5.

V. EFFECTS OF HARMONIC DISTORTION ON POWER SYSTEMS

Once the harmonic sources are clearly defined, they must be interpreted in terms of their
effects on the rest of the system and on personnel and equipment external to the power
system. Each element of the power system must be examined for its sensitivity to harmonics
as a basis for recommendations on the allowable levels. The main effects of voltage and
current harmonics within the power system are:

 Amplification of harmonic levels resulting from series and parallel resonances.

 Reduction in the efficiency of the generation, transmission and utilization of electrical
energy.
 Ageing of the insulation of electrical plant components with consequent shortening of
their useful life.
 Malfunction of system or plant components.

The effects of voltage distortion are:

 Thermal stress
 Insulation stress
 Load disruption

Harmonics increase the equipment losses and thus the thermal stress. Triplen harmonics result
in the neutral carrying a current which might equal or exceed the phase currents even if the
loads are balanced. This dictates the derating or oversizing of neutral wires. Moreover,
harmonics caused resonance might damage the equipment. Harmonics further interfere with
protective relays, metering devices, control and communication circuits, and customer
electronic equipment. Sensitive equipment would experience maloperation or component
failure.

Harmonic currents in the power distribution system can cause:

 Transformer heating
 Transformer secondary voltage distortion
 Increased power losses
 Overloaded neutrals and capacitors
 Telephone and communication system noise

Harmonic effects fall into two basic categories: short-term and long-term. Short-term effects
are usually the most noticeable and are related to excessive voltage distortion. On the other
hand, long-term effects often go undetected and are usually related to increased resistive
losses or voltage stresses.

Short-term effects can cause nuisance tripping of sensitive loads. While voltage distortions of
5% are not usually a problem, voltage distortions above 10% will almost always cause
significant nuisance tripping or transformer overheating.

Over and above mechanical fatigue due to vibrations, the main long-term effect of harmonics
is heating.
 5.2

 Capacitor heating : The losses causing heating are due to two phenomena:
conduction and dielectric hysteresis. As a first approximation, they are proportional to
the square of the rms current.
 Vibrations and noise:The electrodynamic forces produced by the instantaneous
currents associated with harmonic currents cause vibrations and acoustical noise,
especially in electromagnetic devices (transformers, reactors, etc.). Pulsating
mechanical torque, due to harmonic rotating fields, can produce vibrations in rotating
machines.
 Interference on communication and control circuits: Disturbances are observed
when communication or control circuits are run along side power distribution circuits
carrying distorted currents.
 Heating due to additional losses in machines and transformers:
o additional losses in the stators (copper and iron) and principally in the rotors
(damping windings, magnetic circuits) of machines caused by the considerable
differences in speed between the harmonic inducing rotating fields and the rotor.
o supplementary losses in transformers due to the skin effect (increase in the resistance
of copper with frequency), hysteresis and eddy currents (in the magnetic circuit).
 Heating of cables and equipment: Losses are increased in cables carrying harmonic
currents, resulting in temperature rise. The causes of the additional losses include:
o an increase in the rms value of the current for an equal active power consumed;
o an increase in the apparent resistance of the core with frequency, due to the skin
effect;
o an increase in dielectric losses in the insulation with frequency, if the cable is
subjected to non-negligible voltage distortion;
o phenomena related to the proximity of conductors with respect to metal cladding and
shielding earthed at both ends of the cable, etc.

Generally speaking, all electrical equipment (electrical switchboards) subjected to voltage

harmonics or through which harmonic currents flow, exhibit increased energy losses and
should be derated if necessary.

5.1 Thermal Losses

Harmonics have the effect of increasing equipment copper, iron and dielectric losses and
thus the thermal stress.

If skin effect is neglected, the pu increase in copper losses due to harmonics is determined by
the current distortion factor or by the voltage distortion factor.

