TEXTILE PREFORMING 18

Frank K. KO and George W. Du

18.1 INTRODUCTION resulting composite can be tailored. These

Textile preforming is a fiber placement fiber placement methods create textile pre-
method utilizing textile processes prior to the forms which possess a wide spectrum of pore
geometries and pore distribution; a broad
formation of composite structures. Textile pre-
range of structural integrity and fiber volume
forms are the structural backbone of a
fraction; and fiber orientation distribution as
composite analogous to the structural steel
well as a wide selection of formed shape and
framework in a building. Starting with linear
net shape capability.
assemblies of fibers in continuous and/or dis-
As illustrated in Fig. 18.1, textile preforming
crete form, these micro-fibrous structures can
provides a link between raw material systems
be organized into one-, two- or three-dimen-
and the composite product. Depending upon
sional structures by means of twisting,
the textile preforming method used, the range
interlacing, intertwining or interlooping. By
of fiber orientation and fiber volume fraction
proper selection of the geometry of the fibrous
of the preform will vary, subsequently affect-
structures and architecture and the method of
ing matrix infiltration and consolidation as
placement or geometric arrangement of the
well as the translation efficiency of fiber prop-
fibers, the structural performance of the
erties to composite product.

Vacuum Impregnation

Y I..CU Squeeze Casting

K
Vacuum Infiltration
Composite
Design and Product
material system
selection

Liquid Impregnation

Fig. 18.1 The role of preforms in composite processing.

Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published

in 1998by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7
398 Textile preforming
When combined with high performance
fibers, matrices and properly tailored
fiber/matrix interfaces, fiber architecture
promises to expand the design options for the
manufacturing of tough and reliable structural
composites. With an integrated network of
structural cells in two- and three-dimensional
arrangements, textile structures not only pro-
vide a mechanism for structural toughening of
composites but also facilitate the processing of
composites into net or near net shape struc-
tural parts.
Considering the important role which tex-
tile preforms play in the chain of composite
manufacturing processes, there is a worldwide
revival of interest in the technology and sci-
ence of the processing of textile preforms for
composites. The serious interest in the subject
of textile composites can best be illustrated in
the two recent publications on textile compos-
ites, one in English (Chou and KO, 1989) and
the other in Russian (Tarnpolski’i et al., 1987).
These two books have been translated respec-
tively into Russian and English. Special
journal issues have been devoted to the subject
of textile composites as well (for example,
Jouvnal of The Textile Institute, 1990, No. 4,
Textile Institute). This article intends to pro-
vide a quick reference to textile preforming
from the point of view of composite process-
ing science. To facilitate discussion, textile
preforms are classified into linear, planar and
three-dimensional fibrous assemblies. After a
brief introduction of the processing technol-
ogy of textile preforms, discussion will focus
on the processing kinematics of the preforms
and the geometric parameters which control
two of the most important parameters in com-
posite design: fiber volume fraction (V,) and
fiber orientation (0). The role of fiber archtec-
ture in the forming, resin infiltration and the
translation of fiber properties to the composite
is also discussed along with experimental evi-
dence. For readers interested in further
pursuing the technological aspect of the sub-
ject, there are several outstanding general
references on industrial textiles (Kaswell, 1963;
Svedova, 1990). For more specific references
one can examine the book by Goswami et al.
(1977) on yarns (linear fibrous assemblies);
Lord et al. (1973) on weaving; Spencer (1983)
and Raz (1987) on knitting and Krcma (1971)
on nonwovens.
18.1.1 THE ROLE OF TEXTILE PREFORMS
The final goal of manufacturing a composite
structure is to meet design requirements
including performance and cost. How success-
fully the goal can be met depends on the
effective use of the reinforcement material and
the cost of manufacturing a quality product.
Preform fiber architecture plays a key role
in composite manufacturing by facilitating
processing steps including forming and resin
infiltration. The properties of the composite
will also vary depending on the fiber architec-
ture. Fiber orientation (13)and volume fraction
(V,)are key engineering parameters for textile
composite formability, permeability and per-
formance. Accordingly, after reviewing the
experimental evidence of the dynamic interac-
tion of process-structure-performance, this
article will examine textile preforms through a
unit cell based analysis relating the preform
geometric parameters of V, and I3 and their
relationship to textile preform performance.
Formability
The manufacturing of composites often
requires transformation of the fiber reinforce-
ments into various structural shapes through
net shape fabrication or formed shape process-
ing. While 3-D textile preforming is more
suitable for the creation of net structural
shapes, 2-D textile preforms are usually
formed into shapes by molding or stitching.
One of the earlier studies of fabric formability
in composite manufacturing (Potter, 1979)
showed that total available deformation could
be imposed on the fabric uniformly and that
the modes of deformation are important para-
meters for fabric formability. Potter
 In trod uction 399

demonstrated that weft knitted fabrics are sig-

nificantly more conformable than biaxially
woven fabrics because deformation of the
knitted fabric in the axial, transverse and bias
direction are 50%, 50% and 26% respectively,
compared to 0%, 0% and 45% for the woven
fabric.
The same point can also be illustrated in a
comparison of the shear resistance of biaxially
and triaxially woven glass fabrics (Scardino
and KO, 1981). Comparing the strain behavior
of plain woven and triaxial basic fabric of sim-
ilar area density (281.5 compared with
284.8 g/m2), under biaxial loading, it was
found that the shear deformation of the triax-
ial fabrics is considerably more uniform than
that of the biaxial fabrics (Fig. 18.2).As a result
of this comparison, it was found that triaxial
fabric is more adaptable to 3-D draw molding
than biaxial fabrics made from the same yarn.
In quantifying the formability of fabrics,
Dow (1985) suggested that yarn slippage and
low yarn jamming angles are required for
fabric conformability. Accordingly, in fabric
formability modeling, fiber volume fraction ORIENTATION 8 (degrees)
distribution, fiber orientation and fiber inter- (b)
lacing intensity as well as the limit of
Shear strains .10
geometric deformation (all of which are gov- m
erned by the architecture created by specific f 800
textile preforming techniques) must be con- Y

Q)
sidered. g 600
W
z
Permeability - 400
(L
IL

Textile fluid flow permeability is an indication

G
of how easily and uniformly a matrix can be 2
I
200
infiltrated into the fibrous assembly. McCarthy v)

et al. (1991)concluded that the permeability of

'0 20 40 60 80 100
textile preforms is mainly affected by fiber vol-
ORENTATION e (degree)
ume fraction and fiber orientation (Fig. 18.3). (4
In the same figure, it can be noted that, for the
same fiber volume fraction, ordered structures Fig. 18.2 (a) Triaxial and biaxial plain-weave fabric
such as 0/90° woven fabrics have higher per- specimens partially deformed (50% of maximum
force) in ball-burst test at same displacement of ball
meability than disordered structures such as into fabric plane; (b) effect of test direction on the
discrete chopped fibers. shear stiffness of biaxial fabrics at various normal
The dependence of permeability on fiber stresses; (c) effect of test direction on the shear stiff-
volume fraction was also observed by Loos et ness of triaxial fabrics at various normal stresses.
400 Textile preforming
6W-
4 iayers
meability of the preforms, especially for pre-
;DO
forms with high fiber volume fraction. The
Koczeny-Carman equation was found to be
adequate to provide a quantitative relation-
ship between permeability and preform
porosity.
233 -
Properties
Fiber architecture plays an important role in
the translation of fiber properties to the com-
posites as well as controlling the level of
matrix infiltration. The dynamic interaction of
Fig. 18.3 Permeability against fiber volume fraction material (fiber),fiber architecture and compos-
of textile preform.
ite properties are best illustrated by Figs. 18.5
0.1 and 18.6. In Fig. 18.5 (Dow, 1985), the in-plane

