Welding Engineer Training at DEPARTEMEN PERINDUSTRIAN 3 BALAI BESAR PENELITIAN DAN PENGEMBANGAN INDUSTRI BAHAN DAN BARANG TEKNIK (B4T-Bandung) Chapter B 1.8 8 Tungsten-inert gas welding Author: Dipl. Ing. Dr, Ernst PERTENEDER 1 st Edition 1994 Berufspadagogisches Institut Moding, A 2340 Modling, Austria18-4 TUNSTEN-INERT GAS-WELDING CONTENTS Contents 1, FUNDAMENTALS 1.0 Process Description LA The Are 1.2 Modes of Operation 1.3 Direct Current Electrode Negative 1.4 Direct Current Electrode Positive 1.5 Alternating Current 1.5.0 Partial Rectification 1.5.1 Inherent Rectification 2. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 2.1 Are Striking 2.2 Touch Striking 2.3 Programmed Touch Striking 2.4 High DC Voltage 2.5 High Frequency/High Voltage 2.6 General 2.7 Electrodes for TIG Welding 2.8 Blectrode Preparation 2.9 Filler Wire Addition 2.10 Shiclding Gases 3, METALLURGICAL CONSIDERATICNS 3.0 Filler Wire Composition 3.1 Fertitic Steels 3.2 Austenitic Steels 3.3 Aluminium & Alloys 3.4 Nickel & Alloys 3,5 TIG Welding of Ferritic Steel 3.6 TIG Welding Stainless Steels 3.7 TIG Welding of Aluminiur 3.8 TIG Welding of Reactive Metals4, RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 4.0 Pulsed TIG 4.1 Hot Wire TIG 4.2 Orbital TIG 4.3 Narrow Gap TIG 4.4 Adaptive Control 4.5 Computer Control 5. WELDING EQUIPMENT FOR TIG 5.1 Basic Electrical Requirements 5.2 Conventional DC TIG Power Source 5.3 Conventional AC TIG Power Source 5.4 Overcoming Inherent Rectification 5.5 Overcoming Partial Rectification 5.6 Alternative TIG Power Source Design 5.1 TIG Welding Torch 5.7.1 Construction of TIG Welding Torch 5.7.2 Gas Flow 5.7.3 Types of Torch 14,8-21,8-3 1. Fundamentals Introduction ‘The TIG process was originally developed for welding aluminium alloys in the aircraft industry, and although it is stil associated with high quality joining it has been the subject of considerable development which has extended the practical range of applications. 1.0 Process Description ‘The Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) process uses the heat generated by an electric arc, formed bectween a non= consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece to fuse the material. Fig. 1,8 1) If metal is required to fill the joint this must be introduced separately into the weld pool (Fig, 1.8 An “inet” gas is required to fill the joint. This must be introduced separately into the weld pool ig. L8 - 2 ‘An “inert” gas is supplied to shield the weld pool and protect the electrode. The normal gases used are argon and helium, although small additions of "active" gases may be used to enhance the performance of the process as shown later. (NOTE: The process was originally called "Argonarc* or “Heliarc” decending on the gas used. Subsequently ‘T.L.G. has become an internationally acceptable acronym although in the USA the process is referred to (eg in AWS standards) as G.T.A.W., ic gas tungsten arc welding.) 1.1 The Arc For simplicity the arc may be considered as a cylinder of electrically charged particles (Fig_1.8 - 3): Electrons (which are negatively charged) and positively charged ions. Under the influence of an applied electrical field the charge carriers will drift along the arc column, Electrons will move towards the anode and ions to the cathode. The arc is therefore a fluid conductor and its voltage/current characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.8 Biven clectrode, gas and arc length). A high voltage low current area is found; arcs which operate in are usually referred to as spark or glow discharges. At higher currents (eg above 1 amp) “thermionic™ or "low pressure" arcs are formed - these are the type normally used for welding. The are characteristic in this area may ‘be considered to follow Ohms Law ie U= 1 +R ‘On further analysis it may be shown that an arc consists of three zanes (Fig. 1.4 - 5), ‘The anode and cathode drop zones are typified by high voltage, charge and temperature gradients. This is largely duc to the needs of the arc to adjust (0 the change from a high temperature arc colurnn to the relatively Jow temperature electrode and plate. These "end" phenomena are affected by electrode material, size and work function and the requirement to “emit” electrons or ions.7 18-4 {In general electron emission at the cathode is improved by high temperature and low work function materials. ‘The bulk of the arc consists of the "column" which is an ionised gaseous conductor whose behaviour depends largely on the gas in use and the current. ‘A high temperature isa prerequisite of stable ionisation and sufficient energy must be supplied to the column to maintain the thermal activity 1.2 Modes of Operation ‘The process may be operated in several modes 2s shown in Fig, 8 -6 1.3 Direct Current Electrode Negative In this mode (Fig_1,8 - 7) the electrode remains relatively cool whilst the workpiece is effectively heated Estimates of heat input give values of 1/3 at the cathode and 2/3 at the anode). This is the most common mode of operation for ferrous materials, copper, nickel and titanium alloys. 