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Elgar M G, AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY. In:

Encyclopedia of Archaeology, ed. by Deborah M. Pearsall. © 2008, Academic
Press, New York.
 Author's personal copy
110 AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY
Beyond human agency, such a theoretical orienta-
tion also holds much promise for furthering our mod-
els and understandings of material culture. Given that
social agency is not co-terminous with the human
body, we may begin to consider how objects, as ma-
terial extensions of the agency of those who produced
them, participate in this system of social relation-
ships. Following Alfred Gell’s pioneering work in
this area of investigation, we may begin to think
about how personhood is augmented, extended,
and distributed among the many objects fashioned
and employed in social action.
See also: Engendered Archaeology; Evolutionary Ar-
chaeology; Philosophy of Archaeology; Postproces-
sual Archaeology; Processual Archaeology.
Further Reading
Bourdieu P (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION
AND STUDY
M G Elgar, Washington State University, Pullman,
WA, USA
ã 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary
anthrosol A soil horizon created by human activities such as
cultivation, irrigation, middening or mining.
biolipid A hydrocarbon-containing organic compound derived
from plants or animals that is relatively stable over time. Analysis
of biolipid residues may be used to help identify the original
source of decayed plant or animal material.
bioturbation The disruption and mixing of soils and sediments
by organisms, especially by burrowing or boring (e.g., roots,
earthworms), which has the effect of homogenizing the original
strata.
lynchet A bank of earth commonly formed at the edges of fields
from plowing.
midden A prehistoric refuse deposit that may contain artifacts as
well as organic remains such as plants, bones and shell.
plaggen soil A surface anthrosol formed by long-term
manuring and mixing of the soil, usually from cultivation.
soil micromorphology The study of soil morphology by
microscopic methods, usually by studying thin-sections under a
polarizing microscope.
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
Dobres M-A (2000) Technology and Social Agency: Outlining
a Practice Framework for Archaeology. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers.
Dobres M-A and Robb J (eds.) (2000) Agency in Archaeology.
London: Routledge.
Gell A (1998) Art and Agency. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Gero J (2000) Troubled travels in agency and feminism. In: Dobres
M-A and Robb J (eds.) Agency in Archaeology, pp. 34–39.
London: Routledge.
Giddens A (1979) Central Problems in Social Theory. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Giddens A (1981) A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materi-
alism, Vol.1: Power, Property, and the State. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Giddens A (1984) The Constitution of Society: Outline of a Theory
of Structuration. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Johnson M (1989) Conceptions of agency in archaeological interpre-
tation. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 8(2): 189–211.
Ortner S (1984) Theory in anthropology since the sixties. Compar-
ative Studies in Society and History 26: 126–166.
Pauketat T (2000) The tragedy of the commoners. In: Dobres M-A
and Robb J (eds.) Agency in Archaeology, pp. 113–129. London:
Routledge.
Saitta D (1994) Agency, class, and archaeological interpretation.
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 13(3): 201–227.
Silliman S (2001) Agency, practical politics, and the archaeology of
culture contact. Journal of Social Archaeology 1(2): 190–209.
Introduction
The study of agriculture incorporates natural vari-
ables (e.g., climate, geology) with cultural variables
(e.g., technology). The off-site emphasis of field sys-
tems requires different methodological and theoreti-
cal frameworks to the overall study of agriculture.
Detailed investigations of fields reveal the practices
behind agricultural production and contributes to
understanding human agency and long-term human–
landscape interactions. These inquiries also place
agriculture in its ecological setting revealing relation-
ships between fields, topography, and environmental
conditions. For instance, we frequently find terraces
in hilly regions, whereas irrigation networks are
found in arid lands. Practices of this kind transform
natural land into agricultural substrates following
culturally defined blueprints. Alterations to the land-
scape – landscape modifications – are generally
enduring and are frequently cumulative in their
impacts. These qualities lend regional investigations
of fields to questions of agricultural intensification
and the long-term maintenance of farming systems.
 Author's personal copy
Table 1 Methods and applications for the study of agricultural fields by scale of analysis
Scale Primary methods
Region/ Aerial photography
Landscape Geographic Information Systems
Pedestrian survey
Published maps (e.g., political,
property, geological, soil)
Regional palaeoclimate reconstruction
Remote sensing
Satellite imagery
Garden/Field Architectural analysis
Feature mapping
Pedestrian survey
Seed bed Coring and excavation
Botanical: pollen, phytoliths,
macrobotanicals
Dating methods
Geoarchaeology: bulk soil analyses
(e.g., organic matter, nutrients,
particle size, biolipids); soil
micromorphology
Field system research strategies are scalar and three
levels of analysis are considered here: (1) regional/
landscape, (2) garden/field, and (3) the seedbed
(Table 1). These strategies are not exhaustive and
the primary literature offers additional approaches.