PR PR  PR1
PR  PR1 (1  THDV2 )  PR1 (1  THD I2 )  PR  pu    THDV2  THD I2
PR1 PR1

Iron losses are the losses in an iron core of a magnetic circuit. These losses consist of
hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss. Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of
an iron core, and depends on the volume and quality of the used magnetic material, maximum
value of the flux density and frequency of electric current. Eddy-current loss is the power loss
associated with the flow of eddy currents which create induced magnetic fields that oppose
 5.3

the change of the original magnetic field due to Lenz's law. Iron losses can be expressed as
follows, assuming sinusoidal flux density:

PFe  Ph  Pe
  
 
B   
I  P 
I  
Ph   Phi    f i Bmi   f 0 Bm1  i  mi   Ph1  i  i  ; Ph  pu  h   i  i    iIi pu
 

i 1 i 1 i 1  Bm1  i 1  I1  Ph1 i 1  I1  i 1
2 2 2
 
 Bmi  
2  Ii 

Pe 
2  Ii 

Pe   Pei    f i B   f B  i 
2 2
mi   Pe1  i   ; Pe  pu 
0
2 2
m1
2
  i     i 2 I i2 pu
i 1 i 1 i 1  Bm1  i 1  I1  Pe1 i 1  I1  i 1

where

 is a constant dependent on the volume and the material of the core

 is an exponent dependent on the core material, usually 1.6
 is a constant dependent on the core material, volume and the thickness of lamination s.

All these equations are approximate since magnetic saturation is neglected.

The dielectric loss in a capacitor is due to the impossibility of ideal insulation. That is all
insulating materials show some volume resistances in addition to their capacitances. These
resistances represent the dielectric losses. Dielectric losses can be derived from the following
network representing the equivalent of an insulating material.

R R
IR IC
I
δ
Φ V
I IC
C
IR

IR V / R 1
tan    
I C 0CV 0 RC
V12
Pd 1 : Dielectric loss at the fundamental frequency   V120C tan 1
R
If the loss angle is assumed to be constant, then
Pdn : Dielectric loss at n th harmonic frequency  Vn2 n0C tan  n
Pd   Pdn  Vn2 n0C tan   V120C tan   nVn / V1   Pd 1  nVn / V1 
2 2

n n n n

  nVn / V1    nVn2 pu
Pd 2
Pd  pu 
Pd 1 n n
 5.4

Skin effect : Alternating current tends to flow on the outer surface of a conductor and is more
pronounced at high frequencies. At the seventh harmonic and above, skin effect will become
significant, causing additional loss and heating. Where harmonic currents are present, cables
should be de-rated accordingly. Multiple cable cores or laminated busbars can be used.

5.2 Harmonic Effects on Power System Equipment

5.2.1 Capacitor Banks
Harmonic effects on capacitor banks are:

 Capacitors are overloaded by harmonic currents mainly because of the decrease in

their reactances.
 Harmonics increase the dielectric losses.
 Capacitors create resonance circuits which amplify the harmonics.

Harmonic amplification is explained below with respect to the following circuit. The bus
voltage when the capacitor is switched;
 jX C VS
VC  V 'bus  VS 
Z S  jX C 1  o LS C  jo CRS
2

For resonance at the hth harmonic frequency;

1 r 1 XC SCC
r  hr o  hr    
LS C o o LS C XS QC

VS V L Z
Capacitor voltage is then; VCh    j S . S   j C .VS   jA f .VS
jCRS RS C RS

where, VCh is the hth harmonic capacitor voltage, equivalently the capacitor voltage at
LS
resonance, ZC is the characteristic impedance defined as Z C   X S X C and Af is the
C
Z
amplification factor defined as A f  C
RS
 5.5

Equation of VCh points out that harmonics corresponding or close to the resonant
frequency is amplified. The resulting voltages highly exceed the voltage rating and the
consequence is capacitor damage or blown fuses. The amplification factor can be expressed
as;

LS
Z X S XC X S
Af  C  C   .hr
RS RS RS RS

ANSI/IEEE standard 181 “shunt power capacitors” states that capacitors can be
continuously operated in a harmonic environment provide that:

 Reactive power does not exceed 135% of rating

2 2
QC V  1I 
  h. h     h   1,35
QC1 h 1  V1  h 1 h  I 1 

 Peak current does not exceed 180% (superseded to 130%) of rated peak current
I peak
 1  CCF  1,3  CCF  0,3
I1
 Peak voltage does not exceed 120% of rated voltage
V peak
 1  VCF  1,2  VCF  0,2
V1

 R.m.s. voltage does not exceed 110% of rated

Vrms
 1  THDV2  1,1  THDV  0,21  45,8%
V1

Example: Analyze the incident of capacitor switching in the following system. Calculate the
characteristic impedance and the amplification factor.

Tr
154 kV system : SCC[MVA] X/R
Min: 6000 7.5
154 kV 36 kV Normal : 7000 7.0
Max: 8000 8.0
C
Tr: 154/36 kV , 80 MVA , 12.0 %, X/R = 10
C : 10 MVAr

Let the base values be selected as follows

MVAB  80 ,
kVBh  154 kV , kVBl  36 kV
 5.6

80 MVA 80 MVA
I Bh   300 A , I Bl   1283 A
3 154 kV 3 36 kV

VBh / 3 V / 3
Z Bh   296.4  , Z Bl  Bl  16.2 
I Bh I Bl

8000
ZCC pu   100 pu
80
1
Z s pu   tg 18 pu  0.00124  j 0.009923 pu , Z s36 kV  Z s pu * Z Bl  0.0201  j 0.1607 
ZCC pu

ZT  pu  0.12  tg 110 pu  0.01194  j 0.1194 pu , ZT 36 kV  Z s pu * Z Bl  0.1934  j1.934 

Z 36 kV  Z s36 kV  ZT 36 kV  0.01318  j 0.12933 pu  0.13  84.20 pu , X/R 36 kV  9.81

1
SCC36 kV   7.6925 pu
Z 36 kV

10 1
QC  pu   0.125 pu  X C  pu   8.0 pu
80 QC  pu

fr XC 8 SCC36 kV 7.6925
hr       7.85
fo XS 0.12933 QC 0.125

ZC  X 36 kV X C  1.0172 pu
A f  hr X / R36 kV  77

5.2.2 Transformers
The primary effect of power system harmonics on transformers is the additional heat
generated by the losses caused by the harmonic content of the load current. Other problems
include possible resonances between the transformer inductance and system capacitance,
mechanical insulation stress (winding and lamination) due to temperature cycling and possible
small core vibrations.
The presence of harmonic voltages increases the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the
laminations and stresses the insulation. The increase in core losses due to harmonics depends
on the effect that the harmonics have on the supply voltage and on the design of the
transformer core.
The flow of harmonic currents increases the copper losses; this effect is more important in the
case of converter transformers (The task of these transformers is to isolate the system from the
network and preventing the converter unit to produce less harmonics by changing the number
of phases upon demand. They can be produced for 6, 12, 18, 24 and 48 pulse systems.
 5.7

Transformers are designed specially according to the number of pulses, taking the harmonics
into account.) because they do not benefit from the presence of filters, which are normally
connected on the a.c. system side. Apart from the extra rating required, converter transformers
often develop unexpected hot spots in the tank.
Delta-connected windings can be overloaded by the circulation of triplen frequency zero-
sequence currents, unless these extra currents are taken into account in the design. Under this
condition a three-legged transformer design can be effectively overloaded by zero-sequence-
caused harmonic fluxes. These fluxes cause additional heating in the tanks, core clamps, etc.
If the load current contains a D.C. component, the resulting saturation of the transformer
magnetic circuit greatly increases the harmonic content of the excitation current.
Transformer derating to take into account the harmonic content can be given based on
derating factor expressed as;

I h 2
h
2

K h

I h
2
h

In terms of the above K factor, the following expression is used to determine the derated (or
maximum allowed) current:

1  PEC . R
I max 
1  KPEC . R

where PEC.R is the ratio of eddy-current loss to rated I2R loss (I being the total r.m.s.
current).

