tests

7
A formal field test was arranged in order to further evaluate the qualitative and quantitative
reliability of the technology in an industrially relevant environment. In addition, following
the set-up period, the reliability of remote control data collection was considered. A
schematic of the 600 MWe, supercritical boiler and a photograph of the probe in “Location
B” are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 - Field testing of an electrochemical corrosion monitoring system

During this field test the monitoring system was initially installed with the sensor probe
located in an existing port through an alcove in the windbox (the ductwork used to carry
heated combustion air). This port is roughly ten feet above the upper row of burners.
Subsequently, the probe was removed and inserted into a second existing port located just
above the windbox [17]. Following a brief shakedown period, the system was used without
incident under harsh conditions including the high ambient temperatures within the windbox
alcove and a brief outage during which the waterwalls (and probe) were cleaned with high-
pressure water.

Qualitative comparisons between the indicated corrosion rate and the operating conditions
within the boiler resulted in clear, often near-instantaneous, responses. In general, as load
increased, corrosion rate also increased. This is consistent with the sulphur-deposition-based
mechanism referred to previously. Figure 6 presents a sample of data collected over a 24-
hour period.

Although the bulk of the data, collected over a period of roughly 9 weeks in two locations,
indicated a clear relationship between load and corrosion, a causal relationship was more

8
difficult to identify with certainty because operating conditions other than firing rate also
vary with load.

0.16 1600

Furnace Exit
0.14 Gas Temperature 1400

(FEGT)

FEGT (C), Boiler Load (MW)

0.12 1200
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.1 1000

Boiler Load
0.08 800

0.06 600

0.04 400

0.02 200
Corrosion Rate
0 0
9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/20/01 9/21/01
0:00 2:24 4:48 7:12 9:36 12:00 14:24 16:48 19:12 21:36 0:00

Date and Time

Figure 6 - Real-time corrosion rate data compared to historical plant data (from the Plant
Information or PITM System)

For example, excess air, certainly an important factor in waterwall corrosion, typically
increases at lower loads. However, constant load tests over 24 hour periods at excess O2
levels from 2.4 to 3.0 percent resulted in very similar average corrosion rates [12] and
displayed no indication of increasing corrosion at the lower oxygen concentration. In
addition, there other evidence to supported the deposition-based mechanism:

• Periods of high heat flux, as determined by large temperature gradients across the
sensor elements, corresponded to periods of noticeably higher corrosion.

• Significantly higher average rates of corrosion were recorded at probe location “B,”
which displayed a greater accumulation of deposited material. Figure 7 compares the
corrosion rate data and probe face photographs (immediately following removal)
corresponding to the two different probe locations.

An additional feature of Figure 7 worth noting is that the one period (near the middle of the
test), where boiler load is high and corrosion rate is relatively low, corresponded to a period
of unusually low heat flux detected during the test.

9
 700 0.07
Boiler Load

Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

600 0.06

500 0.05

Load (MW)
400 0.04

300 0.03

200 0.02
Corrosion Rate
100 0.01

0 0
8/22 8/27 9/1
Date
700 1.4

Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

600 1.2
Boiler Load
500 1
Load (MW)

400 0.8

300 0.6

200 0.4
Corrosion Rate
100 0.2

0 0
9/11 9/16 9/21 9/26
Date

Figure 7 - Real-time corrosion rate data over roughly two-week periods and photographs
of the resulting probe face deposition

Qualitatively, the field test results were consistent. The response of the system to changes in
boiler operating conditions and probe sensor temperature was logical and highly sensitive.
Subsequent installations may incorporate modifications of the hardware and evolution of the
software, but the sensor, control hardware, electronics, and computational hardware/software
were reliable and generally robust. However, another key element of the field tests involved
evaluating the quantitative accuracy of the corrosion rate indication.

SURFACE PROFILOMETRY
Techniques for quantitative measurement of material corrosion are available in the form of
corrosion “coupons.” However, as discussed previously, this technique typically requires
time periods ranging from weeks to months. In order to provide a direct measurement for
comparison/validation of the electrochemical approach used herein, a new approach to
corrosion coupons was required. The goal was to perform tests over short periods of time
during which the conditions and resulting corrosion rates varied little. This made it possible
to evaluate the accuracy of the electrochemical technique over a range of conditions. The
technique developed involved the use of specially prepared sensor elements, which includes a
corrosion resistant border to identify the uncorroded surface plane. Corrosion tests of a

10
predetermined duration were performed for a specific set of conditions. The sensor was then
disassembled and the electrodes were cleaned with a soft brush to remove loose solids from
the surface, and was then immersed in Clarke’s solution, according to ASTM G1-81 7.7.2 to
remove residual corrosion products. After the cleaning, the plates were again characterised
using the profilometer. Figure 8 shows the profilometer scans of a sensor element after a 72-
hour exposure to a moist gaseous environment containing 2100 ppm HCl and 100 ppm CO at
500°C.

Figure 8. Surface profile of a corroded sensor element showing the inert reference border at
the left and right hand side edges

The profilometer data was processed with in-house software that determined the volume of
material removed and this was compared directy with the integral of the calculated
electrochemical corrosion rate over the test period. The approach had very high resolution
and was be performed on sensor elements that had been exposed for periods as brief as 8
hours (or one shift at the plant). Uncertainties involved in this comparison include the
removal of corrosion product, a possibility of unequal corrosion between the three sensor
elements involved (though they were clearly very close together during the exposure period),
and the effects of signal averaging. However, applying this technique during two test
periods in the field and three test periods under less corrosive conditions in the laboratory,
the results were very promising, as is illustrated in Figure 9.