Identifying Field Systems
Intensive agriculture frequently involves the con-
struction of landscape architecture such as field
walls, terraces or lynchets, raised or ridged field fea-
tures, and irrigation systems (e.g., canals, aqueducts,
wells, water storage features) (Figure 1). These
features enclose natural land, aid crop production,
and engender land tenure. Field boundaries may
appear in political and property maps and, as they
are frequently maintained for generations, historical
maps may identify archaeological fields in regions
with long agricultural histories.
Aerial photography and satellite imagery capture
landscape architecture where it is still standing or is
near the surface and modern vegetation is minimal
(Figure 2). Remote sensing (e.g., ground-penetrating
radar, magnetrometry) can identify subsurface field
systems, particularly buried field walls and irrigation
features. Geological and soil maps help evaluate
natural resources. The value of these proxy records
should be evaluated through reconnaissance and
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY 111
Archaeological features Human practices
Field systems: walls, raised or ridged Adaptation to local conditions
fields, terraces, lynchets, leveled land Degree of landscape modification
Water management: irrigation Extent of bounded land
channels, aqueducts, drainage, General production capacity
water storage features Land units where field units visible
Occasionally: furrows, plow marks Water management and
catchment area
Architectural style Cultural associations
Artifact assemblages (e.g., hoe tips) Construction techniques and
Construction materials material sources
Dimensions of field features such as Landscape history (construction,
raised platforms or furrows remodeling, abandonment)
Evidence of reconstruction Planning
Tillage methods
Exposed soil to reveal: plowzone, Climate change
amendment and depletion, Crops
anthropogenic soils, plow features Cultural associations
Botanical remains Long-term landuse impacts
Buried artifacts, crop, furrow and Soil amendment (e.g., burning,
irrigation features fertilization, middening),
Dates of architectural features Soil depletion or overuse
Infilling and disruption of irrigation Tillage methods
features
Soil properties
survey of actual field systems on the ground. Geo-
graphical information systems (GISs) are employed
to integrate these multiple spatial data sets, speed
mapping of landscape architecture, and calculate the
cultivated area.
Irrigation systems rely on natural rainfall and hy-
draulic patterns, which should underpin their archae-
ological investigation. Changing water tables and
tectonics may complicate the reconstruction of irri-
gation systems and need to be addressed in field
investigations. Abandoned irrigation features can be
excavated to help deduce why they failed (e.g., grad-
ual silting up, catastrophic infill). In a study that
critically applies many of the methods highlighted
here, Tony Wilkinson (2003) investigated Near
Eastern agricultural landscapes and the role of irriga-
tion. Divergent agricultural adaptations were identi-
fied in the rain-fed northern uplands and the irrigated
fields of southern Mesopotamia. Reflecting the role
of agriculture in complex polities, this study provided
insight into different configurations of community
organization, political inequality, and authority sys-
tems. This exemplifies the potential contribution
of field system research to central questions in
archaeology.
The identification of extensive agriculture (i.e.,
swidden or slash-and-burn) provides a greater chal-
lenge to archaeologists. Scarce landscape architecture
 Author's personal copy
112 AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY
Figure 1 Inca terraces at Moray, Peru.
Figure 2 Aerial photograph of a Later Bronze Age field with plaggen A horizon defined by dark soil mark at Welland Bank Quarry, south
Lincolnshire, UK. Copyright Charles A. I. French.
limits the utility of aerial images and maps. Short
occupation may leave little trace on the soil. When
abandoned, extensive fields may blend into the sur-
rounding uncultivated ecology. In some instances,
burning and fertilization alter vegetation and soils
aiding in identification. In other instances, rare
constructed features within areas of swidden cultiva-
tion support the identification of cultivated areas.
Gardens and Fields
Pedestrian survey, feature mapping, and assessment
of architecture are used to study gardens and fields.
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
Ideally, a statistically representative number of fields
will be selected for study from the total cultivated
area. Variations in elevation, topography, architec-
ture, and associations to other archaeological features
should be considered in field selection.
