M.

Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress and Strain

The learning objectives in this chapter are:

• Understanding the concept of stress and the use of double subscripts in

determining the direction of stress components on a surface.

• Understanding the concept of strain and the use of small strain and finite
difference approximation.

• Understanding the stress and strain transformation in three dimension.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Internally Distributed Force System

• The intensity of internal distributed forces on an imaginary cut surface of a

body is called the stress on a surface.
• The intensity of internal distributed force that is normal to the surface of an
imaginary cut is called the normal stress on a surface.
• The intensity of internal distributed force that is parallel to the surface of an
imaginary cut surface is called the shear stress on the surface.
• Relating stresses to external forces and moments is a two step process.

Static Equivalency Internal Forces Equilibrium External Forces

Stresses
and Moments and Moments

Static equivalency
Normal stress Uniform
Normal stress x linear in z x shear stress
Uniform Shear linear in y in tangential
Uniform Normal Stress τavg direction.
Stress σavg y y

z z

x x T
N = σ A V = τ A
avg avg My
y y

z z

Mz

Axial Bending Bending Torsion

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress at a Point
Outward normal i Internal Force
⎛ ΔF j⎞
ΔAi σ ij = lim ⎜ ---------⎟
ΔA i → 0⎝ ΔA i⎠

ΔFj
direction of direction of the
outward normal to the internal force component.
imaginary cut surface.

• ΔAi will be considered positive if the outward normal to the surface is in

the positive i direction.

• A stress component is positive if numerator and denominator have the

same sign. Thus σij is positive if: (1) ΔFj and ΔAi are both positive. (2) ΔFj
and ΔAi are both negative.

σ xx τ xy τ xz
• Stress Matrix in 3-D: τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz

Table 1.1. Comparison of number of components

Quantity 1-D 2-D 3-D

Scaler 1=10 1=20 1=30
Vector 1=11 2=21 3=31
Stress 1=12 4=22 9=32

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Element
• Stress element is an imaginary object that helps us visualize stress at a
point by constructing surfaces that have outward normal in the coordinate
directions.
Stress cube showing all positive stress components

σ xx τ xy τ xz
τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz

Plane Stress: All stress components on a plane are zero.

σ xx τ xy 0
τ yx σ yy 0
0 0 0

Symmetric Shear Stresses: τ xy = τ yx τ yz = τ zy τ zx = τ xz

• A pair of symmetric shear stress points towards the corner or away from
the corner.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.3 Show the non-zero stress components on the A,B, and C faces
of the cube shown in Figure P1.3 and Figure P1.4.
σ xx = 0 τ xy = – 15 ksi τ xz = 0
τ yx = – 15 ksi σ yy = 10ksi ( C ) τ yz = 25ksi
τ zx = 0 τ zy = 25ksi σ zz = 20ksi ( T )

Fig. P1.3
1.4

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress transformation in two dimension

(a) (c)
y Outward normal

Vertical Plane
t to the inclined plane.
n y
In

θ t
cli

n
ne
dP
lan

x
e

Horizontal Plane

θ λ x
z

2 2
σ nn = σ xx cos θ + σ yy sin θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ

τ nt = – σ xx cos θ sin θ + σ yy sin θ cos θ + τ xy ⎛ cos 2θ – sin θ⎞

2
⎝ ⎠
2 2
σ tt = σ xx sin θ + σ yy cos θ – 2τ xy cos θ sin θ

Matrix Notation
n x = cos θ n y = sin θ t x = cos λ t y = sin λ
True only in 2D: λ = 90 + θ t x = – n y ty = nx

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ nx ⎪ ⎪ tx ⎪ σ xx τ xy
{n} = ⎨ ⎬ {t} = ⎨ ⎬ [σ] =
⎪ ny ⎪ ⎪ ty ⎪ τ yx σ yy
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
T
The symmetry of shear stresses [σ] = [σ]
T
σ nn = { n } [ σ ] { n }
T
τ nt = { t } [ σ ] { n }
T
σ tt = { t } [ σ ] { t }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Traction or Stress vector

Mathematically the stress vector {S} is defined as:
{S} = [σ ]{n}
S x = σ xx n x + τ xy n y
S y = τ yx n x + σ yy n y
• pressure is a scaler quantity.
• traction is a vector quantity.,
• stress is a second order tensor.