11
 18
L- Laboratory test in 100 MBtu/hr furnace
F7
16 F5- Field test in 680 MW Coal-fired Boiler (5th floor)
F7 - Field test in 680 MW Coal-fired Boiler (7th floor)
14
Corrosion Depth (micron)

12

10

6
F5
4

2
L
L L
L
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Profilometry Corrosion Depth (micron)

Figure 9 - Comparison of the average depth of material removed as indicated by

electrochemical signals and by direct physical measurement

CONCLUSIONS

The complex relationship between corrosion and fuel properties, firing systems, and
operating conditions in a coal-fired boiler can make it difficult to predict, diagnose, and
manage waterwall wastage. It is therefore important to apply tools that can bring close focus
and control to future boiler operation. The results of recent investigations demonstrate that
the combination of CFD with real-time sensing technology has the capability to improve the
precision of control and reduce unforeseen or unexpected corrosion risk.

Application of these tools will vary based according to the needs of a particular situation, but
their use could include the following:

• Real-time management of corrosion risk in the radiant section and superheater

sections of power generation boilers.

• Short-term evaluation of available fuel characteristics, deposit analyses, tube

temperature measurements, and heat flux measurements to identify and avoid
corrosion damage in boilers, furnaces, heaters and other types of combustion plant.

• Predictive off-line CFD simulations of the boiler combustion characteristics over a

range of relevant fuel/load/environmental conditions.

12
 • Correlation of CFD predictions with plant observables, including flue gas analyses,
tube maintenance history, and tube wall ultrasonic test data to refine model inputs and
accuracy, and to identify potential trouble spots and key fuel properties, combustion
modifications (i.e. LNBS and OFA), and desirable operating regimes.

• Use of real-time monitoring and CFD modelling to investigate, characterise and avoid
the causes of specific negative plant service life experience.

• Validation of the quantitative accuracy of on-line techniques by means of precision

metrology.

• Use of CFD modelling to develop guidelines for optimising the boiler operation,
based on plant-specific considerations including NOx emissions, carbon-in-flyash,
and waterwall wastage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The corrosion-specific CFD model development was funded by EPRI with technical
guidance from and under the supervision of Wate Bakker and Tony Facchiano. The
fundamental development aspects of this program were funded by the Department of Energy
/NETL through contract DE-FC26-00NT40753 under the supervision of Bruce Lani and
Soung-Sik Kim. The formal field-testing was funded by the Ohio Coal Development Office
through contract CDO/D-99-12 under the supervision of Howard Johnson. Field test support
was provided by FirstEnergy under the direction of Robert Walters.

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Simulations of Industrial Furnaces,” Computational Technologies for
Fluid/Thermal/Chemical Systems with Industrial Applications, ASME, pp 117-124,
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3 Crowe, C. T., Sharma, M. D., and Stock, D. E., The Particle-Source-in-Cell (PSI-
Cell) Model for Gas-Droplet Flows. J. Fluids Eng. 99, 325-332 (1977).
4 Kung S. Prediction of Corrosion Rate for Alloys Exposed to Reducing/Sulphidising
Combustion Gases. NACE Conference on Corrosion '97. March, 97-136, (1997).
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Conference on Boiler Tube Failures in Fossil Plants, Nashville, TN, November,
(1997).
6 James, P. J., and Pinder, L. W., “Effect of coal chlorine on the fireside corrosion of
boiler furnace wall and superheater/reheater tubing”, Materials at High
Temperatures, 14, (3), 187-196, (1997).

13
7 Nielsen, H. P., Frandsen, F. J., Dam-Johansen, K., and Baxter, L. L., “The
implications of chlorine-associated corrosion on the operation of biomass-fired
boilers”, Prog.Energy Combust. Sci., 26, 283-298, (2000).
8 Davis, C. J., James, P. J., Pinder, L. W., and Mehta, A. K., “Furnace Wall Fireside
Corrosion in PF-Fired Boilers: The Riddle Resolved”, Presented at United
Engineering Foundation Conference on Effects of Coal Quality on Power Plant
Management: Ash Problems, Management and Solutions, Park City, Utah, May
(2000).
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Culprit: FeS”, NACE Corrosion 2000, March, Orlando, Florida, 26-31, (2000).
10 Srinivasachar, S., Boni, A., “A kinetic model for pyrite transformations in a combus-
tion environment”, Fuel, 68, 829-836, (1989).
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waterwall wastage based on pyritic deposition and wall conditions”, United
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Snowbird, Utah, October (2001).

14
 FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1 - Corrosion rate as a function of tube temperature and H2S concentration, as

predicted by an existing correlation [4]

Figure 2 - Figure 2. Sulphur release during coal char oxidation [12]

Figure 3 - Field measurements and CFD-based predictions of waterwall wastage

Figure 4 - Corrosion rate responding to changes in combustion stoichiometry

Figure 5 - Field testing of an electrochemical corrosion monitoring system

Figure 6 - Real-time corrosion rate data compared to historical plant data (from the Plant
Information or PI System)

Figure 7 - Real-time corrosion rate data over roughly two week periods and photographs
of the resulting probe face deposition

Figure 8 - Surface profile of a corroded sensor element showing the inert reference border
at the left and right hand side edges

Figure 9 - Comparison of the average depth of material removed as indicated by

electrochemical signals and by direct physical measurement

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