International Journal of Training and Development 14:1

ISSN 1360-3736

International briefing 22: training and

development in Spain

Josep-Oriol Escardíbul and Xavier Llinas-Audet

Introduction
In this paper we describe and evaluate recent changes in the Spanish public programs
that foster training among the Spanish active population. The analysis updates and
complements the Martínez-Lucio and Stuart study of 2003 in this journal because it
covers certain aspects related to training not considered there, especially those relating
to public policy. Our analysis may also be useful for other countries that have similar
characteristics to those of the Spanish training system, such as a high degree of admin-
istrative decentralization, a tripartite organization (involving public authorities and
social agents) as well as a supply-driven and demand-driven training differentiation.

Population, institutional structure and the economy

Spain is located in southwestern Europe. Its mainland is bordered to the north by
France and to the West by Portugal. In 2008 the population of Spain reached 46.2
million people. With the exception of Madrid, the capital area, the most populated
areas lie around the coast. Life expectancy is 82.2 years for women and 77.8 years for
men. The basic political units in the territorial distribution are the municipalities (there
are 8,112), provinces (50) and regions (17).1 The last named have some political respon-
sibilities because Spain is quite similar to a Federal State.
In 2008 Spain was the eighth largest economy in the world, according to nominal
gross domestic product (GDP). This was 1,095 million euros. GDP per capita was 24,020
euros. In fact, Spanish GDP per capita was 5.5 per cent above the average of the 27 states
of the European Union (EU). The percentage of employed people by productive sector
is as follows: agriculture (4 per cent), construction (12.1 per cent), industry (15.8 per

❒ Josep-Oriol Escardíbul, Professor, Department of Political Economy and Public Finance, Faculty of
Economics & Business Studies, University of Barcelona, and Barcelona Institute of Business (IEB) Avda.
Diagonal, 690, Torre 4, Piso 2, 08034 Barcelona, Spain. Email: oescardibul@ub.edu. Xavier Llinas-Audet,
Professor, Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Computer Science, Polytechnic Univer-
sity of Catalonia, Jordi Girona Salgado, 1-3, Campus Nord Building C-5, Office 002, 08034 Barcelona,
Spain. Email: xavier.llinas@upc.edu
Josep-Oriol Escardíbul gratefully acknowledges financial support through the project 2009SGR352
(Generalitat of Catalonia).
1
Regions are officially named Autonomous Communities. They are Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias,
Balearic Islands, Basque Country, Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castile-Leon, Castile-la Mancha, Catalo-
nia, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, Rioja and Valencia. Moreover, there are two
Autonomous Cities: Ceuta and Melilla (the Spanish cities in Africa).

© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Training and development in Spain 65

ijtd_341 65..76
cent) and services (68.1 per cent). The 2008 annual average rate of change in the
Consumer Price Index was 1.4 per cent (being 1.6 per cent in the Euro area), but it has
reached negative figures in 2009, as in most Western economies.
Thus, Spain presents good figures in life expectancy, GDP and inflation. Its main
economic problems are unemployment and current external deficit. Related to the
former, in the second quarter of 2009, the active population was 23 million and the
employed 18.9. Therefore, there were 4.1 million unemployed workers. The rate of
unemployment was 17.9 per cent, more than double the EU average unemployment
rate (8.3 per cent). Although Spain managed to reduce its unemployment level from 24
per cent in 1994 to 8 per cent in 2007, the rate of unemployment has increased sharply
in the present economic crisis. With regard to the current external deficit, the accumu-
lated deficit in 2008 increased to 104,664 million euros (9.6 per cent of GDP, one of the
highest in the world in relative terms).