Statically equivalent force wedge.

τnt (dA) Sy (dA)
σnn(dA)
σxx ( nx dA) σxx( nx dA) Sx (dA)

τxy (nx dA)

τxy (nx dA)
τyx (ny dA) τyx (n dA)
y
σyy (ny dA) σyy (n dA)
y

{ S } = σ nn { n } + τ nt { t }

Stress vector in different coordinate systems.

y
τnt{t}
Sy
{S}
σnn{n}
Sx
x

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ σ ]{ p } = σp { p }
OR

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
σ xx τ xy ⎪ p x ⎪ σp 0 ⎪ px ⎪
{S} = ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬
τ yx σ yy ⎪ p y ⎪ 0 σp ⎪ py ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
OR

⎧ ⎫
( σ xx – σ p ) τ xy ⎪ px ⎪
⎨ ⎬ = 0
τ yx ( σ yy – σ p ) ⎪ p y ⎪
⎩ ⎭

Characteristic equation
2 2
σ p – σ p ( σ xx + σ yy ) + ( σ xx σ yy – τ xy ) = 0

2 2
Roots: σ 1, 2 = ( σ xx + σ yy ) ± ( σ xx + σ yy ) – 4 ( σ xx σ yy – τ xy ) ⁄ 2
OR

σ xx + σ yy σ xx – σ yy 2
σ 1, 2 = ------------------------ ± -----------------------⎞ + τ xy
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
• The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses.

• The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Transformation in 3-D

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ nx ⎪ ⎪ x ⎪
S σ xx τ xy τ xz
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
{ n } = ⎨ ny ⎬ { S } = ⎨ Sy ⎬ [σ] = τ yx σ yy τ yz
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ nz ⎪ ⎪ Sz ⎪ τ zx τ zy σ zz
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
T
σ nn = { n } [ σ ] { n }
T
τ nt = { t } [ σ ] { n }
T
σ tt = { t } [ σ ] { t }
{S} = [σ ]{n}
Equilibrium condition: { S } = σ nn { n } + τ nt { t E }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ σ ]{ p } = σp { p }
OR

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎪ p x ⎪ σp 0 0 ⎪ px ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎨ p y ⎬ = 0 σ p 0 ⎨ p y ⎬
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎪ p z ⎪ 0 0 σp ⎪ pz ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
OR

⎧ ⎫
( σ xx – σ p ) τ xy τ xz ⎪ px ⎪
⎪ ⎪
τ yx ( σ yy – σ p ) τ yz ⎨ py ⎬ = 0
⎪ ⎪
τ zx τ zy ( σ zz – σ p ) ⎪ p z ⎪
⎩ ⎭
• The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses.

• The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions.

2 2 2
px + py + pz = 1

Principal stress convention

Ordered principal stresses in 3-D: σ1 > σ2 > σ3
Ordered principal stresses in 2-D: σ1 > σ2
o o
Principal Angles 0 ≤ θ x, θ y, θ z ≤ 180

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
σ p3 – I 1 σ p2 + I 2 σ p – I 3 = 0

Stress Invariants
I 1 = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz

σ xx τ xy σ yy τ yz σ xx τ xz
I2 = + +
τ yx σ yy τ zy σ zz τ zx σ zz

σ xx τ xy τ xz
I3 = τ yx σ yy τ yz
τ zx τ zy σ zz
3 2
x –I1 x + I2 x – I3 = 0
o
x 1 = 2A cos α + I 1 ⁄ 3 x 2, 3 = – 2 A cos ( α ± 60 ) + I 1 ⁄ 3
Roots:
2
A = ( I1 ⁄ 3 ) – I2 ⁄ 3
3 3
cos 3α = [ 2 ( I 1 ⁄ 3 ) – ( I 1 ⁄ 3 )I 2 + I 3 ] ⁄ ( 2A )