0.05 1 tensile and shear properties of carbon/epoxy

composites having a 60%)fiber volume fraction
are compared for unidirectional angle ply
structure, 2-D woven 3-D braided structures.
0.02 -

0.01 ;

0.005 -
N -

9
z
Y
0.002 -
0.001 -
a &,mu
0.0005 &: 4
n
a_oooz

2
0.0001 ~ " ' " ' ' ' I ' " " ' ' '
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.6C
Porosity, 0
Fig. 18.4 Normalized through-the-thickness per-
meability against porosity for multiaxial warp knit
fabric preforms.

a2. (1991), as shown in Fig. 18.4. In their study Fig. 18.5 Range of values of in-plane Young's mod-
of carbon multiaxial warp knit preforms, it ulus, E.r and shear modulus GXYwith T-300 carbon
was found that the introduction of through fibers in 5200 epoxy at a volume fraction reinforce-
thickness fibers significantlyincreased the per- ment of 0.6.
 Introduction 401

18.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE

e AUnldirectional PREFORMS
a e Owoven laminates

There is a large family of textile preforming

P
a methods suitable for composite manufactur-
P
ing (KO, 1989).The key criteria for the selection
of textile preforms for structural composites
are (a) the capability for in-plane multiaxial
reinforcement, (b) through thickness reinforce-
00 01 02 03 04 05
ment and (c) the capability for formed shape
Void fraction
and/or net shape manufacturing. Depending
Fig. 18.6 Effect of fiber architecture on the flexural on the processing and end use requirements,
strength of SiC/SiC composites. some or all of these features are required.
On the basis of structural integrity and fiber
It can be seen that with each reinforcement linearity and continuity, fiber architecture can
group, fiber orientation has a significant influ- be classified into four categories: discrete; con-
ence on the overall performance of the tinuous; planar interlaced (2-D); and fully
composite. Within the envelope of in-plane integrated (3-D) structures. In Table 18.1 the
properties of unidirectional reinforcement lies nature of the various levels of fiber architec-
a broad range of properties for 2-D and 3-D ture is summarized (Scardino, 1989).
textile composites. A discrete fiber system such as a whisker or
For very brittle composites such as the fiber mat has no material continuity; the orien-
SiC/SiC composites produced by the chemical tation of the fibers is difficult to control
vapor infiltration (CVI) process, the effect of precisely, although some aligned discrete fiber
fiber architecture on the level of infiltration is systems have recently been introduced. The
quite evident. Comparing the flexural strength structural integrity of the fibrous preform is
of short fiber mat, unidirectional tape, woven derived mainly from inter-fiber friction. The
laminates and 3-D braided reinforced ceramic strength translation efficiency, or the fraction
matrix composites, one can see that a 3-D fiber of fiber strength translated to the non-aligned
architecture produces structures superior to fibrous assembly of the reinforcement system,
others because of the three-dimensional inter- is quite low.
connected network of Sic fibers. The The second category of fiber architecture is
unidirectional composite has the highest vari- the continuous filament, or unidirectional (OO)

ations of void factor and unidirectional system. This architecture has the highest level
strength. It is clear in Fig. 18.6 that the perfor- of fiber continuity and linearity and conse-
mance of composites depends not only on the quently has the highest level of property
volume fraction but also the fiber orientation translation efficiency and is very suitable for
of the preform (KOet aZ., 1988a). filament wound and angle ply tape lay-up