1.4 Direct Current Electrode Positive In this mode (Fig. 1.8 - 8) the electrode has a tendency to over heat and workpiece fusion is poor. A major advantage of this mode however is the cathodic cleaning effect which removes oxides from aluminium surfaces. If itis necessary to use this mode of operation a large diameter tungsten electrode is required 1.5 Altemating Current The use of AC would seem to offer a good compromise beetween plate cleaning and heating for aluminium Eig_18-9) At normal mains frequencies of SOH, (60H, in the USA), Cleaning and heating periods of 0,01 s duration are applied alternately (Fig_L8 - 10) This should result in adequate plate melting together with cathodic cleaning and reasonable electrode life. Unfortunately there are two specific problems associated with AC operation. namely: Partial Rectification Inherent Rectification48-5 1.5.1 Partial Rectification ‘When an AC are reverses polarity the current falls to zero then rises to its peak value in the opposite direction ig 18-1). ‘At the point of current zero the arc must "collapse" followed by a re-strike at the onset of the next half eyele. When the electrode becomes positive (the cool plate negative) re - striking may be difficult and delayed, ig.1.8.12) ‘This re-ignition delay is called "partial rectification”, and may result in arc instability 1.5.2, Inherent Rectification Even if the arc initiates during its positive going half cycle another source of instability: may occur. This is called "Inherent Rectification” (Fig. 1.8 - 13). ‘This effect is caused by the natural rectifying effect of the oxide/metal surface interface, Since the whole ‘waveform is shifted (Fig. 1.8 - 14) the arc is said to possess a DC component. 2. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Introduction In order (o utilize the process effectively, attention must be paid 10: ‘Are Striking Electrode Preparation Filler Addition Shielding Gas Selection 2.1 Are Striking Initiation of the TIG are may be achieved in several ways: Touch Striking High Voltage DC igh Voltage, High Frequency High Voltage Surge1,8-6 2.2 Touch Striking i is achieved by short circuiting the electrode to the workpiece. then rapidly withdrawing it, The tungsten is heated resistively and the initial arc is established in metal vapour and gas jons at a very short arc length. ‘The problem with this method of striking is that some tungsten contamination may oocur resulting in electrode and weld metal deterioration. The technique may be improved by using a carbon striking block adjacent to the workpiece. 2.3 Programmed Touch Striking ‘A technique which uses the touch striking principle but obviates the risk of tungsten inclusions has been developed. This involves the use of an electronically limited initiation current. ‘When contact beetween the electrode and workpiece is broken the attendant increase in sensing voltage is used to initiate a programmed voltage/current increase. A safe low voltage may be used for the intial signal and in controlled tests no evidence of tungsten inclusions has been found. The system is particularly applicable to automatic TIG equipment, 2.4 High DC Voltage If a high voltage is applied 10 a gas it will break down and charge carriers will be produced. The voltage required depends on the gas type and are gap. It has been found that for repeatable breakdown Argon at normal are lengths voltages of 5 - 10 KV are required. These voltages levels pose serious safety hazards and could only ‘be used in a totally enclosed envirement where there is no possibility of manual comtact with the electrodes, ‘The use of short duration, high voltage surges has been suggested as a means of decreasing the danger of lethal electric shock; but there is still a possibility of injury occuring due to reaction from accidental contact with the voltage surge Again this system can be used on automatic TIG unit with inaccessible electrodes bot it is not suitable for manual use 2.5 High Frequency / High Voltage High frequency currents tend to flow on the outer surface or skin of a conductor. Relatively high voltage/high frequency supplies (eg 3 