5.2.3 Rotating Machines

The effects of harmonics on rotating machines can be summarized as follows:
 If non-sinusoidal voltages are applied to electrical machines, they may cause
overheating besides the normal operating conditions,
 As a result of this additional heating, copper and iron losses may increase further.
 Pulsating torques should produce due to the interaction of harmonics generated
magnetic fields and fundamental ones.
If the magnetic flux of the field system is distributed perfectly sinusoidally around the air gap,
then the electro-motor-force (e.m.f.) generated in each full-pitched armature coil can be
expressed as,
E(t )  2.f .N.. sin t

However, flux is never exactly distributed in this way, particularly in silent pole machines.
For a three-phase synchronous generator operating in a harmonic environment, we would first
 5.8

need to provide a brief review of the induced e.m.f., winding distribution and coil pitching.
One form of electromagnetic induction is the generation of a voltage because of a relative
motion between a magnetic field and current carrying conductor (c.c.c.). With the c.c.c.
moving perpendicular to the magnetic field, the induced e.m.f. in an a.c. three-phase
synchronous generator is;

E1  4.44.f 0 .N.1 .k w1

E1 is the fundamental component of the r.m.s. generated voltage per phase,

f0 is the fundamental frequency,
N is the number of turns per phase,
Ф1 is the fundamental component of the flux per pole per phase,
kw1 is the winding factor at the fundamental frequency, kw1 = kd1. kp1
kd1 is the distribution factor at the fundamental frequency,
kp1 is the coil span factor( pitch factor) at the fundamental frequency.

The equation should be modifies to include the harmonics. The hth harmonic induced e.m.f. is,

Eh  4.44. f h .N . h .k wh  4.44. f 0 .N .hh .1.k wh

Eh is the hth harmonic r.m.s. generated voltage per phase,

fh is the hth harmonic frequency, fh = h.f0
Фh is the hth harmonic flux per phase per pole, Фh = hh.Ф1/h
hh is the hth harmonic flux density content in p.u. of the fundamental, hh = Bh/B1
Bh is the hth harmonic magnetic flux density,
h is the harmonic order,
kwh is the winding factor at the hth harmonic frequency.

E h 4,44. f 0 .N .hh .1.k wh k k

  hh wh  E h  E1hh wh
E1 4,44. f 0 .N .1.k w1 k w1 k w1

so that the total r.m.s. generated voltage per phase,

2
 
 k  
k wh
E  Eh    E1.hh . wh   E1.  (h . k
2
h )2
h 1 h 1  k w1  h 1 w1

Voltage total harmonic distortion can be expressed as follow,


THDV  E E1   1 
2
 (h . k
h
k wh
)2 1
h 1 w1

A chorded winding is a winding whose coil sides are less than a pole pitch apart, thus saving
copper. The pitch factor is the ratio of coil voltages for a fractional-pitch winding to those for
a full pitch-one.
 5.9


k p1  sin( )  1
2

β is the coil span factor in 0 electrical, β = s.α

s is the coil span in slots (α is equal to  )

The usefulness of winding distribution and chording is to reduce or eliminate the harmonics,

 .h k ph sin(  .h / 2)
k ph  sin( ) 
2 k p1 sin(  / 2)

For example, let’s consider the eliminating of 5th harmonic,

h .5 s..5
sin( )  sin( )  0   2  s  4 / 5
2 2 2

Distributed Windings
Windings with all coil sides of a certain phase concentrated in a single slot under one pole, are
called concentrated windings. Distributed windings result in a more efficient utilization of the
armature periphery. The distribution factor is the ratio of the phase e.m.f. for a distributed
winding to that for a concentrated one.

sin(q. / 2)
kd1 
q. sin( / 2)

If we use concentrated winding, kd1 will be equal to 1. q is the number of sots per pole per
phase, q=1 for concentrated winding
S
q
2. p.m