Table 18.1 Fiber architecture for composites

Level Reinforcement Textile Fiber length Fiber Fiber

system construction orientation entanglement
~~~~-
-~ ~~ ~ _ _
I Discrete Chopped fiber Discontinuous Uncontrolled None
I1 Linear Filament yarn Continuous Linear None
I11 Laminar Simple fabric Continuous Planar Planar
IV Integrated Advanced fabric Continuous 3-D 3-D
402 Textile preforming
structures. The drawback of this fiber architec-
ture is its intra- and interlaminar weakness
due to the lack of in-plane and out-of-plane
yarn interlacing.
A third category of fiber reinforcement is
the planar interlaced and interlooped system.
Although the intra-laminar failure problem
associated with the continuous filament sys-
tem is addressed with this fiber architecture,
the interlaminar strength is limited by the
matrix strength due to the lack of through
thickness fiber reinforcement.
The fully integrated system forms the
fourth category of fiber architecture wherein
the fibers are oriented in various in-plane and
out-of-plane directions. With the continuous
filament yarn, a three dimensional network of
yarn bundles is formed in an integral manner.
The most attractive feature of the integrated
structure is the additional reinforcement in the
through-thickness direction which makes the
composite virtually delamination-free.
Another interesting aspect of many of the fully
integrated structures such as 3-D woven, knits
and braids is their ability to assume complex
structural shapes.
Another way of classifying textile preforms
is based on the fabric formation techniques:
through fiber entanglement or yam twisting,
interlacing, interlooping, intertwining or mul-
tiaxial placement. While most textile preforms
are converted from fiber to yarn or yarn to fab-
ric structures, some preforms, such as fiber
felts, are converted directly from fiber to fab-
ric. In Table 18.2, the four basic yarn-to-fabric
formation techniques are compared.
Table 18.2 A comparison of fabric formation techniques
Preforming technology Yarn introduction direction
Weaving Two ( O o / 9 O 0 ) (warp and fill)
Nonwoven Three or more (orthogonal)
Knitting One (0" or 90")
(warp or fill)
Braiding One (machine direction)
While weaving, braiding and knitting can
produce planar or 3-D structures, nonwoven
fabrics can be a 2-D planar system with ran-
dom or organized fiber orientation, as well as
the orthogonal 3-D system. The 2-D and 3-D
fabrics are distinguished by yarn orientation
distribution and the number of yarn diameters
in the thickness direction. A 2-D fabric consists
of two to three yarn diameters in the thickness
direction with fibers oriented in the x-y plane.
A 3-D fabric, consisting of three or more yams
in the thickness direction, is a fibrous network
wherein yarns pass from surface to surface of
the fabric in all three directions.
18.2 YARN PREPARATION FOR TEXTILE
PREFORMING
18.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF YARNS
In addition to preforming methods and para-
meters, the physical properties of textile
preforms, such as thickness, fabric tightness,
fiber orientation, etc., are also affected by the
characteristics of yarns. Linear fibrous assem-
blies can be composed of filaments of discrete
(staple yarns) or continuous lengths (filament
yarns). Staple yarns are held together by an
appropriate level of twist, whereas filament
yarns may or may not have twist. Larger fila-
ment bundles that have little or no twist are
called rovings; yams are usually smaller than
rovings and some level of twist is generally
added. The majority of high performance
yarns are continuous filament yams having
single or multiple strands.
~ ~~~
Formation technique
Interlacing (by selective insertion of
90" yarns into 0" yarn system)
Mutual fiber placement
Interlooping (by drawing loops of
yams over previous loops)
Intertwining (position displacement)
 Yarn preparation for textile preforming 403

18.2.2 YARN GEOMETRY volume fraction can be shown to equal (Du,

The geometric parameters which describe a lin- Popper and Chou, 1991)
ear fiber assembly include: shape of bundle 3N1(N1- 1) + 1
cross-section, number of fibers in the bundle, Yopen = 1- (18.1)
(2N1- 1)’
dimension and shape of fiber cross-section,
bundle twist level, degree of fiber migration in where N , is the number of rings and its rela-
the radial direction and fraction of interfiber tionship to the number of fibers, N,,
is given by
packing. Usually, the fiber bundles are assumed
to be circular in cross-section, but in reality, the
1
2 +
N, = - {[-41 + -(2Nf
1
3 - I)] (18.2)
fibers or filaments can be packed in to various
shapes. Most of the engineering fibers, such as For large numbers of fibers the fiber volume
glass and carbon, have a circular or near-circu- fraction approaches 0.75.
lar cross-section with a constant diameter. For In squared packed bundles, the fibers are
some ceramic fibers, such as Nextel, the fibers arranged in a square array. For any number of
have an ellipse shape and varying dimensions. circular fibers, if the outer layer is completely
The filament bundles used for composites have filled, the fiber volume fraction can be shown
a small amount of twist, usually less than 4 tpi, to equal the area ratio of a circle to an enclos-
the bundle surface twisting angle is small. ing square:
The geometry of interfiber packing in fiber
x
- = 0.785 (18.3)
bundles has been studied by a number of
Vfsquarr
= 4
researchers primarily for textile applications
(Hearle et al., 1969). Three basic idealized Similar to square packing, the fiber volume
forms of circular fiber packing were identified: fraction of close packed bundle is equal to the
open-packing, in which the fibers are arranged area ratio of a circle to an enclosing hexagon:
in concentric layers (Fig. 18.7(a));square-pack-
ing, in which the fibers are enclosed by a 0.907 (18.4)
square (Fig. 18.7(b)); and close-packing, in
which the fibers are arranged in a hexagonal The level of bundle fiber volume fraction pre-
pattern (Fig. 18.7(c)). dicted by the above models assumed circular,
In open-packed bundles the fiber volume square and hexagonal fiber bundles for open,
fraction, defined as fiber to bundle area ratio, square and close packing, respectively.
has been computed as a function of the num- However, they apply equally well to other
ber of fibers. If the outer ring is completely shapes if the number of fibers is sufficiently
filled and the fibers are circular, the fiber large.

Fig. 18.7 Idealized fiber packings: (a) open packing; (b) square packing; (c) close packing.
404 Textile preforming

(surface helix angle) and the twist level, as

Fig. 18.8 Geometry of twisted yarn.
shown in Fig. 18.3. Clearly, for a given twist
inserted to the fiber bundle, as fiber orienta-
tion angle increases, yarn diameter increases
(as indicated by equation (18.6)) whereas the
fiber volume fraction decreases as can be seen
in Fig. 18.9, which is useful in determining the
twist level of fiber bundles. For example, to
obtain a fiber volume fraction (or fiber packing
fraction) 0.8 and a fiber orientation angle lo",
twist level of 3 tpi should be used for the 12K,
7 pm fiber diameter carbon yarns.

For twisted fiber bundles, the fibers are no

longer aligned along the bundle axis. Instead,
the fibers assume a helix configuration within
the bundle, as shown in Fig. 18.8. The fibers in
different radial layers of the bundle have a dif-
ferent helix angle:
Bi = tan+ [n(D,- d)T] (18.5)
where d is the fiber diameter, T is twist level
and Di is the diameter of the fiber layer. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Apparently, fibers at the outer layer have a 9 (")
maximum orientation (helix) angle:
Fig. 18.9 Relationship of fiber volume fraction to
8 = tan-' [n(D- d)T] (18.6) fiber orientation at various twist levels.
where D is the diameter of the bundle.
According to Hearle (1969), yarn diameter is
related to the number of filaments ( n ) in the
yarn and the packing fraction of the fibers ( K ) 18.3 WEAVING
in the following relationship:
18.3.1 PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
(18.7) Weaving, which is the interlacing of two sets
of yams usually at a right angle to each other,
Viewing a yarn bundle as an individual pre- requires holding one set of yams in parallel
form, its fiber volume fraction is actually equal rows and passing another set over and under
to its fiber packing fraction, i.e. V , = IC. the first set. The set of lengthwise yarns is
Combining equations (18.6) and (18.7), we called warp and the set of crosswise yarns is
have the fill. The simplest two-hamess loom is