The educational system

The Spanish educational system has the following levels: pre-primary, primary, sec-
ondary education, which includes lower secondary (named Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria) and upper-secondary education, either academic (bachillerato) or vocational
[ciclos formativos de grado medio (CFGM)], and higher education [professional, named
ciclos formativos de grado superior (CFGS) and university]. Compulsory education com-
prises primary and lower secondary (from 6 to 16 years old).
Pre-primary education is organized in two cycles of 3 years each for children
aged 0–6 years old. Primary education includes six academic courses (for students
between the ages of 6 and 12). Lower secondary education has four courses, and it is
expected that at the end, 16-year-old students finish compulsory education. However,
in Spain, around 30 per cent of students fail to satisfactorily complete their compul-
sory education.
Pupils who succeed in compulsory education may follow the academic track (bachil-
lerato) for 2 years or vocational education (CFGM). To enter CFGS pupils must have
satisfactorily finished bachillerato; however, there are specific exams to enter both voca-
tional levels for those without the required academic degrees. Because of the imple-
mentation of the European higher education area, nowadays university studies (named
grado) have a duration of four courses (with some exceptions) and substitute previous
licenciatura (5 years) and diplomatura (3 years). Students have to pass a national exam to
enter university, although for some groups there are also other ways to get in, such as
for those over 25 or those who graduated from CFGS. Finally, university graduate
students may attend masters and doctorate courses.
In 2008 there were 7.2 million pupils in non-university studies, 36.4 per cent of
whom were in private centers (around 80 per cent in private, publicly funded or
‘concerted’ schools). Thus, Spain is one of the countries with the highest percentage of
students in private centers, especially because of the ‘concerted’ schools (Escardíbul &
Villarroya, 2009). Moreover, there were 1.4 million university students (10 per cent in
private institutions). In 2006, public expenditure on education amounted to 4.3 per cent
of GDP (the EU average was 5.1 per cent).

Public training and development policy

Training programs, together with vocational education, have constituted a unified
system of vocational education and training since the 1990 Educational Act. The train-
ing system is made up of a scheme for training for the unemployed (traditionally called
occupational training) and training for employed individuals (continuous training).
The two types of training were originally independent, but they were merged in 2007
through the Royal Decree 395/2007. The merged system is governed by the Ministry
of Labor and Immigration (MLI), which establishes a common legal framework for
the whole country and has management responsibilities. Since the 1990s, however,
regional governments known as Autonomous Communities (ACs) have also taken on

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some responsibilities for training. In addition, social agents also take part, especially
in continuous training. The completion of vocational education leads to vocational
degrees (títulos profesionales), whereas finishing occupational and continuous training
may lead to professional certificates (certificados de profesionalidad). Both are linked
through the National Catalog of Professional Qualifications (Catálogo Nacional de Cuali-
ficaciones Profesionales), which today contains 390 qualifications.
Training for the unemployed comprises a general Plan for Training and Professional
Insertion (Plan Nacional de Formación e Inserción Professional or ‘FIP’ Plan), established in
1993, as well as working/training programs (focused on services of social interest)
such as school workshops (Escuelas Taller) and trades centers (Casas de Oficios) for
younger unemployed individuals and employment workshops (Talleres de Empleo) for
those over 25. Working/training programs last from 6 months to 2 years.
Training programs for the employed started to be implemented in 1993, when the
Foundation for Continuous Training (Fundación para la Formación Continua, FORCEM)
was created as a result of the First National Agreement on Continuous Training.
The foundation, although publicly funded by the MLI [and the European Social Fund
(ESF)], had bipartite management bodies. On the one hand, there were the two main
employers’ organizations and, on the other, the main national trade unions. Training
was regulated through two National Agreements on Continuous Training (covering
the periods 1993–1996 and 1997–2000) reached by these social agents.
The third agreement covered the 2001–2004 period and was administered by the
Tripartite Foundation for In Service Training (Fundación Tripartita para la Formación en el
Empleo), which was run by the social agents indicated above and the MLI through the
National Employment Institute [Instituto Nacional de Empleo (INEM)], after some
irregularities involving public funds had been uncovered. With the third agreement, a
distinction was introduced between supply- and demand-driven training plans. The
former has been aimed at the personal and professional development of workers (and
it is mainly organized through sector and inter-sector plans, managed by social agents),
whereas the latter has sought to address firms’ needs (companies ask for subsidies for
training and employees may demand training leave). The Royal Decree 1046/2003
altered the third agreement by introducing major changes to the system, such as
changes to the demand-driven training system and to the role of ACs in supply-driven
training.
With respect to the first change, the Royal Decree enabled companies to secure
training resources with much less bureaucracy because it eliminated the need to
present projects annually to the Tripartite Foundation and allowed companies to
finance their training by reducing the amount they pay to the Social Security Treasury
if resources were devoted to the training of their employees. The calculation of the
training ‘credit’ or ‘bonus’ for each company is based on the application of a percentage
(set by the National Budget Act) of the amount paid by the company through the
previous year’s compulsory training levy. Companies with at least 10 employees also
have to invest in training with their own funds (see details in next section). Firms have
to keep the employees’ legal representative (if one exists) informed about training
matters, otherwise they lose their bonus, and there is a procedure in case of dispute
where social agents are involved. With respect to the second change, AC governments
with labor competences (16 out of 17) were allowed to supply and manage national
centrally collected public resources (and their own) for supply-driven training activi-
ties within their regional boundaries. However, INEM still manage training activities
developed in more than one AC. Finally, the fourth agreement (2006–2010) set out
several aims that were developed in Royal Decree 395/2007, such as merging training
for the employed and the unemployed and fostering professional certification (see next
section).
The funding structure for training is supported by the Public Treasury’s collection of
a training levy paid by employers and workers. The levy is 0.7 per cent of gross salary.
Companies pay 0.6 per cent, whereas 0.1 per cent is covered by employees. Since 1997
the training levy is equally distributed between training for the unemployed and for
the employed (0.35 per cent to each system). Resources are managed by the National