kV, SMH,) are therefore non-injurious. ‘This type of power is also effective in breaking down arcs, and has been used extensively in TIG equipment, ‘The problem with high frequency supplies is the *radio noise” which they create. ‘This can cause interference With electronic contro! equipment, communication systems, and computers.1, 8-7 2.6 General (Of the techniques described, high frequency systems are likely to be used for general purpose TIG welding in the foreseeable future, whilst programmed touch striking is more likely to be developed for automatic and. computer controlled applications. Studies of arc initiation have also shown that the establichment of arcs takes place in two stages: a) breakdown, ») stabitisation {he tirst stage 1s influenced by voltage, electrode, and arc initiation system whilst the second stage is controlled mainly by the power supply characteristics, 2.7 Electrodes for TIG Welding ‘The non consumable electrode used for TIG welding must have the following characteristics: Refractory High Conductivity Low Work runction Good Tip Shape Retention ‘The material which possess these properties are relatively few, but possible materials arc: Carbon Tungsten Tantalum. ‘Of these Tungsten isthe most satisfactory compromise beetween cost and performance, Carbon is prone to damage and short life whilst tantalum is relatively expensive and normally only used as an electrode tip material ‘Tungsten may be improved by alloying to produce lower work function and better shape retention. For DC use a 1 10 2% Thoriated Tungsten is preferred whilst for AC a Zitconiated Tungsten gives better performance. TT is important that any alloying is homogenious.18-8 2.8 Electrode Preparation It is. desirable to grind the electrode profile to suit the application. The normal preparation is illustrated in ig 18-15) Several investigators have examined the effect of vertex angle on penetration and results of the investigations vary. However it appears that the effect of plate thickness must be considered when evaluating vertex angle, The following table summarises the effects found. Penetration Profile d/w Vertex Angle ‘Thin Plate *) Medium Thick Plate 1) 30 High Low Low 2) 120 Low High High *Plate thickness used is relative to penetration ie Thin = 70 100% Penetration Medium = 30-70% Thick = 30% 2.9 Filler Wire Addition Filler Wire may be added to the weld pool to provide greater weld build up and cope with ireegular preparation geometry. For normal joining applications the composition of the filler wire is nominally the same as that of the material being joined, although it may be necessary to modify the composition to obtain the required joint quality(See section 3), ‘The filler in the form of cut lengths is normally fed into the front of the weld pool manually (Fig. 1.8 - 16) at a relatively low angle. It is important to ensure that the filler is melted by the pool rather than the arc, It must also be remembered that filler addition will reduce the temperature of the poo! and may be used 10 control penetration. 2.10 Shielding Gases Jn order to preserve the tungsten clectrode while effectively shielding the arc and molten metal the arc “atmoshere should be inert. ‘The inert gases usually employed are Argon and Helium or mixtures ofthe two. ‘Argon is easily ionised and gives a stable arc at relatively low voltages, whilst Helium requires nearly double the arc voltage (at the same current) (Fig. 1.8 - 17) The penetration achieved with Helium is higher and this ‘may be particularly beneficial on aluminium and copper.18 -F Mixtures of Argon and Helium give the improved fusion characteristics of helium whilst retaining the ease of striking and stability which is associated with argon, Mistures of 70 % Argon 30 % Helium are typically used, although for Copper and) Aluminium up to 70 % He 30 % Argon is beneficial Hydrogen may also be used in an Argon base to provide increased heat input whilst providing a reducing atmosphere which can remove or prevent oxidation le as 1% Hydrogen in Argon gives improved wetting and fusion on austenitic stainless steels, Mixtures containing up to 15 % Hy have been reported but above 5 % difficulties in striking may be expected. ‘The argon, obtained from liquefied air, is compressed into steel cylinders. A pressure regulator screwed onto the argon cylinder allows the rate of flow to be adapted according to the task in hand, For TIG - welding only pure argon and belium may be used. Mixed gases, such as argon and oxygen, would bburn the tungsten electrode, ‘The rate of flow is sct in litres per minute (Fig_18- 17.1) As 3. METALLURGICAL CONSIDERATIONS Introduction A full discussion of welding. metallurgy is beyond the scope of this process giude, but some specific ‘metallurgical considerations relevant to TIG are covered below. 