-2 sketched in Fig. 18.10 and may be used for
(18.8) making biaxial plain weave fabrics shown in
Fig. 18.11(a).For more complex weaves such
For a 12K carbon yarn with 7 p m fiber diame- as twill and satin as illustrated in Figs 18.11@).
ter, one can establish the relationship between and (c), looms with more than two harnesses
its fiber volume fraction, fiber orientation are required.
 Weaving 405

harnesses are lifted. Fabrics with as many as 17

layers have been successfully woven with this
method.

beam

Shuttle Reed

Fig. 18-10A simple two-harness weaving loom Fig. 18.12 Structural geometry of triaxially woven
(Smith and Block, 1982). fabrics (basic weave).

In a novel departure from standard weaving

methods, triaxial weaving interlaces two warp
yarns and one filling yarn at 60" angles as
p\
shown in Fig. 18.12 (Dow et al., 1970).The tri-
axial fabric has excellent dimensional stability
;B a:
and is currently used almost exclusively for \
industrial products. \
Three-dimensional woven fabrics are pro-
duced principally by the multiple warp
weaving method, long used for the manufac-
turing of double cloth and triple cloths for
bags, webbings and carpets. A typical setup of
a multiwarp weaving loom is shown in Fig.
18.13.The number of layers of yarns in the fab-
rics is governed by a special shedding
mechanism which controls the height that the Fig. 18.13 Setup of a multiwarp weaving loom.

Fig. 18.11 Structural geometry of biaxially woven fabrics: (a) plain weave; (b)twill weave; (c) satin weave.
406 Textile preforming
18.3.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY
Biaxial weaves consist of 0" and 90" yarns
interlaced in various repeating patterns or
topological unit cells. The three basic weave
geometries from which many other patterns
evolve are the plane, satin and twill weave. A
schematic diagram for the various views of
these three basic weaves are shown in Fig.
18.11.These three fabrics are distinguished by
their frequency of yarn interlacing and the lin-
earity of the yarn segments. The plane weave
has the highest frequency of yarn interlacing
whereas the satin weave has the least number
of yarn interlacing, with the twill weave some-
where in between. Accordingly, the plane
weave has a higher level of structural integrity
and greater ductility due to the crimp geome-
try produced by yarn interlacing. On the other
hand, the satin weave has the highest level of
fiber to fabric strength and modulus transla-
tion efficiency due to the low level of yarn
interlacing and yarn linearity. The low level of
yarn integration in satin weave also allows
freedom of yarn mobility which contributes to
higher fiber packing density and consequently
higher level of fiber volume fraction.
Fig. 18.14 Structural
geometry of various
3-D woven fabrics: (a)
solid orthogonal panel;
(b) variable thickness
solid panel; (c) rectan-
gular core structure;
(d) triangular core
structure; (e) angle
interlock.
Triaxial weave has 90+60" yarns oriented in
one plane, resulting in a high level of in-plane
shear resistance (Dow et al., 1970).High levels
of isotropy and dimensional stability can be
achieved with triaxial weave at low fiber vol-
ume fraction. Figure 18.12 shows a schematic
diagram of triaxial weave geometry.
Using the multiwarp weaving method, var-
ious fiber architectures can be produced
including solid orthogonal panels, variable
thickness solid panels and core structures sim-
ulating a box beam, or truss-like structure as
illustrated in Fig. 18.14. Furthermore, by
proper manipulation of the warp yarns, as
exemplified by the angle interlock structure,
the through-thickness yarns can be organized
into a diagonal pattern, as shown in Fig.
18.14(e). One limitation of the multiwarp
weaving method is the difficulty of introduc-
ing yarns in the bias direction as in the triaxial
weaving or circular weaving process.
However, this is now being addressed by a
modification of triaxial weaving techniques
(Dow, 1989).
As illustrated in Fig. 18.15 (Pastore and Cai,
1990a), there are four basic components to a
generalized three-dimensional woven fabric
 Weaving 407

geometry: warp, web, fill and surface weave
yarns. Warp yarns are the system of yarns
which run in the machine direction and have
no crimp. These are also called ’stuffer’yarns
or ’longitudinals’. Because of their very low
crimp, these yarns provide the primary
strength and stiffness in the longitudinal (x)
direction of the material. Web yarns run in the
machine direction and provide the interlacing
necessary for fabric integrity. These yarns con-
tain crimp in the through thickness direction,
providing the z-directional properties of the
system. These yarns are sometimes called
’weavers’. The ‘weave angle’ of the web yarns
(6) refers to the angle of orientation of the web
yarn with respect to the warp direction. Fill
yarns are perpendicular to machine direction
and interlace with the web yarns. These yarns
are sometimes called ’picks’. These yarns also
possess crimp in the through thickness direc-
tion, but this crimp is negligible compared to
that of the warp yams for these fabric systems.
These yarns provide the transverse (y) direc-
tional properties of the composite system.
Surface weave yarns run in the machine direc-
tion and form what is essentially a
two-dimensional weave on the surface of the
fabric. Surface weave yarns are incorporated
into the structure when the web yarns are
insufficient to provide a smooth surface on the
face and back of the cloth. These yarns experi-
ence crimp in the through thickness direction.
When surface weave yarns are employed in
the fabric, there are two yarns for every warp
plane of the fabric. This system of yarns con-
tributes the least to the mechanical properties
of the composite.
18.3.3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Figure 18.16 gives the unit cell geometry for
plain biaxial weave, as proposed by Dow and
Ramnath (1987). In their analysis, Dow and
Ramnath assumed circular yarn cross-section,
the same yam diameter and pitch length for
both fill and warp yarns. The expression of the
fiber volume fraction was derived:
I
2-+46
(18.9)
where K is the fiber packing fraction, d is the
yarn diameter, L is the pitch length, T is the
fabric thickness, I is the dimension shown in
Fig. 18.16. The yarn inclination angle to the
fabric plane, 6, is given by:

Surface weaver

Weaver or
web yarn

Pick or
filling yarn
Warp yarn
Fig. 18.15 Schematic illustration
of generalized 3-D woven fabric
projected to the x-z (fabric
length-thickness) plane.
408 Textile preforming

lengths for fill and warp yarns can be analyzed.

Based on the structural geometry shown in
Fig. 18.15, the orientations and volumetric dis-
tributions of all yarns in the 3-D weave can be
calculated also using the unit cell method.
Detailed analysis is given by KO and Du (1992).
__---
V

t .+I I 10
09
08

> 06
05
SCCTION -
.-.
04
03
02
Fig. 18.16 Unit cell geometry of plain weave. 01
00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
The fabric thickness is very close to two yarn
diameter, i.e. 0()

T=2d (18'11) Fig. 18.17 Relationship of fiber volume fraction to

and approximately: fiber orientation for plain weave.

1 - 1
(18.12) 18.4 KNITTING
d tan8
18.4.1 PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
Equation (18.9) is then simplified to
Knitting is the interlocking of one or more
yarns through a series of loops (also called
stitches). The lengthwise columns of stitches
corresponding to the warp in woven fabrics
are called wales; the crosswise rows of stitches
Figure 18.17 plots the fiber volume fraction corresponding to the filling are known as
against the yarn inclination angle. It can be courses. Knitted structures can be classified by
seen that as the inclination angle increases, the basic loop formation mechanism into weft
pitch length becomes longer which results in a knits and warp knits. In weft knitting, as
lower fiber volume fraction. The woven fabric shown in Fig. 18.18(a),yam feeding and loop
has the tightest structure at the inclination formation occur at each needle in succession
angle of 60" (when Lld = 3 in equation (18.10)). along the wale direction and all the courses of
In this calculation, the fiber packing fraction K loops are composed of single strands of yam.
is assumed to be 0.8. In warp knitting, there is a simultaneous yarn-
The above analysis is given only for the sim- feeding and loop-forming action occurring at
plest of woven structures. Different weave every needle and all the wales of loops are
patterns, non-circular yarn cross-sectional composed of single strands of yarn as illus-