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© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Employment Institute (INEM) and those AC governments that assume this responsi-
bility. They are mainly distributed to regions according to the number of unemployed.
During the 2000–2003 period, the ‘FIP’ Plan accounted for around 700 million euros
(around one third came from the ESF), whereas resources for the working/training
programs were almost 480 million (30 per cent from the ESF). For continuous training,
Tripartite Foundation’s financial resources are provided annually by INEM. For the
1995–2005 period, the training levy accounted for approximately 75 per cent, whereas
it was 81 per cent in 2006 (the rest was provided by the ESF). AC governments also
spend their own funds. Funds to regions are allocated mainly on the basis of the
average number of workers excluding public sector employees (who have their own
training plans).
The number of participants across all kinds of occupational training is shown in
Table 1. More than 80 per cent of learners take part in training related to the FIP Plan.
In addition, 15–20 per cent of all unemployed workers (based on the Active Population
Survey) have received training since the beginning of this century. The small increase
observed in the 2003–2006 period is due to the declining size of the unemployed
population.
Table 2 shows information related to continuous training since 2004, when the
‘credit’ system began. However, it has to be emphasized that since 1993 the number of
employees trained and total funds for training have greatly increased, the first sixfold
(it started with 0.3 million trainees), although the figure has been quite stable since the
late 1990s, and the second figure 14-fold (in 1993, only 56 million euros were devoted
to training). The overall percentage of women trained has reached 42 per cent (it was 30
per cent in 1993). There are more trainees in demand-driven activities than in supply-
driven activities. However, the credit system administers less than 30 per cent of the
total resources. With respect to demand-driven activities, the bonus used has increased
sharply, though, as a percentage of available bonus it is below 60 per cent. In addition,
the overall bonus percentage of training costs (including the wages of employees who
train during working hours) is almost 60 per cent. Demand-driven training activities
that are not in the workplace account for less than 30 per cent of the total, although this
figure has increased each year. With respect to supply-driven activities, most trainees
participate in sector plans. Regarding the distribution of funds between levels of
administration, the contribution of the national authorities has decreased sharply (from
75.1 per cent in 2004 to 49.5 per cent in 2006) in favour of the ACs. Looking at the type
of plan involved, roughly 85 per cent of total funds are devoted to sector plans.

New training and development policies and strategies since 2007

The Royal Decree of 2007
As previously indicated, the Royal Decree 395/2007 merged continuous and occupa-
tional training. It states that training may be provided as follows.
1. Public administrations with responsibility for training may provide training
through their own centers or through agreements with public organizations or
companies certified to train. A public administration’s centers include National
Centers of Excellence (Centros de Referencia Nacional), Integrated Centers (Centros
Integrados), and other centers for vocational education (schools) and training
(INEM’s National Centers for Occupational Training, which may be transferred to
ACs).
Integrated Centers were regulated in 2005 (Royal Decree 155/2005) and, among
other tasks, they are supposed to provide all vocational education and (occupational
and continuous) training in fields that they are accredited to do so by Labor and
Educational authorities. These centers may be new or accredited from existing ones.
Until now, the process of creating Integrated Centers has been quite slow and unequal
between ACs. The National Centers of Excellence were regulated in 2008 (Royal Decree
229/2008). They are supposed to be reference centers for all Spain in a specific field of

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 Table 1: Students in occupational training: FIP Plan, School Workshops, Learning Centers and Employment Workshops

Participants 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Total 310,401 388,810 393,928 413,724 335,299 339,003 338,624 350,766