3.0 Filler Wire Composition Table 18-1 to Table 18-4 ‘cover the composition and tolerances of filler rods for TIG welding, 3.1. Ferritic Steels rable 18-1 ‘These filler wires are low carbon steels with sufficient deoxidisers to suppress carbon monoxide porosity. The ferritic low alloy steels may be joined with matching fillers eg 1 % Cr, 0.5 % Mo or 2 % Cr, 1% Mo types whereas for high alloy types an undermatching filler or even an austenitic material may be required to obvi: cracking, Argon is the preferred shielding gas with DC electrode negative. 3.2 Austenitic Steels rable 18-2 (AWS Standard A5.9 most commonly used), ‘Again nearly matching fillers are used although additions of Niobium are common to obviate weld decay18-10 3.3 Aluminium and, Alloys rable 18-3 ‘The hot cracking sensitivity of some of these alloys may be controlled by using an appropriate non matching filter. 3.4 Nickel and Alloys cable 18-4) A range of Nickel fillers are available to mich tie notinal alloys (eg Nimonic and Inconel). Some of tie Inconel alioys are also useful when joining dissimilar metals (eg 9 % Ni - Steel. 3.5 TIG Welding of Ferritic Steel ‘The TIG process is rarely used on plain carbon (mild) steel since other methods (eg GMAW Dip transfer) are normally more productive. The only problem likely to occur with this materials is weld porosity due to carbon monoxide formation. This is controlled by the use of a filler additions which have controlled levels of deoxidants. ‘TIG has been used for joining of small high strength and low alloy steels such as 1 Cr % Mo pipe materials. If the correct filler material and shielding gas are used no problems should be experienced. Higher alloy, restrained joints and thicker sections may be subject to Hydrogen cracking and the normal precautions ‘concerning preheat and cooling rate must be taken ‘The mode of operation used forall of these materials is DC electrode negative. 3.6 TIG Welding Stainless Steels Stainless steels may be divided into: Austenitic Fenttic Martensitic Duplex ‘TIG Welding is suitable for all of these materials but is used most commonty on austenitic materials {(€g 18 Cr8 Ni) for process pipework, medical and food handling equipment and domestic ware(eg sink tops). Although the austenitic materials are readily weldable several problems may arise, ie: Weld decay ‘Stress corrosion cracking Hot cracking Cast to cast variation ‘These effects are covered in detail elsewhere but the implications for TIG welding are given below.46-11 3.6.1 Weld Decay ‘This is corrosive attack in the heat affected of the weld due to chromium carbide precipitation and depletion of chromium, Control is achieved by reducing the carbon level of the parent material or alloying additions of niobium or titanium which prevent chromium carbide formation. Niobium may also be added to the filler wire to prevent similar effects in the weld area. Stress corrosion cracking ocours due tn the combined effect of stress and corrossive service conditions. The stress may arise from forming operations or contraction during welding. Hot cracking occurs when the weld metall is subjected 10 stress as it solidifies. The presence of low melting point films is usually involved (eg sulphides). Cracking may be reduced or contolled by allowing some ferrite to form and maintaining a small weld poo! ‘The amount of ferrite likely to be formed may be predicted from a diagram called a ShaeMMer diagram. (Fig. 8 - 18). Weld pool size may be controlled by current, travel speed and filer addition. 3.6.2 Cast to Cast Variation 1 has been found that variations in weld shape and penetration may occur when identical welding conditions are used on plate of nomonally identical composition but from a different cast. This effect iscalled cast to cast variation, Although still under investigation it ig believed that minor composition variations which affect fluid flow are responsible for this effect. On some delicate joints typically welded with the TIG process this can pose serious problems. To minimise this effect and improve joint consistency the following steps may be taken: 1) Alter joint design - make it less susceptible to failure due to penetration variation. 2) Improve process tolerance. 