shape, different yarn dimensions and pitch trated in Fig. 18.18(b).

Fig. 18.18 Yarn feeding and loop formation: (a) weft knitting; (b) warp knitting (Spencer, 1983).
Stitch (loop) formation is similar in both weft
and warp knitting. The formation of the
stitches in a single wale is illustrated in Fig.
18.19. In Step 1, the needle rises through loop
A from its lowest position; in Step 2, yarn slips
under the tip of the needle and onto the stem;
in Step 3, ascending hook catches the new yarn
at the top of its rise and begins to descend; in
Step 4, the new yarn slips under the tip and
into the hook; in Step 5, the needle moves
down until the tip slides under loop A and the
hook pulls the new loop through. After the
completion of five steps, loop B is formed and
the process is repeated. In a knitting operation,
each of the needles is controlled by a cam to
rise and fall in synchronization with the other
needles. Detailed description of the knitting
,Hook
Ti
1 2
Knitting 409
J ’Djrection of knitting
technology can be found in Spencer (1983)and
Raz (1987).
Knitted 3-D fabrics are produced either by
weft or warp knitting. An example of a weft
knit is the near net shape structure knitted
under computer control by the Pressure Foot@
process (Williams, 1978). In a collapsed form
this preform has been used for carbon-carbon
aircraft brakes. While weft knitted structures
have applications in limited areas, multiaxial
warp knit (MWK) 3-D structures are more
promising and have undergone a great deal
more development in recent years. Schematic
of a MWK LIBA system is given in Fig. 18.20,
in which up to six layers of insertion yarns
plus one layer of non-woven can be stitched
together.
3
Fig. 18.19 Stitch for-
mation in knitting
machines (Smith and
Block, 1982).
410 Textile preforming

Fig. 18.20 Multiaxial warp knit with four layers ( O O , 90" and &) of inserted yarns and (a) chain stitch or (b)
tricot stitch.

18.4.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY ture for the incorporation of 0" and/or 90"
insertion yarns.
Knitted fabrics are traditionally identified
The MWK fabric system consists of warp (O"),
with socks, underwear and sweaters. In the
search for methods to reduce composite man- weft (90") and bias (d) yarns held together by
ufacturing costs, textile preforms including a chain or tricot stitch through the thickness of
knitted structures are receiving increased the fabric, as illustrated in Fig. 18.21.
interest in the composite industry. While con- Theoretically, the MWK can be made to as
formability and productivity are obvious many layers of multiaxial yams as needed, but
attributes for knitted preforms, the availability current commercially available machines only
of a broad range of micro- and macrostructural allow four layers (the Mayer system) of 0", 90",
geometries has only recently been recognized. +O and 4 insertion yams, or six layers (the
The non-linearity of knitting loops, severe LIBA system) of 2(90"), 0", 2(+8) and 2 ( 4 )
bending of yams during the knitting process insertion yarns to be stitched together. All lay-
and limited fiber packing density resulting in ers of insertion yarns are placed in perfect
the formation of resin pockets within a knit- order each on top of the other in the knitting
ting loop prevent kmts from being considered process. Each layer shows the uniformity of the
for structural applications. uncrimped parallel yams. The insertion yarns
The development of technology for the usually possess a much higher linear density
directional insertion of linear yarns in weft than the stitch yarns and are therefore the
and warp knits greatly enhances opportunities major load bearing component of the fabric.
for knitted preforms for conformable struc-
tural composites by combining the
18.4.3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
conformable foundation knit structure with
directional reinforcement. As shown in Fig. Similar to the 2-D woven fabrics, the unit cells
18.20, sewing threads (high twist yams) or for the knitted structures are also different,
very fine yams are used to form a base struc- depending on the knit constructions such as

Fig. 18.21 Multiaxial warp knit LIBA system.
stitch patterns and laid-in insertions. To illus-
trate the use of the unit cell method for
relating fiber volume fraction, yarn orientation
and processing variables, a plain weft knit as
shown in Fig. 18.18(a) is selected as an exam-
ple. The unit cell geometry identified for the
plain weft knit is shown in Fig. 18.22, having a
dimension of x (course width), y (half wale
width) and z (fabric thickness).
Fig. 18.22 Unit cell geometry of plain knitted struc-
ture.
In traditional textile fabric manufacturing,
highly twisted fiber bundles are used. These
materials can maintain a circular shape with a
width-to-thickness aspect ratio of f = 1, as
Knitting 411
illustrated in Fig. 18.23(b).For untwisted fiber
bundles under compression applied during
preforming or composite processing, they
have a ribbon-like cross-section similar to a
race-track with a width-to-thickness aspect
ratio off > 1 as illustrated in Fig. 18.23(a).For
composite applications, untwisted fiber bun-
dles are usually used in knitting, which have
an aspect ratio f slightly larger than 1 at the
off-machine state. To increase the fiber volume
fraction for knitted structures, very high pres-
sure will be required to reduce the knit
thickness. Under the compression status, the
yarn aspect ratio f can increase to as high as 12
for untwisted bundles, provided that there are
no restrictions applied to yarn edges.
(a) f =w/t 1 (b) f =1
Fig. 18.23 Idealized yarn cross-sections: (a) race-
track cross-section with width-to-thickness aspect
ratio f > 1; (b) race-track shape becomes circular
whenf = 1.
412 Textile preforming
In this analysis, the knit thickness is assumed
to be approximately equal to two yarn thick-
ness (t)for computational purposes, i.e.
z = 2t (18.14)
The yarn orientation angle (e), which is the
angle made by the fabric axis (in x direction)
and the yarn path projected to the fabric sur-
face plane ( x - y), is given by:
(18.15)
The fiber volume fraction (V,),which is defined
as the ratio of volume of total fibers to the over-
all composite volume, can be derived as:
Y = 3, y/w = 2 and k = OB), its maximum fiber
(18.16)
1+tan -
where k is the fiber packing fraction within
yarn bundles and a is the shape correction fac-
tor defined as:
(18.17)
The limiting geometry of the knitted structure
due to yarn jamming is governed by:
X
-23 (18.18)
W P
1 2 2 (18.19)
W 10
The processing window of fiber volume frac-
tion for knitted structures within the possible
ranges of key processing parameters, such as
relative course width (x/w), relative half wale
width (y/w) and yarn aspect ratio (f)under
compression is depicted in Fig. 18.24, using the
geometric model developed. In the calculation,
we use the fiber packing fraction k = 0.8, which
is within the range for tightly packed yarn bun-
dles according to experimental observation.
Also, to show the processing window of fiber
volume fraction in highest region, one can
assume yam jamming in the course (x) direc-
tion, i.e. x/w = 3 according to equation (18.18).
As can be seen from Fig. 18.24, the fiber vol-
ume fraction V , decreases with the increase in
relative half wale width in the range of y/w =
2-10. When y/w is beyond 10, the fiber vol-
ume fraction slightly increases and soon
approaches a constant with the increase in rel-
ative half wale width. The wale width cannot
be smaller than 4 yarn widths, or y/w 2 2 as
given by equation (18.19). Knitted yarns have
an aspect ratio f = 1 at free-stress status (as
made off-machine) and the fiber volume frac-
tion for the knitted preform has a minimum
value. Figure 18.24 shows that, for the plain
weft knit at its tightest possible structure (x/w
volume fraction is only about 0.274.
To increase the fiber volume fraction, a com-
pression in the fabric thickness direction is
necessary. The effect of the compression is the
increase in yam aspect ratio (i.e. yams within
the knitted structure become wider in x-y plane
060
020
f = 1 (circular yarn without compressior
LL
0.10
ooo
100 1000
Ylw
Fig. 18-24 Processing window of fiber volume frat-
tion for the plain knitted structure.

but thinner in z direction).As a result, the yarn
coverage over the fabric increases, whereas the
volume of the preform decreases due to the
decrease in fabric thickness. These two factors,
the increased yarn coverage and decreased pre-
form volume, raise the fiber volume fraction to
a much higher level. As shown in Fig. 18.24, at