α is the slot pitch in 0 electrical, α = p.γ

p is the number of pole pairs
γ is the slot pitch in 0 mechanical, γ=360/S
S is the number of slots
m is the number of phases

For a concentrated winding, S=2.p.m γ = 360/(2.p.m)=180/(p.m) q= 1 kd1=1

For a three-phase machine (m=3),

sin(30 0 ) 1
kd1  
q. sin( / 2) 2.q. sin( / 2)

Taking harmonics into consideration, the distribution factor would be

 5.10

sin( .h / 6) k 2. sin( / 2).sin( .h / 6)

k dh   dh 
q. sin( .h / 2) kd1 sin( .h / 2)

The winding factor

In the presence of harmonics, the winding factor becomes,

k wh kdh.k ph 2. sin( / 2). sin( .h / 6). sin(  .h / 2)

 
k w1 k d 1.k p1 sin( .h / 2).sin(  / 2)

Induced e.m.f. and voltage total harmonic distortion


k wh 2 2. sin( / 2). sin(h / 6). sin(  .h / 2)
E  E1.  (H
h 1
h .
k w1
)  E1  (H h .
sin( .h / 2). sin(  / 2)

Example 1:
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator has 120 stators with 4 coil
sides/slot and 2 turns/coil. Coil span is 8/9 pole pitch. The fundamental flux is 0.06 Wb/pole
with the third, fifth and seventh harmonic components having amplitudes of 0.21, 0.1 and
0.035 that of the fundamental. Calculate the rms harmonic components for the phase and line
voltages.

S 120
The number of slots per phase per pole is; q    10 Slots/pole/phase
2.p.m 4.3
The number of turns per phase is,
120 slots 2 turns coil 4 coil sides turns
N  160
3 phase coil 2 coil sides slot phase

The slot pitch in 0 mechanical is, γ= 360/S=360/120=30 in mechanical.

The slot pitch in 0 electrical is α = p.γ=3*2=60 in electrical.

8
The coil span in 0 electrical is β= s.α = .180 0  160 0
9

The distribution factor, the pitch factor, the winding factor and the flux per pole per phase are
given by

sin(q. .h / 2)
k dh  ; k ph  sin(  .h / 2) ; k wh  k dh .k ph ;  h  H h .1 / h
q. sin( .h / 2)

sin(10.6 / 2)
E1  4,44 f 0 N1k w1  4,44.50.160.0,06. sin(160 / 2).  2005,14 Volt
10. sin(6 / 2)
 5.11

sin(10 * 6 * 3 / 2)
E3  4,44 f 0 Nh31k w 3  4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,21* 0.06 * sin(160 * 3 / 2) *  247.76 Volt
10. sin(6 * 3 / 2)

sin(10 * 6 * 5 / 2)
E5  4,44 f 0 Nh5 1k w 5  4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,1* 0.06 * sin(160 * 5 / 2) *  26.46 Volt
10. sin(6 * 5 / 2)

sin(10 * 6 * 7 / 2)
E7  4,44 f 0 Nh7 1k w 7  4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,035 * 0.06 * sin(160 * 7 / 2) *  3.56 Volt
10. sin(6 * 7 / 2)

E1 = 2005.14 Vrms E3 = -247.76 Vrms E5 = 26.46 Vrms E7 = 3.56 Vrms

Phase voltage,


E phase  E
h 1
2
h  2005.14 2  247.76 2  26.46 2  3.56 2  2020.56 Volt  2.02 kV

Line voltage,


E line  E
11
l
2
 (2005.14 * 3 ) 2  (26.46 * 3 ) 2  (3.56 * 3 ) 2  3.473 kV

2
E 2026.56 2
THDV     1  ( )  1  0.1242  12.42 %
 E1  2005.14

Example 2: Rework example 1 with full-pitched coils.