3) Use adaptive / feedback control. Improved process tolerances have been demonstrated using Argon / Helium based gas mixtures such as 20% Argon 80% He, or Argon /Helium Hydrogen mixtures Adaptive control is described below and is an excellent method for maintaining consistent penetration if the back face of the weld is accessible during welding. DC welding negative is used for all stainless steel welding. For full penetration welds a * backing gas" is "usually required to prevent severe oxidation of the root bead.ei 4,8-12 3.7 TIG Welding of Aluminium ‘The practical and metallurgical considerations involved in TIG welding aluminium are:- ‘Oxide Removal Porosity Hot Cracking ‘The use of alternating current to assist in oxide removal and provide adequate heat input has been described in section 1 Precleaning of normal oxide layers is also necessary to allow the establishment ofa cican weld pool and prevent pick up of contaminants or oxide inclusions. Cis generally recommended that the joint surface is degreased prior to mechanical removal of the oxide by ‘machining, brushing or grinding. It may also be necessary to degrease after machining to remove any traces of ‘cutting fluid, In particular itis necessary to remove any trace of moisture of hydrocarbons which may decompose to produce Hydrogen, ‘As can be seen from Fig. 1.8 ~ 19 the solubility of Hydrogen is very high in liquid Aluminium but extremely {ow in the solid state. Any Hydrogen dissolved in the weld poo! must be evolved during solidification and can easily be trapped to form porosity. Hot cracking occurs in certain Aluminium alloys due to inadequate strength in the solidifying metal when it is subjected to contraction stresses. Certain critical compositions have bvcn identified as shown in Fig. 1.8 ~ 20. To avoid the compositions which are most sensitive to cracking, filler material is added to modify the weld ‘metal analysis. 3.8 TIG Welding of Reactive Metals ‘TIG welding is particularly suitable for jo ing reactive metals - eg Titanium. ‘These materials are capable of reacting with very small amounts of active gases at relatively low temperatures ‘The resultant products may cause porosity or embrittlement. Itis therefore necessary to use inert gas in a totaly ‘enclosed glove box or alternatively to provide a “trailing shield" to protect the cooling metal Fig. 1.8 - 21)48-13 4, RECENT DEVELOPMENTS Introduction ‘The principal developments of the TIG process are related to the use of electronic power sources which are described in section 5. Certain process modifications have also been made such as: Pulsed TIG Hot Wire TIG Orbital TIG Narrow Gap TIG ‘Adaptive Control Computer Control ‘A brief description of these techniques is given in this section. 4.0 Pulsed TIG ‘Thermal pulsing of the TIG arc is achieved by changing the current beetween two levels at a regular frequency ig 18-22) ‘The lower level is called the background current, and it is just sufficient to maintain an arc without causing significant melting. The high or pulse current creates metal melting. The normal pulse frequency is relatively Tow (eg 1 to 10 Hz) and the weld is formed as a series of overlapping spots “The process is used to control heat build up, reduce travel speed and reduce distortion Poise parameters are usually chosen as follows: Background Current - Just sufficient to maintain stable arc Background Time - Sufficient to allow solidification of previous weld pool. Pulse Time/Current - Sufficient to give required penetration profile. It has been suggested that optimum pulse current levels may be fixed for any material by its thermal diffusivity. High froquency pulsing 10 ~ 10 kHY has also been used and this is claimed to stabilise the are - particulary at ow currents. 4,1 Hot Wire TIG {In mechanised TIG welding the filler may be added as a continously fed wire. Ifa current is passed through this wire resistance heating occurs, the wire melts into the pool more rapidly and much higher travel speeds can be achieved Fig 1.8- 23). AC power may be used for wire heating and deposition rates of 10 kg/hr may be achieved,18-14 4.2 Orbital TIG ‘The compact nature of the TIG torch has enabled special purpose equipment to be built for welding internal and external pipe joints and making tube to tube-plate welds. This type of equipment is usually programmed to carry out a sequence of weld runs and often incorporates automatic arc length (voltage sensing) control, and crater filling, Wire additions may also be incorporated. 