a maximum aspect ratio f = 12, the fiber vol-
ume fraction can be as high as 0.475.
A series of studies on the technology, struc-
ture and properties of the MWK preforms and
composites have been reported by KO and his
co-workers (1980,1982,1985,1986,198813).In a
recent study, a unit cell based geometric model
of the four-layer MWK structure as shown in
Fig. 18.21was developed by Du and KO (1992).
Based on the experimental observations, the
unit cell geometry of the MWK fabric is iden-
tified and a geometric model is developed
relating the fiber volume fraction and fiber ori-
entation in terms of structural and processing
parameters.
18.5 BRAIDING
18.5.1 PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
Braiding is an old textile technology, tradition-
ally used for the manufacture of a wide variety
of linear products ranging from cables, electri-
cal insulators and shoelaces to surgical sutures.
Recognizing the high level of conformability
and the damage resistance capability of
braided structures, the composites industry
had found structural applications for braided
composites ranging from rocket launchers to
automotive parts to aircraft structures.
Two-dimensional braided structures are
intertwined fibrous structures capable of form-
ing structures with 0" and & fiber orientation.
Although 2-D braids can be fabricated in tape
form, the majority of braided structures are
fabricated with a tubular geometry. Thickness
is built up by overbraiding previously braided
layers similar to a ply lay-up process. Braiding
can take place vertically orhorizontally, but a
majority of the composite braiders are horizon-
Braiding 413
tal. A schematic of a horizontal braider is
shown in Fig. 18.25.Although braiding is simi-
lar to filament winding in many ways, the
major difference between braiding and fila-
ment winding is that braids are interlaced
structures having as many as 144 or more inter-
lacing per braiding cycle (or pick).
Three-dimensional braiding technology is
an extension of 2-D braiding technology in
which the fabric is constructed by the inter-
twining or orthogonal interlacing of yarns to
form an integral structure through position
displacement. A unique feature of 3-D braids
is their ability to provide through the thickness
reinforcement of composites as well as their
ready adaptability to the fabrication of a wide
range of complex shapes ranging from solid
rods to I-beams to thick-walled rocket nozzles.
Three-dimensional braids have been pro-
duced on traditional Maypole machines for
ropes and packings in solid, circular or square
cross-sections. The yarn carrier movement is
activated in a restricted fashion by horn gears.
A 3-D cylindrical braiding machine of this form
was recently introduced by Albany with some
modification that the yarn carriers do not move
through all the layers (Brookstein, 1991). 3-D
braiding processes without using the horn
gears, including Track and Column (Brown et
al., 1988) and 2-Step (Popper and McConnell,
1987),have been developed since the late 1960s
in the search for multidirectionally reinforced
composites for aerospace applications.
A generalized schematic of a 3-D braiding
process is shown in Fig. 18.26. Axial yarns, if
present in a particular braid, are fed directly
Axial yarns, /Carrier track
Fig. 18.25 Schematic of tubular braider with gantry
system.
414 Textile pyeforrning

,;;urbanism Track and column braiding is the most pop-

ular process in the manufacturing of 3-D
braided preforms. The mechanism of these

-
Forming point
Convergence point
Fig. 18.26 Schematic of a generalized 3-D braider.
into the structure from packages located below
the track plate. Braiding yarns are fed from
bobbins mounted on carriers that move on the
track plate. The pattern produced by the
motion of the braiders relative to each other
and the axial yarns establish the type of braid
being formed, as well as the microstructure.
braiding methods differs from the traditional
horn gear method only in the way the carriers
are displaced to create the final braid geome-
try.Figure 18.27(a)shows a basic loom setup in
a rectangular configuration. The carriers are
arranged in tracks and columns to form the
required shape and additional carriers are
added to the outside of the array in alternating
locations. Four steps of motion are imposed to
the tracks and columns during a complete
braiding cycle, resulting in the alternate x and
y displacement of yam carriers, as shown in
Fig. 18.27(b-e).The formation of shapes, such
as T-beam and I-beam, is accomplished by
proper positioning of the carriers and the join-
ing of various rectangular groups through
selected carrier movements. The track and col-
umn braiding machine can also be used to
create 2-step braids and other similar 3-D
structures by simply adding a certain number
of axial yarns and removing most of the braid-
ing yarns (Du and KO, 1993a).

Track direction

Fig. 18.27 Formation of a rectangular 3-D track and column braid, using 4 tracks, 8 columns and 1 x 1
braiding pattern. (a) Initial loom setup; (b) Step 1: tracks move horizontally; odd tracks move to left and
even tracks move to right; (c) Step 2: columns move vertically; odd columns move down and even columns
move up; (d) Step 3: tracks move horizontally; odd tracks move to right and even tracks move to left; (e)
Step 4: columns move vertically; odd columns move up and even columns move down.
 Braiding 415

18.5.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY from 5" in almost parallel yarn braid to

approximately 85" in a hoop yarn braid,
As with woven fabric, braids can be formed
depending on the mandrel dimension, the
with different yarn interlacing patterns by
machine speed ratio and the convergence
simply changing relative position of carriers
length (Du et al., 1990).
on the track ring. If one bias yarn continuously
The 2-D braid can be defined as a fabric
passes over one yarn and then under one yarn
which consists of only two layers of bias yarns
of the opposing group, the pattern is desig-
interlaced with each other. In 3-D braided
nated as 1/1 braid, or diamond braid as
structures, at least three layers of bias yarns go
generally recognized. Other simple interlacing
through the thickness in a zig-zag manner
patterns in common use include 2/2,3/3,2/1
along the diagonal direction. Similar to the 2-D
and 3/1 braids. Figure 18.28 shows the pattern
structure, longitudinal yarns can be incorpo-
of 2/2 braid with axial insertion. Among all
rated in the 3-D braid for the enhancement of
these patterns, the 2/2 braid is the most popu-
stiffness and strength in the length direction.
lar and has been referred to as regular,
Regardless of the difference in the carrier pro-
standard, plain or flat braid. The path of axial
pelling mechanism, there are basically two
yarns is independent of braid interlacing pat-
types of 3-D braiding looms: rectangular and
terns, they are always over one group of bias
circular. The former is usually used to fabricate
yarns, but under the opposite group.
solid structures such as panel, I- and T-beam
The formation of shape and fiber architec-
etc. and the latter for making thick wall tubular
ture are illustrated in Fig. 18.29 which depicts
structures. Figure 18.30(a) shows a schematic
the process of braiding over an axisymmetric
of a 3-D braided slab.
shape of revolution. Braiding angle can range

Fig. 18.28 Yarn structure in 2-D braid: braiding

yarns at & to braid axis, optional axial yarns at 0"
to braid axis.

Fig. 18.30 3-D braided solid slab (and its cross-sec-

tion as seen on SEM).
Fig. 18.29 Braid formation over a shaped mandrel.
416 Textile preforming
18.5.3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The unit cell geometry of 2-step braids has
been reported by Du et al. (1991). Based on
experimental observations, diamond and rib-
bon shapes for the axial and braider yarns,
respectively, are assumed in their analysis. The
unit cell was defined; pitch length and per-
centage of braider yarns were identified as key
process parameters which control the braid
microstructure and the jamming criterion for
the 2-step braid was given.
The traditional approach used in modeling
3-D braided composites is to artificially define
a unit cell geometry for a 3-D braided struc-
ture without providing any relationship
between processing variables and geometric
parameters. All fibers in the unit cell are
assumed to incline in four different diagonal
directions, as well as along the longitudinal
direction, if any. Fiber volume fraction is
assumed to be either known or measured. The
approach used in geometric modeling of tex-