FIP Plan 247,333 320,805 329,103 345,556 272,094 284,748 278,082 287,886
% FIP/total 79.7 82.5 83.5 83.5 81.1 84.0 82.1 82.1
No FIP Plan 63,068 68,005 64,825 68,168 63,205 54,255 60,542 62,880
School workshops 42,909 44,868 36,888 36,404 32,350 27,220 27,481 26,732
Trades centers 15,211 10,214 9,436 7,345 7,065 4,357 3,556 3,450
Employment works 4,948 12,923 18,501 24,419 23,790 22,678 29,505 32,698
Unemployed (thousands) 2,722 2,496 1,904 2,155 2,242 2,214 1,913 1,837
% trained/unemployed 11.4 15.6 20.7 19.2 15.0 15.3 17.7 18.5

Source: own computation from INE (2008) and INEM (2008a,b).

FIP = Plan Nacional de Formación e Inserción Professional.

© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Training and development in Spain
69
 Table 2: Training for the employed (continuous training): 2004–2006

2004 2005 2006

Supply- and demand-driven training

actions:
Total employees trained 1,302,033 1,532,372 1,786,402
% overall employed 7.2 8.1 9.0
% women 40.1 40.6 42.0
Total funds, supply and demand 593.25 824.89 968.68
(millions of euros)
Demand-driven training actions
Employees trained 595,219 934,128 1,146,679
Training actions in firms 39,872 69,895 86,730
% on-the-job training 80.2 75.9 70.8
% distance 11.4 13.4 17.1
% mixed 3.6 5.3 6.4
% online 4.8 5.4 5.7
Number of firms – 60,224 87,450
Funds (millions of euros) = 112.42 182.89 229.70
used bonus
% used bonus/total bonus available 57.7 57.4 59.6
% used bonus/cost of training 56.2 58.3 60.5
Hours of training per trainee 26.3 26.6 28.1
Supply-driven training actions
Employees trained 706,814 598,244 639,723
Sector plans 1,118,892a 546,071
Inter-sector plans 110,129a 54,600
Social economy plans 33,967a 20,795
Self-employed plans 42,070a 18,257
Funds (millions of euros): 480.83 642.00 738.98
Regional level 120.00 324.00 372.99
National level 360.83 318.00 365.99
% funds to sector plans 85.9 85.4 85.3
% Inter-sector plans 8.9 9.2 9.8
% social economy plans 2.5 2.5 2.6
% self-employed plans 2.7 2.9 2.3

Source: own computation based on Rahona (2009) and Fundación Tripartita (2008).
a
Years 2004 and 2005 are jointly considered.

vocational education and training. Thus, they have to analyse the qualification needs of
the productive sectors and adapt training to these needs as well as to provide training
to all agents involved in the training system (employees, unemployed, employers,
trainers, etc.) in an innovative way. These centers also have to be accredited by
Education and Labor authorities. Most of them are supposed to be created from
existing INEM Centers, although it is not clear yet that they will be able to carry out the
tasks demanded in the present conditions.
2. Private centers for vocational education that have been accredited by the appro-
priate public administration can provide training leading toward professional
certificates. In addition, other private centers can provide training not related
to professional certificates if they are listed in registers established by labor
authorities.
3. Employers’ organizations, trade unions and other organizations benefiting from
training plans can provide training through their own centers or through other
accredited centers.

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4. Companies that train their own employees or the unemployed with a commitment
to hiring them can provide training in their own facilities or through outside
providers.
Training is intended for both the employed and the unemployed, with special atten-
tion being given to groups considered to have particular difficulty in remaining in
employment. Royal Decree 395/2007 outlines four types of training activity. Although
these all existed prior to 2007, the main difference between the Decree and previous
regulations was the comprehensiveness of its approach. It covered all existing training
activities: demand-driven activities, supply-driven activities, ongoing training involv-
ing a combination of training and actual work, and supplemental activities. In addition,
the possibility of accreditation of professional competences achieved through experi-
ence is considered as a keystone of the new system. Although professional certificates
were regulated in 2008 (RD 34/2008), only the recent RD 1224/2009, of 17 July, has
established the process by which professional certificates or parts of a vocational degree
can be obtained by those with competences learned through working experience or
nonformal education.
As in previous periods, funds for training come from the training levy paid by
companies and employees, the ESF, and other resources provided to INEM from the
national budget. The ACs’ governments also contribute funds. Funds proposed by the
MLI are discussed in the General Council of the National Employment System (Consejo
General del Sistema Nacional de Empleo), which includes one representative from each
AC, an equal number from the central government, and representation from the main
employers’ organizations and trade unions (social agents). The votes of each social
agent group count the same as the different levels of government in order to ensure
the council’s tripartite character. The INEM, the Tripartite Foundation and ACs will
manage the resources allocated to training, as explained in the previous section.
Finally, emphasis is placed on the control of training quality. National and regional
labor authorities may evaluate the training system quality at different levels by survey-
ing participants on the training received and by evaluating the training centers, and the
evaluation of training centers may be published in the centers’ registers. Moreover,
centers have to allot 5 per cent of the subsidy they receive to evaluating the quality of
the training provided.