With no chording, β = 1800, kp = 1,0

If similar calculations are performed,

Eline = 3.527 kVrms , Ephase = 2.056 kVrms ,

THDV = 14.19 %

If we calculate the fundamental component for voltage in the presence of full-pitched coils,
we will get a bit bigger fundamental component compared with the chording coils, yet using
fractional pitching has the advantage of reducing harmonic voltage thus resulting in an
improved voltage waveform.

Example 3: A three phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator has 216 stator
slots with 8 conductors/slot. Coil span is 8/9 pole pitch. The fundamental flux is
 5.12

0.12 Wb/pole, while the third harmonic component is 0.012 Wb/pole. Calculate
the rms harmonic components for the phase and line voltages.

S 216
The number of slots per phase per pole: q    12 slots / pole / phase
2. p.m 6.3

216 slots 8 conductor turn

The number of turns per phase: N  . .  288 turns / phase
3 phase slot 2 conductors

The slot pitch in 0 mechanical : α = p.γ=3*1.6670=50

The coil span in electrical, β= s.α=(8/9)*180=1600

The fundamental and harmonic voltages can be calculated in similar manner explained in the
first example,
sin(12.5 / 2)
E1  4,44 f 0 N1k w1  4,44 * 50 * 288 * 0,12 * sin(160 / 2).  7215 Volt
12. sin(5 / 2)

sin(12 * 5 * 3 / 2)
E3  4,44 f 0 Nh31k w 3  4,44 * 3 * 50 * 288 * 0,012 * sin(160 * 3 / 2) *  1272.6 Volt
12. sin(5 * 3 / 2)

E phase  E
h 1
h
2
 72152  1272.6 2  7328.8 Volt


E line  E
11
l
2
 (7217.5 * 3 ) 2  12.5 kV

E 2 7.33 2
THDV  ( ) 1  ( )  1  0.1776  17.76 %
E1 7.217

Example 4. Rework example 3 with concentrated windings and 96 conductors /slot. What
effect does this have on the voltage magnitude?
As described before, making similar calculations, line voltage, phase voltage and total
harmonic distortion for voltage can be found as below,


E phase  E
h 1
h
2
 7.814 kV
 5.13


E line  E  13.08 kV
2
l
11

E 2
THDV  ( )  1  26.38 %
E1

Using concentrated winding will increase the fundamental generated voltage, but at the same
time, harmonic voltages and total harmonic distortion will get higher compared with the non
concentrated winding situation.
We can summarize winding factors on the generated voltage and total harmonic distortion for
voltage as:

 Although chording (fractional pitching) reduces the fundamental component of

induced e.m.f., yet it has the advantage of reducing harmonic voltages and total
harmonic distortion,
 Using distributed winding reduces the fundamental component of the induced e.m.f.,
but it has the advantage of reducing harmonic voltages thus resulting in an improved
voltage waveform.

5.2.3 Protection, Communication and Electronic Equipment

Harmonics can distort or degrade the operating characteristics of protective relays depending
on the design features and principles of operation. Current harmonic distortion can affect the
interruption capability of circuit breakers and fuses. Possible reasons are higher di/dt at zero
crossings, the current sensing ability of thermal magnetic breakers and a reduction in the trip
point due to extra heating of the solenoid.
Protective functions are usually developed in terms of fundamental voltages and/or currents,
and any harmonics present in the fault waveforms are either filtered out or ignored altogether.
Distance relay settings are based on fundamental impedances of transmission lines, and the
presence of harmonic current in a fault situation could cause considerable measurement errors
relative to the fundamental-based settings.
Because of current transformer saturation, secondary induced distortion of current waveforms,
particularly with large d.c. offsets in the primary waveforms, will occur. Whenever high
secondary e.m.f. exists during steady-state conditions, the nonlinear current transformer
exciting impedance only causes odd harmonic distortion.
Harmonic affect the operation of the following devices. The effects depend on the closeness
to the harmonic sources.
 Television receivers
 Fluorescent and mercury arc lighting
 Computers
 Power electronic equipment

Harmonic may create noise on communication circuits degrading the transmission quality and
can interfere with signaling.