tile structures is to first determine the
dimension, shape and fiber architecture of the
unit cell based on process and structural
analysis; using the unit cell geometry identi-
fied, the relationship between processing
variables and key geometric parameters can
readily be established.
The key geometric parameters of 3-D braids
(which affect reinforcement capability and
composite processability) include braider ori-
entation, total fiber volume fraction, volume
fraction of inter-yarn void and axial fiber per-
centage of total fibers. Although there are only
two simple process parameters adjustable to
control the microstructure of 3-D braids (speed
ratio between braiding and take-up and linear
density ratio of braider and axial yarns), the
process-structure model of 3-D braid is com-
plicated.
Normally, yarn bundles consisting of
numerous continuous filaments are used for
fabric preforms, thus, the fabric microstructure
has three levels: geometry of interfiber pack-
ing in the yarn bundle (fiber level),
cross-section of yarn bundles in the fabric
(yam level) and orientation and distribution of
fibers in the 3-D network (fabric level). The
unit-cell technique is commonly used to estab-
lish the geometric relation. In most of 2-D
fabrics a unit cell geometry is readily identi-
fied, but in complex 3-D fabrics it can be very
difficult to define.
The fiber volume fraction of a 3-D fabric
depends on the level to which yarns pack
against each other in the structure and the
level to which fibers pack against each other in
a yarn, as illustrated in Fig. 18.7. In addition to
the level of packing fraction, the fibers also
establish the yarn cross-sectional shape, i.e.
yarn packing in fabrics. This shape plays a
very significant role in determining how many
fibers can be packed into a fabric. One good
example is the yarn packing in 2-step braided
preforms (Du et al., 1991). Due to the use of
untwisted fiber bundles and high braiding
tensions, cross-section of axial yarns in the 2-
step braid is deformed to prismatic shapes,
giving most the compact yarn packing within
the braided structure. For the track-and-col-
umn braids, the braiding tensions are lower
compared to the 2-step braids and the cross-
sections of yarns actually have a polygonal
shape.
The microgeometric model for the track-
and-column braid has been investigated by
many researchers since the early 1980s
(Pastore et al., 1990b; Li et al., 1990). The most
recent one was given by Du and KO (1993a),
which does not only relate geometric parame-
ters and processing variables but also provides
limiting braid geometry due to yarn jamming.
In their analysis, the yarns are assumed as
rigid circular rods. This assumption is valid
when braiding at high yarn tensions. When
low yarn tensions are used, yarn crimp will be
introduced during braiding or during post-
preforming processing due to distortion. This
yarn waviness (crimp) may increase the fiber
volume fraction of the braid with the sacrifice
of directional reinforcing efficiency.
 Braiding 417

Figure 18.31shows an idealized braid cross- where IC is the fiber packing fraction (fiber-to-
section cut longitudinally at a 45" angle to the yarn area ratio). Due to the bulky fiber and
braid surface. There are four groups of yarns nonlinear crimp nature, it is difficult to fabri-
inclined at angle 8 with the braid axis (z direc- cate the braid with tightest structure. In
tion) in different directions; the yarns in each practice, the yarn orientation angle (braid
group are parallel to each other within a spe- angle) is determined from the yarn diameter
cific plane. Two groups of yarns are parallel to (d) and braid pitch length (kZ).The fiber vol-
the XI-z plane; the other two are parallel to the ume fraction is controlled by the braiding
y'-z plane. The cutting plane is so selected that angle and the braid tightness factor. The gov-
it cuts through the diameter of a group of yarns. erning equations are given below:
8
e = sin-1 {((k,/d)2 + 4)
(kZ2 2d) (18.21)

where is the fabric tightness factor, which is

within the range of 0 to ~ / 4This
. tightness fac-
tor must be so selected that the required fiber
volume fraction is achieved and also that the
over-jamming condition is avoided.
A Figure 18.32 shows the V , 4 relationship
prior to and at the jamming condition, based
on the governing equations. The fiber packing
fraction, K, is assumed as 0.785. As can be seen,
there are three regions of fiber volume frac-
tion. The upper region cannot be achieved due
to the impossible fiber packing in a yarn bun-
dle. Jamming occurs when the highest
C
Fig. 18.31 Braid cross-section cut longitudinally at
a 45" angle to the braid surface by the Y-y plane
ABCD. z is the braid length direction.
1

The braid has the tightest structure when

each yarn is in contact with all its neighboring
0,51=
0.4
0.3
0.2
yarns, in other words, the yarns are jammed
0.1
against each other. At the jamming condition,
the fiber volume fraction V ,as a function of the 0.04 I . , . , Y
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
braid angle 8 was derived by Du and KO
0 (")
(1993a):
cos8 Fig. 18.32 Relationship of fiber volume fraction to
v,=-K2K 1 + cos%
(18.20) braiding angle for various tightness factors. Fiber
packing fraction K is assumed to be 0.785.
418 Textile preforming

braiding angle is reached for a given fabric

tightness factor q. The non-shaded region is
the working window for a variety of V f 4 com-
binations. Clearly, for a given fabric tightness,
the higher braiding angle gives higher fiber
volume fraction and for a fixed braiding angle,
the fiber volume fraction is greater at higher
tightness factors.
Theoretically, the 2-D braid can be consid-
ered as a single layer of 3-D braid. For prepreg
or tape braiding without much change in yarn
width and for the braiding of structures with
constant cross-sections, the V f 4 relation is sim-
ple. For braiding of dry tows and structures
with variable cross-sections wherein a dynamic
interaction of the braiding machine and tow
geometry takes place, there is a need for a more
general representation of the kinematics of the Fig. 18.33 Schematic of the Novoltexa process.
braiding processes which allows for the tow
width to vary over a limiting geometry. Two
mathematical models have been developed, the thickness fiber reinforcement. For illustration
first is the kinematics model (Du et al., 1990) purposes, our analysis of fiber volume fraction
which provides the relationship between the distribution will be focused on orthogonal
braiding angle and the braiding process para- nonwoven 3-D fabrics.
meters and the other is the unit cell model (Du While woven 3-D fabrics have a long his-
and KO, 199313)which relates braiding angle to tory of development and is clearly a product
yarn geometry to predict fiber volume fractions of the textile industry, the class of orthogonal
V, along both the braiding and axial directions.nonwoven 3-D fabrics is a product of the
twentieth century, developed in the aerospace
industry for specific composite applications.
18.6 NONWOVEN Pioneered by aerospace companies such as
General Electric and AVCO, the nonwoven 3-
18.6.1 PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
D fabric technology was developed further by
Nonwoven structures are fiber to fabric assem- Fiber Materials Incorporated. Recent progress
blies produced by chemical, thermal or in the automation of the nonwoven 3-D fabric
mechanical bonding or a combination of the manufacturing process was made in France by
above. Starting with discrete fibers or continu- Aerospatiale (Pastenbaugh, 1988), in Japan by
ous filaments (mostly tows), the fibers are Fukuta of the Research Institute for Polymers
randomly distributed or preferentially ori- and Textiles (Fukuta et al., 1982 and 1984) and
ented by dynamic combing (carding) or more recently by Mohammed (1989).
hydrodynamic (waterjet) methods. Orthogonal nonwoven (ON) 3-D fabrics are
The Novoltex@structure developed by SEI' fabricated by maintaining one stationary axis
as shown in Fig. 18.33 (Geoghegan, 1988)is an either by yarn pre-deposition or a spacer rod
example of a mechanically bonded structure which is subsequently retracted and replaced
wherein multiple layers of oriented or random by an axial yam. The placement of the planar
fiber webs are needled together to create an yarn systems is carried out by inserting the
integrated structure which has through yarns orthogonal to the axial yarn system in an
 Nonwoven 419

Fig. 18.34 Orthogonal nonwoven by direct method.

alternating manner. In Fig. 18.34, the method. 18.6.2 STRUCTURAL GEOMETRY