Demand-driven training
As shown in Table 3, recent changes in the bonus system are related to the amount of
credit available for training, the percentage of private funding required and the amount
of subsidy per action. Thus, the credit available has increased for all firms, co-financing
is not required to companies with less than 10 employees (before 2007 it applied only
to companies with up to five workers), and the subsidized cost of training modules per
participant and hours of training has slightly increased. With regard to individual
training leave demanded by employees, companies may finance the gross wage costs of
participants through the bonus system. They have an additional amount of 5 per cent
of annual credit. Training leave is up to 200 hours per academic course or calendar year;
it must be on the job and the co-financing requirement does not apply.

Supply-driven training
Since 2007 supply-driven training activities are aimed at promoting the personal
advancement and employability of both workers and the unemployed irrespective of
company interests. They are devised by the labor authority (INEM at national level)
with the collaboration and technical assistance of the Tripartite Foundation. Moreover,
proposals from ACs and social agents are considered through their participation in the
General Council of the National Employment System. Social agents also participate in
the joint committees that are created through collective bargaining between employers’
organizations and trade unions that, among other activities, establish the main objec-

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 Table 3: Recent changes in demand-driven training

Credit percentages and private funding required, 2004–2007

Number of employees Credit Private funding

2004 Since 2005 2004–2006 Since 2007

1–5 350 euros 420 euros 0% 0%

6–9 90% 100% 5% 0%
10–49 65% 75% 10% 10%
50–249 52.5% 60% 20% 20%
ⱖ250 42.5% 50% 40% 40%

Cost of training modules in euros per participant and hours of training

Type of training 2004–2006 Since 2007

Level of training Level of training

Basic Higher Basic Higher

On-the-job training 8 12 9 13
Distance training 5 5.5
Online training 6.75 7.5
Mixed Depending on the amount of Depending on the amount of
attendance/distance/online attendance/distance/online

Source: Order TAS/2783/2004; Order TAS/2307/2007; Order TAS/718/2008.

tives and overall priorities of sector training activities. In 2007, collective bargaining
gave rise to 56 sector plans, 42 of which came out of joint committees. While ACs may
have their own training plans, national training activities are set out as below.

Training plans aimed (first and foremost) at the employed

The employed must comprise at least 60 per cent of overall participants. These plans
may be sector or inter-sector, and public administrations determine the proportion of
each in each allocation round.
The Tripartite Foundation is mainly in charge of the subsidy proceeding and of
monitoring the implementation of the training plan. Thus, the foundation receives
the applications for subsidies and recommends approval or rejection of proposals.
Subsequently, INEM resolves considering the foundation’s evaluations. Once a plan is
approved, it is developed through agreements between INEM and the applicant enti-
ties: the main national employers’ organizations, trade unions, organizations in the
social economy and self-employed organizations, as well as organizations created by
unions and employers’ associations through collective bargaining in sector plans. The
same applies to activities developed at regional level with regional governments. In
that case, organizations may be representative at national or regional level. Generally,
training activities must run between six and 270 hours in duration.

Training plans aimed (first and foremost) at the unemployed

The unemployed must comprise at least 60 per cent of overall participants. Activities
include training for the acquisition of professional certificates entered in the National
Catalog of Professional Qualifications. Bodies allowed to receive funds for this kind of
training include employers’ organizations, trade unions, training centers and public
administrations. In 2007, 6.5 per cent of all participants were trained in centers owned
by labor administrations (INEM or ACs), 12.9 per cent by employers’ organizations,

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companies, trade unions, and organizations related to the social economy, 7.6 per cent
by local entities, and 73 per cent by accredited centers for training.

