Lecture 35

Review
 Course Objectives
• Gain familiarity with jet propulsion systems
– Emphasis on jet engines
– Know basic definitions and terminologies – eg, thrust
specific fuel consumption, propulsive efficiencies, etc.
– and how to use them
– Components – inlets, fans and compressors,
combustors, and turbines
• Review fundamentals important to propulsion
– Compressible flow, thermodynamics, chemical
reactions and equilibrium, heat transfer
• Application of fundamentals to propulsion system
design analysis
– Top-level analysis, eg, component sizing and
efficiencies
– Turbine engine performance
– Design aspects
 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
A cyclic process that produces work and exchanges heat
with its surroundings cannot return to its original state
 dQ 
dS =  
 T  rev
Note: an adiabatic reversible process is isentropic, eg
compression (diffusers) and expansion (nozzles)
Processes that are not reversible:
Friction
Heat transfer with finite temperature gradient
Mass transfer with finite concentration gradient
Unrestrained expansion
Combustion
 dQ 
For any process dS ≥  
 T 
 Stagnation State

I Law Stagnation Enthalpy

Constant Cp Stagnation Temperature

Rev Adiabatic Stagnation Pressure

Stagnation temperature is constant for

I Law
adiabatic process
for reversible and irreversible
Stagnation pressure is constant for
II Law
reversible adiabatic process;
decreases for irreversible process
 Steady One-Dimensional Flow

Steady

1D

Why do properties vary in x?

Compressor & Turbine
Heat/Work Transfer
Combustor

Friction

Diffusers
Area Change
Nozzles
 Normal Shock
Rankine-Hugoniot Jump Conditions

1 2

Supersonic Subsonic p01 > p02

 Efficiency & Power
Work produced/heat energy supplied
In the engine:
Fuel energy is converted to mechanical energy with efficiency ηt
Mechanical energy is converted to useful thrust with efficiency ηp
Overall Efficiency: ηo = useful work done on vehicle
energy supplied by fuel

Fuel Power
Thermal Efficiency

Jet Power
Propulsion Efficiency

Thrust Power
Ideal Brayton Cycle
1-2
reversible adiabatic compression

2-3
constant pressure heat addition

rb = 0.95
3-4
reversible adiabatic expansion

4-1
constant pressure heat rejection
rh = 0.95
 Inlets and Diffusers
Function
– Bring air in to engine
– Reduce velocity and increase pressure
– Deliver nearly steady and uniform flow
Must minimize pressure losses
– Total pressure loss in diffuser is compounded by
compressor pressure ratio
– Outside losses primarily from shock interactions adding
aircraft drag
– Inside losses primarily due to friction and BL separation
- Flow area is reduced leading to reduced pressure
recovery
- Non-uniform flow entering compressor
 Isentropic Efficiency

T 02 γ −1
γ −1 = 1+ M 2

T 02 s  p 02  γ Ta 2
=  
Ta γ −1
 pa  γ
 p02  −1
h02 s − ha T02 s − Ta  p 
ηd = = ηd =  a

h02 − ha T02 − Ta (γ − 1 ) M 2
2
 The blackbird has a variable
geometry spike for operation at
different speeds.

How does the spike help?

By forming oblique shock waves
ahead of the inlet.
Cannular Combustor
Nozzles
 Axial Compressors

Approximate:
U2 = U1
r2- r1 << r
cz1 = cz2 = cz

Fluid particle motion is well-represented by

“meanline” analysis with r constant across rotor
 Velocity Triangles at Mean Radius
Flow approaches
Flow approaches rotor
stator at angle α2
At angle β1

Velocity

Absolute: c
flow angle α
Relative: w
flow angle β
c=U+w
For a repeating
α1 stage, α3 = α1
c1
At 1, flow enters with relative velocity w1 and absolute velocity c1
Through rotor with velocity U, flow is turned to new velocities w2 and c2
Through stator, flow ends up with absolute velocity c3
Velocity Triangles
Euler’s Work Equation

Constant specific heats

No work done in stator

Algebra

Ideal Compression
 Degree of Reaction

Definition

Tds Ideal Process

Incompressible Assumption

Describes fraction of the

pressure rise that occurs
in the rotor passage!

To 1st (incompressible) approximation, axial compressors are designed for R = 0.5

 Stage Stagnation Pressure Rise

Increased U, increased ∆cθ, increased ηst

pressure ratio increases

(within limits)

For constant U and ∆cθ, stage pressure ratio increases

less with increasing T01
 Axial Turbines
• Purpose is to extract energy from hot gas to drive the
compressive devices
•About 70 – 80% of enthalpy input from combustor is used to
drive compressor – remainder used to directly generate
thrust
• Axial turbines more prevalent due to flowrate and staging
considerations
• Compared to compressor:
•Favorable vs adverse pressure gradient
•Higher efficiency mitigated by need for cooling
•More turning, higher enthalpy change per stage
•stage pressure ratios approach 0.5
•Typical stage number from 2 – 6
• Losses due to cooling, leakage, and friction and shocks
• Stringent mechanical stress requirements
•High rotational speed plus high gas temperature
•Blade design more determined by stress reqs
•Blade cooling and materials are major emphases
 Velocity Diagram

“Meanline analysis”
r2 ~ r3 ~ r
U2 ~ U3 ~ U
Also cz ~ constant
Axial Turbine Stage Ratios