4.3 Narrow Gap TIG In thick section joints, (particutarly pipework) a significant saving in weld metal and joint completion time can bbe achieved by reducing the joint angle or width. (Fig. 1.8 - 24) ‘The mechanised TIG process may be used with a joint gap of 6 to 8 mm in a parallel sided preparation. With thicknesses up to 20mm a standard torch with extended electrode stick out is used. Although set up and Procedure control are more critical lower overall cost and restricted heat affected zone widths are possible. Argon/Helium and Argon / Hydrogen gas mixtures and arc oscillation may be used to improve process ‘tolerance and reduce the possibility of lack of fusion 4.4 Adaptive Control With recent equipment itis possible to adjust the TIG process whilst itis in progress. If some function of the process which indicates joint quality can be measured itis possible to compensate for any adverse trends during, ‘welding (this is known as adaptive control). ‘The following adaptive control systems have been used with TIG: Seam Tracking Height Sensing Penetration Control Penetration control is relatively simple, but offers the possiblity of consistent quality even wheze joint fit up is ‘Variable, oF cast to cast problems occur. A typical system is shown in Fig. 18 = 25, A photo sensor detects infrared radiation from the rear of the weld. A level of radiation which represents the desired penetration bead width may be determined and this is subsequently monitored during welding. When the predetermined radiation level is reached the current pulse ‘may be ended whilst the torch is indexed along the joint4, 8-15 4.5 Computer Control . Equipment has been developed for moving the TIG torch around a two or three dimensional shape under the control of a computer. ‘This may be used to accurately reproduce a common weld profile and allows complex profiles to be generated, 5. WELDING EQUIPMENT FOR TIG. Introduction TIG equipment may be designed to overcome some of the inherent problems associated with the TIG process, improve controt and case operation. “The basic requirements and important desig features are coverod inthis section. 5.1 Basic Electrical Requirements ‘Arc welding processes operate at low voltages (typically 10 - 50 V) and high cusrents (typically 5 - 500 A). The simple method for obtaining this type of supply from the normal AC mains is by the use of a step down transformer Fig. 1.8 - 26) In addition for control of the process it must be possible to adjust the output. In early designs of TIG power source this was achieved by using an inductance to limit the current (Fig. 18 = 27). Although this was effective it had severe limitations and was relatively inefficient. (More recent designs are described below). For the successfull operation of the TIG process a constant current power supply is required (ie once said the ‘current to remain constant regardless of voltage variation). In Section 1 the dependance of voltage on arc length was described and it will be apparent (Fig, 1.8 - 28) that this type of power supply provides constant current even when arc length variations occur. ‘This relationship of Voltage and current normally referred to as the "U-I-characteristic of the power source may be produced electrically or electronically.18-16 5.2 Conventional DC TIG Power Source ‘The most common designs of DC TIG power source have been based on the magnetic amplifier. Jn this system (Fig,_L8 - 29) a small DC current is used to change the impendance of an inductance through ‘which which the AC welding power passes. The AC current may be contratied by variations in the DC control level. ‘The AC output of the magnetic amplifier is rectified to give a DC output. ‘The DC power sources can be designed for 3 Phase operation. 5.3 Conventional AC TIG Power Source ‘The normal AC power source design also uses the magnetic amplifier principle but since no rectification is used the unit must be single phase. ‘The AC power source must also incorporate some means of overcoming the problems of inherent and partial rectification described above. 5.4 Overcoming Inherent Rectification. As discussed the waveform inbalance caused by inherent rectification may be regarded as a DC component added to balanced AC waveform. This DC component may be removed by: Series Resistance Parallel Bias Voltage - Battery Series Capacitance In practise a series capacitance is most commonly exnployed (Fig 1.8 - 30), 5.5 Overcoming Partial Rectification Partial rectification may be regarded as a failure to restrike the arc after current zero. It is reduced by high open circuit voltages but some additional voltage surge is usually necessary to minimise the problem. ‘The normal high frequency, high voltage or striking supply may be used to stabilise the arc or alternatively ‘surge injection (a single high voltage surge) devices may be employed,