Company training to meet national training objectives

Under these provisions companies and employers’ associations focus upon allowing
the unemployed to get professional experience as well as committing themselves to
hire at least 60 per cent of all trainees. Companies in the first category may receive up
to six euros per trainee and training hour, and participants may receive grants for
transportation, food, and accommodation. Firms in the second category receive finan-
cial subsidies for which detailed regulations are yet to be made.

Training for those with special training needs

This is for those with difficulties in entering the labor market or in acquiring profes-
sional qualifications as well as training activities for those in jail, those in the armed
forces (with temporary labor contracts), and immigrants (in their country of origin)
who require subsequent hiring. This kind of training is provided by local administra-
tions and other public authorities as well as nongovernmental organizations.
The first two kinds of plans are financed through public subsidies awarded through
a competitive bidding procedure from labour authorities. The rest are financed through
direct subsidies.

Training involving a combination of training and actual work

There are two types of activities that involve theoretical training and practical experi-
ence within companies: contracts for training and the working/training programs
indicated in the previous section. In contracts for training, which have been in existence
since the 1980s, time dedicated to training cannot be less than 15 per cent of total
working hours and must be outside the workplace. Theoretical education and working
can be in alternation or simultaneous. Participants must be between 16 and 21 years old
(the upper limit is not always compulsory), and usually the contract is between 6
months and 2 years. Participants receive a salary based on the collective agreement, but
it must not be less than the minimum wage applied to their time dedicated to work.
Firms can fund the cost of theoretical education through the credit system, but in that
case financial resources are linked to the employment promotion fund of the Social
Security Treasury and not drawn from the training levy.

Support and supplemental training activities

These activities mainly concern research and innovation initiatives aimed at improving
training and circulating information about the training system as well as to help
individuals to secure training, accreditation of competences, and employment.

Discussion and evaluation of recent changes

Positive developments
1. The recent changes provide a new perspective by combining training for the
employed and the unemployed into one system. This will facilitate the coordina-
tion of training activities in the complex structure of the Spanish vocational edu-
cation and training.
2. It is also positive that the credit system in demand-training activities has been
maintained because it simplifies the process of training for companies. However,
the low level of used bonus in respect to total bonus available (60 per cent) suggests
that more effort is needed from public institutions to foster greater use. The role of
the Tripartite Foundation in helping small companies should be extended to
include advice on human resource management (Escardíbul et al., 2007).

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3. The role of social agents in training is improved through their participation in
joint training-related bodies set up in the framework of the collective bargaining
process. This is in line with the willingness of trade unions to extend the regu-
latory role of labor in areas such as training because much of their influence has
traditionally been external to the workplace (Martínez-Lucio & Stuart, 2003). In
addition, firms are obliged to keep the employees’ legal representative informed
about training matters, and there is a procedure in case of dispute where they
take part.
4. Resources assigned to supply-side training activities, which has a social-equity
role rather than a specific role in improving competitiveness, increases equality
among employees. However, new groups of disadvantaged people have to be
considered, such as immigrants and older workers, and there also needs to be a
focus on the unemployed, especially in the current context of economic crisis with
an unemployment rate of 18 per cent in Spain.
5. The new arrangements emphasize control over training centers and the quality of
training provided. This is much needed because the high presence of private
centers has concentrated educational supply in lower-cost courses and the selec-
tion of students more likely to enter the labor market as trainees, because training
that secures the trainee entry to the labor market accounts for the continuity of
public funding (Bonal, 2001).

Challenges facing the Spanish training system

However, other challenges have to be faced to improve the training system.
1. The accreditation of professional competences is supposed to be a keystone of the
new system. Professional plans should be established in a way that trainees and the
unemployed not only obtain information and advice from training institutions (or
local social services) but also have a tutor who provides professional advice that
helps them to find adequate training and jobs throughout their professional life
(Oroval & Escardíbul, 2007). Now that it is regulated, accreditation of prior learning
should be rapidly developed to cover a wider range of specialities because at
present it covers only two. Moreover, it should be the way to foster training for
those less qualified.
2. The role of ACs is not clear. What are their activities as regional authorities in
training? There are important conflicts between regional and national authorities
that are often taken to the Constitutional Court for final decision.
3. The role of social agents through (sector) collective bargaining should be extended
inside the firm, increasing the role of works councils because these are closer
to firms’ situations. If training is linked to, for example, promotion or wage
increasess, the willingness of employees to train will increase.
4. Training quality improvements have to consider the quality of training that com-
bines training and actual work (specifically, contracts for training). Here, tutors
should have some kind of qualification to guarantee quality standards. Thus, some
collaboration between firms (and their trainers) and vocational education institu-
tions (and their teachers) is necessary (Homs, 2009). In addition, training provision
should not only consider teaching direct skills but also what are sometimes known
as ‘soft skills’ such as the ability to work in a team, innovation, problem solving and
decision making, all of which are required by employers.
5. Public funding of training centers should depend on the selection done by train-
ees. As suggested in Oroval and Escardíbul (2007), ‘vouchers’ could be considered
as a financing system, which would increase trainees’ center selection (although
equity in selection should be guaranteed among trainees).
6. Although all recent measures have increased the number and hours of training as
well as funds devoted to training, we believe that legislation could go further and
establish the right to training for employees (in hours per year for example).
Moreover, public training provision should extend throughout the territory to