σ1
Principal Stress Matrix [σ] = σ2
σ3

I1 = σ1 + σ2 + σ3
I2 = σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1
I3 = σ1 σ2 σ3

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Maximum Shear Stress

σ1 – σ2 σ2 – σ3 σ3 – σ1
τ max = max ------------------, ------------------, ------------------⎞
⎛
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Octahedral stresses
• A plane that makes equal angles with the principal planes is called an octa-
hedral plane.

σ nn = σ 1 n 12 + σ 2 n 22 + σ 3 n 32

2
τ nt = ( σ 12 n 12 + σ 22 n 22 + σ 32 n 32 ) – σ nn

n1 = n2 = n3 = 1 ⁄ 3
σ oct = ( σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 ) ⁄ 3

1 2 2 2
τ oct = --- ( σ 1 – σ 2 ) + ( σ 2 – σ 3 ) + ( σ 3 – σ 1 )
3

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.35 The stress at a point is given by the stress matrix shown.

Determine: (a) the normal and shear stress on a plane that has an outward
normal at 37o, 120o, and 70.43o, to x, y, and z direction respectively. (b)
the principal stresses (c) the second principal direction and (d) the magni-
tude of the octahedral shear stress. (e) maximum shear stress
18 12 9
12 12 – 6 ksi
9 –6 6

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain
• The total movement of a point with respect to a fixed reference coordinates
is called displacement.

• The relative movement of a point with respect to another point on the body
is called deformation.

• Lagrangian strain is computed from deformation by using the original

undeformed geometry as the reference geometry.

• Eulerian strain is computed from deformation by using the final deformed

geometry as the reference geometry.

• Relating strains to displacements is a problem in geometry.

Kinematics
Displacements Strains

Average normal strain

Lf – Lo δ
ε av = ----------------- = ------
Lo Lo

• Elongations (Lf > Lo) result in positive normal strains. Contractions (Lf
< Lo) result in negative normal strains.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Average shear strain

Undeformed grid Deformed grid

Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

A Wooden Bar with Masking Tape
A A1
γ

B π/2 C B α C
Wooden Bar with Masking Tape Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

π
γ av = --- – α
2
• Decreases in the angle (α < π / 2) result in positive shear strain.
Increase in the angle (α > π / 2) result in negative shear strain

Units of average strain

• To differentiate average strain from strain at a point.

• in/in, or cm/cm, or m/m (for normal strains)

• rads (for shear strains)

• percentage. 0.5% is equal to a strain of 0.005

• prefix: μ = 10-6. 1000 μ in / in is equal to a strain 0.001 in /

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Small Strain Approximation

• Small-strain approximation may be used for strains less than 0.01

• Small normal strains are calculated by using the deformation component in

the original direction of the line element regardless of the orientation of the
deformed line element.
• In small shear strain (γ) calculations the following approximation may be
used for the trigonometric functions: tan γ ≈ γ sin γ ≈ γ cos γ ≈ 1
• Small-strain calculations result in linear deformation analysis.
• Drawing approximate deformed shape is very important in analysis of
small strains.
1.41 Determine the deformation in bars AP and BP in Fig. P1.41
using small strain approximation.

Fig. P1.41

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain at a point

Engineering Strain
Δu ∂u Δv ∂v Δw ∂w
ε xx = lim ⎛⎝ -------⎞⎠ = ε yy = lim ⎛⎝ ------⎞⎠ = ε zz = lim ⎛⎝ --------⎞⎠ =
Δx → 0 Δx ∂x Δy → 0 Δy ∂y Δz → 0 Δz ∂z
Δu Δv ∂u ∂v Δv Δw ∂v ∂w
γ xy = γ yx = lim ⎛ ------- + ------⎞ = + γ yz = γ zy = lim ⎛ ------ + --------⎞ = +
Δx → 0⎝ Δy Δx ⎠ ∂y ∂x Δy → 0 ⎝ Δz Δy ⎠ ∂z ∂y
Δy → 0 Δz → 0