As in other kinds of architecture, variations in de-
sign, construction materials, and quality of field archi-
tecture can provide information into such issues
as planning, labor, and prestige. The collection of arti-
fact assemblages from fields may shed light on farming
implements and cultural associations. The surface veg-
etation in old fields is another line of evidence as it often
differs from adjacent uncultivated land.
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AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY 113
The Seedbed
In ancient fields, excavation and coring reveal the
seedbed (plowzone or A horizon), which may be on
the modern surface or buried. Agricultural soils are
impacted by soil type, environment, crops, cultivation
regime (e.g., intensive or extensive), tools, and cultural
traditions. Geoarchaeological techniques are employed
to determine the fertility and stability of palaeosols.
Common bulk soil analyses include quantification of
crop-limiting nutrients (e.g., organic matter, phospho-
rus, nitrogen), soil particle size, and magnetic suscepti-
bility. Intact soil blocks are analyzed through soil
micromorphology (thin section analysis) to reveal pres-
ervation conditions by identifying soil structure, the
distribution of soil constituents, and bioturbation.
Geoarchaeological analyses of fields are best com-
pared to uncultivated lands for accurate assessment
of human impacts. Triplicate replication of soil con-
ditions (i.e., collecting samples from three fields with
similar physical settings) further controls for varia-
tions across agrarian landscapes (Figure 3). When
preservation is outstanding, excavation may unearth
anthropogenic features such as plow marks and
furrows (cf. Figures 2, 4a, and 4b).
Differences in soil color, nutrient concentration,
and soil particle size are used to identify land-use
impacts. Long-term soil management is seen from
the development of plaggen soils, dark nutrient-rich
anthropogenic soils resulting from repeated applica-
tions of fertilizer-like dung (Figure 5). In arid regions,
nutrients such as phosphorous may be retained for
millennia. In contrast, overuse and erosion are
revealed by reduced concentrations of silt, clay,
and soil nutrients when field soils are compared to
uncultivated controls.
Figure 3 Schematic of triplicate sampling pattern (S ¼ sample collection point). Copyright Chris Stevens.
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
Crops
Studies of cultigens often originate in settlements
where macrobotanical remains indicate the con-
sumption and use of cultivated plants (see Plant Do-
mestication). In contrast, macrobotanical remains
excavated from within fields are only reliable from
intact palaeosols because of the potential for modern
contamination, augmented by industrial tillage, bio-
turbation, and organic decay. Pollen and phytoliths
may be more stable in fields and can provide in situ
confirmation of cultigens when recovered from secure
contexts. Phytoliths are preserved under different
conditions than pollen and may also reflect different
crop species than pollen (see Phytolith Analysis; Pol-
len Analysis). Regional palaeoenvironmental recon-
structions, contemporary agronomic studies, and
surface vegetation provide additional insight into an-
cient cropping regimes. Increasingly, research into
cultigens combines several methods with attention
to sampling and preservation conditions.
Dating
Bioturbation, poor preservation of macrobotanicals,
and modern disturbance also impact dating strategies.
Dating may be further complicated by the sequen-
tial use of fields for different activities (see Dating
Methods, Overview). Buried contexts under standing
features, such as field walls or aqueducts, may provide
secure contexts for recovering datable material. Opti-
cally stimulated luminescence (OSL) is increasingly
used to date humic acids in soil (see Luminescence
Dating). Surface and excavated artifact collections
from gardens and fields provide additional chronolog-
ical information.
 Author's personal copy
114 AGRICULTURAL FIELDS, IDENTIFICATION AND STUDY
Figure 4 Thin sections of soils from ancient fields. (a), Plow marks
in well-preserved buried palaeosoil, Welland Bank Quarry, south
Lincolnshire, UK. Copyright Charles A. I. French. (b), Bioturbated
palaeosoil from a pre-Columbian terrace (Paca, Peru).
Agriculture, Landscape, and Society
Field system research reveals the human ingenuity
behind food production systems adapted to diverse
ecosystems. For instance, tropical adaptations include
Asian rice paddies, Mesoamerican chinampas, and
raised fields in South America. Each system provides
a signature on the landscape. This can be illustrated
by rice paddy fields which are made by leveling and
walling to pond water, dramatically changing natural
topography and soils. In contrast, responses to arid
lands, limited by water and soil nutrients, are seen
in an array of different technologies. For instance,
abandoned grid-like landscape features in Arizona
were found through an intensive multidisciplinary
study to have produced agricultural crops in a deso-
late landscape. Cultural and environmental contexts
are therefore essential components of field system
research.