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 reach areas where private centers are not established (Bonal et al., 2004; Eguiguren
et al., 2008).
More research is needed to find out whether these recommendations should be
converted into policy initiatives.

Sources of information on training and development,

and networking
Public administration
• Instituto Nacional de Estadística (http://www.ine.es/);
• Fundación Tripartita para la Formación en el Empleo (http://www.
fundaciontripartita.org);
• Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (http://www.educacion.es);
• Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración (http://www.mtas.es); and
• Instituto Nacional de Empleo (INEM) (http://www.redtrabaja.es/).

Employers’ organizations
• Confederación Española de Organizaciones Empresariales (http://www.ceoe.es);
• Confederación Española de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa (http://www.
cepyme.es); and
• Consejo Superior de Cámaras de Comercio de España (https://www.
camaras.org).

Trade unions
• Comisiones Obreras (http://www.ccoo.es);
• Unión General de Trabajadores (http://www.ugt.es);
• Sindicato Confederación Nacional de Trabajadores (http://www.cnt.es); and
• Unión Sindical Obrera (http://www.uso.es).

References
Bonal, X. (2001), ‘Expansion of new vocationalism and realities of labour market: view from the
Spanish periphery’, Journal of Education and Work, 14, 2, 177–87.
Bonal, X., Rambla, X. and Ajenjo, M. (2004), Les desigualtats territorials en l’ensenyament a Catalunya
(Barcelona: Fundació Jaume Bofill-Editorial Mediterrània).
Eguiguren, M., Llinàs, X. and Parellada, M. (2008), ‘International briefing 20: training and devel-
opment in Andorra’, International Journal of Training and Development, 12, 1, 215–16.
Escardíbul, J. O. and Villarroya, A. (2009), ‘The inequalities in school choice in Spain in accordance
to PISA data’, Journal of Education Policy, 24, 6, 673–95.
Escardíbul, J. O., Oroval, E. and Afcha, S. (2007), ‘El procés de formació a l’empresa. Una anàlisi
en grans organitzacions de Catalunya’, Nota d’Economia, 89, 3, 69–84.
Fundación Tripartita (2008), Estadísticas (Madrid: Fundación Tripartita para la Formación
en el Empleo). Available at http://www.fundaciontripartita.org/index.asp (accessed 13 July
2009).
Homs, O. (2009), La Formación Profesional en España. Hacia la sociedad del conocimiento (Barcelona:
Fundació La Caixa).
INE (2008), Encuesta de Población Activa (Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadística). Available at
http://www.ine.es/ (accessed 27 May 2009).
INEM (2008a), Formación profesional para el empleo (Madrid: Instituto Nacional del Empleo).
Available at http://www.sepe.es/contenidos/cifras/datos_estadistica/index.html (accessed 3
September 2009).
INEM (2008b), Escuelas Taller y Casas de Oficios y Talleres de empleo (Madrid: Instituto Nacional del
Empleo). Available at http://www.sepe.es/contenidos/cifras/etcote/estadistica/index.html
(accessed 3 September 2009).

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Martínez-Lucio, M. and Stuart, M. (2003), ‘International briefing 13: training and development in
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67–77.
Oroval, E. and Escardíbul, J. O. (eds) (2007), El sistema de formación profesional en Cataluña. Retos y
estrategias ante la globalización (Barcelona: Centre d’Economia Industrial).
Rahona, M. (2009), ‘La formación continua en España: evolución y retos de futuro’, Papeles de
Economía Española, 119, 246–62.

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