Δw Δu ∂w ∂u
γ zx = γ xz = lim ⎛ -------- + -------⎞ = +
Δx → 0⎝ Δx Δz ⎠ ∂x ∂z
Δz → 0

• The partial derivative with respect to a coordinate implies that during the
process of differentiation the other coordinates are held constant.
• If a displacement is only a function of one coordinate, then the partial
derivative with respect to that coordinate will be same as ordinary deriva-
tive.

du
ε xx = (x)
dx

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Finite Difference Approximation

• Forward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
ahead of point i as:
ui + 1 – ui
( ε xx ) = -----------------------
i xi + 1 – xi
• Backward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
behind i as:
ui – ui – 1
( ε xx ) = -----------------------
i xi – xi – 1
• Central difference takes the average value using the point ahead and behind
as:

1 ui + 1 – ui ui – ui – 1
( ε xx ) = --- ----------------------- + -----------------------
i 2 xi + 1 – xi xi – xi – 1

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.58 The displacements u and v in the x and y directions respec-

tively were measured by Moire' interferometry. Displacements of 16
points on the body and are as given below.

u v u v
Point Point
(μmm) (μmm) (μmm) (μmm)
1 0.000 0.000 9 0.128 0.384
2 -0.112 0.144 10 -0.048 0.336
3 -0.128 0.256 11 -0.128 0.256
4 -0.048 0.336 12 -0.112 0.144
5 0.112 0.176 13 0.048 0.624
6 -0.032 0.224 14 -0.160 0.480
7 -0.080 0.240 15 -0.272 0.304
8 -0.032 0.224 16 -0.288 0.096

Determine the strains ε xx , ε yy , and γ xy at points 1 and 4 shown in Fig-

ure P1.58.

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain Transformation
Strain transformation equations in 2-D
2 2
ε nn = ε xx cos θ + ε yy sin θ + γ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
ε tt = ε xx sin θ + ε yy cos θ – γ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
γ nt = – 2ε xx sin θ cos θ + 2ε yy sin θ cos θ + γ xy ( cos θ – sin θ )

Stress transformation equations in 2-D

2 2
σ nn = σ xx cos θ + σ yy sin θ + 2τ xy sin θ cos θ
2 2
σ tt = σ xx sin θ + σ yy cos θ – 2τ xy cos θ sin θ

τ nt = – σ xx cos θ sin θ + σ yy sin θ cos θ + τ xy ⎛ cos 2θ – sin θ⎞

2
⎝ ⎠
• tensor normal strains = engineering normal strains
• tensor shear strains = (engineering shear strains)/ 2

Tensor strain matrix from engineering strains

ε xx ε xy = γ xy ⁄ 2 ε xz = γ xz ⁄ 2
[ ε ] = ε yx = γ yx ⁄ 2 ε yy ε yz = γ yz ⁄ 2
ε zx = γ zx ⁄ 2 ε zy = γ zy ⁄ 2 ε zz
T
ε nn = { n } [ ε ] { n }
T
ε nt = { t } [ ε ] { n } γ nt = 2ε nt
T
ε tt = { t } [ ε ] { t }

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M. Vable Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
ε p3 – I 1 ε p2 + I 2 ε p – I 3 = 0

Strain invariants
I 1 = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz = ε 1 + ε 2 + ε 3

ε xx ε xy ε ε ε ε xz
I2 = + yy yz + xx = ε1 ε2 + ε2 ε3 + ε3 ε1
ε yx ε yy ε zy ε zz ε zx ε zz

ε xx ε xy ε xz
I3 = ε yx ε yy ε yz = ε1 ε2 ε3
ε zx ε zy ε zz

Maximum shear strain

γ max ε1 – ε2 ε2 – ε3 ε3 – ε1
------------ = max ----------------, ----------------, ----------------⎞
⎛
2 ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠

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