Additional lines of evidence may be found in art,
historic documents, and modern correlates. Egyptian
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
Figure 5 Plaggen soil in terraced field (highlands of Yemen).
Copyright Charles A. I. French.
farming methods are recorded in art and hieroglyphs
(e.g., collections of the British Museum). The Romans
employed centurion field systems and recorded field
allocations. Experimental farming with replica tools
and old crops provide heuristic models to reconstruct
annual yields, labor requirements, and soil responses
to different treatments (e.g., the experimental Butser
Ancient Farm, United Kingdom). Ethno-archaeological
studies with nonindustrial farmers provide further
data for reconstructing crop rotation cycles, labor
allocation, and natural constraints on farming.
Research methods for off-site agricultural land-
scapes reflect analytical scale, environmental condi-
tions, field architecture, and palaeosol preservation.
Ground reconnaissance to verify published data in
maps and aerial images provides a baseline for region-
al studies and also detailed assessments of individual
fields. Field system research is multidisciplinary and
often requires specialist research methods to provide
evidence for specific cultivation practices.
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Charly French and Chris Stevens
for permission to use figures.
See also: Dating Methods, Overview; Geoarchaeology;
Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction, Methods; Phy-
tolith Analysis; Plant Domestication; Pollen Analysis;
Soils and Archaeology.
 Author's personal copy
Further Reading
Doolittle WE and James AN (2004) The Safford Valley Grids:
Prehistoric Cultivation in the Southern Arizona Desert. Tucson:
University of Arizona Press.
Hastorf CA (1993) Agriculture and the Onset of Political In-
equality before the Inka. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
AGRICULTURE
Contents
Biological Impact on Populations
Social Consequences
Biological Impact on
Populations
Patricia M Lambert, Utah State University,
Logan, UT, USA
ã 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary
bioarchaeology The study of the human biological component
of the archaeological record.
dental attrition The wearing or grinding down of teeth.
fertility Birthrate of a population.
malocclusion Abnormality in the way the teeth of the upper
and lower jaw fit together.
morbidity Disease rate, proportion of diseased to healthy in a
population.
morphology Shape, form.
mortality Death rate of a population.
occlusal Chewing surface of a tooth.
palaeopathology The study of disease in former/ancient times
as evidenced in human remains from archaeological contexts.
robusticity Expression of relative size and strength of bones or
teeth, or of a skeleton more generally, for example, increased
robusticity of long bones.
Introduction
Questions concerning the biological impacts of the
economic transition from foraging to farming have
formed a central focus of research in bioarchaeology
since the late 1970s. Researchers examining this transi-
tion have generally compared diet, health, and work-
load of mobile/semimobile forager antecedents and
later sedentary agriculturalists to identify differences
Encyclopedia of Archaeology (2008), vol. 1, pp. 110-115
AGRICULTURE/Biological Impact on Populations 115
Goldberg P and Richard IM (2006) Practical and Theoretical
Geoarchaeology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Miller NF and Gleason KL (1994) The Archaeology of Garden and
Field. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Thomas K (ed.) (1990) Soils and early agriculture. World Archae-
ology 22(1).
Wilkinson TJ (2003) Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East.
Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
and therefore changes associated with the adoption
of an agricultural mode of subsistence. The ground-
breaking volume, Paleopathology at the Origins of
Agriculture, published in 1984, represents the first
major effort to gather together such studies from
a number of world regions to address questions
concerning the impetus for and biological conse-
quences of agriculture. Much of the research avail-
able at that time focused on skeletal samples from
the Americas, particularly North America, and these
studies still predominate in the literature. However,
research efforts over the intervening years have
expanded this geographic purview to include different
types of agriculture and agricultural transitions in
many world regions. As research accumulates, some
general trends are emerging in certain aspects of
health and workload, but it is also becoming apparent
that the ‘transition’ and consequent health impacts
were not uniform in all times and places, or even
unidirectional. This growing awareness of variability
in the agricultural experience has led to an increasing
research emphasis on how different environmental
and behavioral correlates of agriculture influence
the skeletal markers used to reconstruct the different
lifeways and health impacts associated with this
economic transition.
Osteological Evidence for Dietary Change
One of the important challenges of studying the tran-
sition from foraging to farming has been documenting
the timing and nature of this transition. Traditionally,
archaeologists have studied palaeobotanical, faunal,
and artifactual evidence to document the types of