of direct formation of ON 3-D fabric is shown Structural geomeh.ies resulting from the vari-
(Stover et al., 1971)* By proper Of
ous processing techniques are shown in Fig.
the yarns prior to planar yarn placement, 18.35: (a) and (b) show the single bundle xyz
3-D fabrics of various shapes and densities can fabrics in a rectangular and cylindrical shape;
be produced. (c) demonstrates the multiple yarn bundle
possibilities in the various directions.

Fig. 18.35 Orthogonal

nonwoven fabrics.
420 Textile preforming

18.6.3 DESIGN METHODOLOGY against d y / d x ratios, assuming a fiber packing

fraction of 0.8. For all three levels of dJdx
A unit cell geometry for the orthogonal non-
ratios, the fiber volume fraction first decreases
woven 3-D fabric is shown in Fig. 18.36,
with the increase in d y / d xratio, reaches a min-
assuming circular cross-section for yarns in all
imum and then increases. As can be seen in the
three directions. The fiber volume fraction for
figure, the maximum fiber volume fraction is
about 0.63 at either high or low d y / d x ratios,
whereas the minimum fiber volume fraction of
about 0.47 is achieved when both d y / d x and
d z / d xratios are equal to 1.

18.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter, we have first discussed the role
and importance of textile preforms in compos-
ite design processing and design, followed by
classifying them into linear (1-D), planar (2-D)
Fig. 18.36 Unit cell for orthogonal nonwoven struc-
and three-dimensional (3-D) fibrous assem-
ture.
blies. The objective of this chapter is to
the 3-D ON structure can be shown to have the describe the design methodology of the fiber
following form: architecture for representative textile preform
structures currently used for composite rein-
n forcements. After a brief introduction to the
Vf = -ICx
2 formation technology of each preform, its fab-
ric structure is shown and the geometry of a
dx‘(dy+ dZ)+ d$dX + dZ)+ q d x + dy)
(18.23) unit cell is defined. The relationship between
(dx + dy)(dx+ dz)(dy+ dZ) the engineering parameters (V,,0) and the key
where dx, dy and dZ are diameters of the yarns processing variables (such as preform pattern,
in x, y and z directions, respectively and IC is tightness factor 9 and linear density ratio etc.)
the fiber packing fraction of the yarns. within the range of achievable geometry is
Figure 18.37 plots the fiber volume fraction established from the geometric model.
A summary of preform fabrication tech-
0.65 niques has been given in Table 18.2. Table 18.3
gives a summary of the engineering and pro-
0.60
cessing parameters. Ranges of fiber
orientation angle and fiber volume fraction for
5 each fabric preform commonly used for com-
0.55 posite reinforcements are also included in
Table 18.3. It should be noted that although the
0.50 achievable range of fiber volume fraction is
restricted by theoretical fabric geometric limits
0.45 1 . , ...I..
,
Minimum fiber volume fraction
._
, , ._I due to yarn jamming, it is possible that a
10.’ loo 10’ lo2 lo3 lo4 higher fiber volume fraction can be achieved
in reality because of the compressible nature of
the preforms. A composite having a higher
Fig. 18.37 Process window of fiber volume fraction fiber volume fraction can be made simply by
for orthogonal nonwoven fabrics. squeezing the preform to a smaller mold
 Summay and conclusions 421

Table 18.3 Engineering and processing parameters for textile preforms

Preform Fiber orientation, 0 (") Vf Processing parameter bundle

Linear assembly 0 - yarn surface helix angle Bundle tension, transverse
Roving 0=0 0.6 - 0.8 compression, fiber diameter,
Yam 0=5-10 0.7 - 0.9 number of fibers, twist level
Woven 0, - yarn orientation in fabric plane Fiber packing in yarn, fabric
Oc - yarn crimp angle tightness factor, yam linear
2-D Biaxial Of = 0/90, -
Oc = 30 60 - 0.5 density ratios, pitch count,
2-D Triaxial Of= 0/90/+30-60, Oc = 30 60 - - 0.5 weaving pattern
3-D Woven O6 = 0/90, -
0- = 30 60 - 0.6
Non-woven Ox - fiber/yam orientation along x axis (2-D non-woven) fiber
0, - fiber/yam orientation along y axis packing in fabric, fiber
O2- fiber/yarn orientation along z axis distribution (3-D orthogonal)
Oxy - fiber distribution on fabric plane fiber packing in yam, yam cross
section, yarn linear density
ratios
2-D Non-woven Oxy = uniform distribution, -
0.2 0.4
3-D Orthogonal Or,O,O, = 0 0.4 - 0.6
Knit Os - stitch yarn orientation Fiber packing in yarn, fabric
Oi - insertion yam orientation tightness factor, yam linear
density ratios, pitch count,
2-D Weft knit Os = 30 - 60 -
0.2 0.3 stitch pattern
3-D MWK Os = 30 - 60, Oi = 0/90/+30-60 -
0.3 0.6
Braid 0 -braiding angle Fiber packing in yam, fabric
tightness factor, braid diameter,
2-D Braid -
0 = 10 80 0.5 - 0.7 pitch length, braiding pattern,
3-D Braid -
0 = 10 45 0.4 - 0.6 carrier number

during the process of matrix addition; how- Assuming a tightness factor 7 of 0.573, possi-
ever, a composite with a fiber volume fraction ble braiding angles range from 0 to 40".
higher than theoretical maximum will have a Young's moduli and Poisson's ratios of fiber
certain degree of fiber crimp and its fiber ori- and matrix are given as E, = 33.5 Msi, Em =
entation will also be distorted. 1.3 Msi, 2rf = 0.3 and urn= 0.11. The elastic con-
The geometric models of textile preforms stants of the carbon-carbon composite was
presented in this chapter provide a quantitative obtained from the Fabric Geometric Model
communication link between the preform (FGM) (KO et al., 1987).Figure 18.38 shows the
manufacturer, composite processors and prod- composite stiffness in different directions
uct design engineers. By reducing fiber within the working window of fiber volume
architecture and textile preforming processes fraction and fiber orientation. As can be seen,
into engineering and processing parameters Young's modulus, Edav in the axial direction
Vf, 8 and 17, rational composite design proce- decreases and in-plane shear modulus, Gh- lane,
dures and process control guides can be increases with the increase in braiding angfe 8.
established. For example, the mechanistic Young's moduli in both hoop and radial direc-
design of a composite product can be demon- tions, Ehmpand Eradial,have the same value at
strated using a tubular 3-D braided zero braiding angle, but depart and both
carbon-carbon composite as an example. increase as the braiding angle become higher.
422 Textile preforming
Braid Axis
6- Limiting fiber
architecture
0, , , . , .~ , , , . , . .
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Braid angle, 8 (")
Fig. 18.38 Stiffness properties of 3-D braided car-
bon-carbon composite. Fiber packing and tightness
factor are assumed as IC = 0.785,~= 0.573; Young's
moduli and Poisson's ratios of fiber and matrix are
given as E , = 33.5 Msi, Em = 1.3Msi, z),= 0.3, urn= 011.
The other example of the application of the
fiber architecture models to the composite pro-
cessing is to predict the permeability of fabric
preforms. As suggested by the well known
Kozeny-Carman equation, there are two
major geometric parameters which greatly
affect permeability of fibrous materials, i.e.
porosity of fabric preforms E and characteristic
dimension of fibers @D,where @ is the shape
factor and D is the fiber diameter. Other para-
meters which also affect the permeability are
flow properties, pressure drop and part thick-
ness. These parameters have been shown to be
independent of preform fiber architecture.
From geometric analysis, one can construct
the V f 4 relationship and determine their
dependence on the process parameters. The
fabric porosity can easily be calculated from V ,
( E = 1 - V,), whereas the shape factor of fibers
@ is related to the fiber orientation 8 and the
flow direction in composite processing. From
our experiments, we have observed that @ =
1.5 when most of the fibers are aligned paral-
lel to the flow direction and @ = 0.75 when the
fibers are perpendicular to the flow direction.
The effect of the fiber volume fraction and
fiber diameter on the permeability of air flow
0.006
Pressure drop: 60 psd
s2
-r?
e.-x 0.004-
c
-
._
L2
0.002-
2
0.000 _1
0 3 6 9 12 15
Fiber diameter (pm)
.
Fig. 18.39 Effect of fiber volume fraction and diam-
eter on preform permeability.
can be quantified using the Kozeny-Carman
equation, as shown in Fig. 18.39, noting that
the permeability is in the unit of mass flow
rate per length of preform. In this example, the
shape factor @ is assumed to be 0.75 at a pres-
sure drop across the preform of 60 psi with a
fabric thickness of 0.5 in.
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