Reference Protection Handbook

CHAPTER 1 The Principles of Power-network

Calculations
By C. H. LACKEY.
INTRODUCTION point in the circuit to which the voltage is related. E ah
therefore means the voltage of phase-a relative to
The use of calculator-boards for the evaluation of net- phase-b; E an means the voltage of phase-a relative to
work currents and voltages is established practice, and neutral-no It is essential, if confusion is to be avoided,
results in a great saving of time as compared with direct that the nomenclature decided upon shall be most
calculation. The manipulation of a calculator-board may rigorously applied. If this is done, interphase-voltage-
not demand great skill on the part of the operator, or vectors, which sometimes give trouble, become quite
require a full knowledge of the principles involved, but simple. There are six for the three phases, namely E.ab
the interpretation of the results and a full realisation of and E ba , E bc and E cb , E ca and E ac ; and these are shown In
the nature of the problem to be solved and its fig. 2.
implications do require a sound knowledge of the basic
principles of calculation. Apart from this, a
calculator-board is often not available, or the problem
may be simple enough for direct solution. Engineers
associated with the design and performance of

-
power-supply systems should so equip themselves as to
be able to predict current and voltage values under both
normal and abnormal conditions: a clear understanding fen

of the basic principles of fault-calculations is of para-

mount importance in this connection. Attention is
devoted here mainly to the principles of fault-
calculation, but it should be understood that many of the
principles, such as those of vector-algebra and network-
\-----E""
reduction, are equally applicable to load-studies.
Fault-calculations have come to be regarded as the
prerogative of experts, and as operations requiring
rather exceptional skill. Experience is without a doubt a Ebn
necessary adjunct to speed, but no great skill or
mathematical ability is necessary for the proper
understanding and solution of most problems. The
subject will be considered under the following four
headings:
Vector- Representation.
-
Vector-Algebra and Impedance-Notations.
Network-Reduction and the Calculation of E'a + ---<
Balanced Faults.
Symmetrical-Component Methods.
The approach will be practical rather than theoretical,
and some elementary background knowledge will be
assumed.

VECTOR-REPRESENTATION
There can be no doubt about the value of vectors for the
pictorial representation of alternating currents and
voltages, and every effort should be made to cultivate
their use. Difficulties have arisen in the past due to (a)
lack of established nomenclature, and (b) inconsistency
in the use of conventions.
Figs l(a) and I(b) show the nomenclature
recommended. First, there is a vector-label, E or I for
example, meaning simply voltage or current; second, a
suffix, as for example in E, meaning the voltage of
phase-a; and third (for voltage-vectors especially), a
second suffix, as for example in E ah , indicating the other
FIG. I.
The polarity of all vector-quantities is positive, and
the positive direction is away from the source of supply,
as shown in fig. I(a). This applies to neutral-currents and
earth-currents as well as line-currents. On this basis the
currents in a 3-phase 4-wire system, for example, are
Ian + Ihn + len = -In·
The current in a circuit, multiplied by the impedance of
the circuit, is the voltage driving the current through the
circuit. It is not the voltage-drop, which is -IZ, as shown

10
in fig. 3. Positive phase-sequence is a-b-c, negative
phase-sequence a-c-b. Vectors of zero phase-sequence
are in phase with one another.
Three examples will be given to illustrate the
conventions.
(al

bb

,a)
E..b

Ecb
4'
Drivins·voltar·'
Eax
f,
,, to.
,, (b)

I
I
, I
I --3-0:'- a
.
Ex..
I
Eba b Eac
(b'
E'b..

Eca
c Eab Voltage--drops.
\
\
\
\
\
,0' I
f
----L_O bx
I
I
I (cJ
/
I
'0
FIG. 3.
Ebc

(e)

FIG. 2. Example 2.-Phase-to-phase fault.

Example l.-Earth-~ault in a resistance-earthed system, taking
capacItance-current mto account.
Fig. 4(a).shows a resistance-earthed generator feeding
a system wIth star and delta capacitance, and with a fault
to earth as F in phase-a. The current in phase-a has three
components; one through the circuit, phase-a, the fault,
and the neutral-earthing resistor, another through
phase-a, the ~ault, and capacitance C b to phase-wire-b,
and the thud, through phase-a, the fault, and
capacitance Ce to phase-wire-c. The voltage driving the
component Ian (i.e. the one through the neutral-earthing
resistor) is the phase-to-neutral voltage E an , and the
current is for all practical purposes in phase with the
voltage, as shown in fig. 4(b). The voltages driving the
other components are E ab , and E ae and since the
!mpedanc~ of the circuits traversed by these components
IS predommantly capacitative, they lead their respective
voltages by nearly 90°, as shown by vectors lab and Iae .
The resultant current in phase-a la' is the vector sum
Ian + lab + lac'
as shown in fig. 4(b).
In fig. Sea) a generator is shown feeding a line with a
short circuit at F between phase-b and phase-c. The
current I be is driven by the interphase-voltage E be , and
~he current Ieb is driven by the voltage E eb . Since the
Impedance of the circuit is largely reactive, the currents
lag behind their respective driving-voltages by an angle
~, as shown in fig. S(b).
The reactive and resistive voltage-drops in the
generator phase-b, namely -IbX g, lagging behind I b by
90°, and -IbR g, in phase-opposition to I b, reduce the
p~a~e-to-neutralvol~age of this phase from E bn to Vbn-
SimIlarly, the reactIve and resistive voltage-drops in
phase-c reduce the phase-to-neutral voltage from E bn to
Ven . The reactive and resistive voltage-drops in the line,
-IbX1 and -IbR I for phase-b, and -leX, and -IeRI for
phase-c, reduce the interphase voltage at the fault to
zero (neglecting fault-impedance). The voltages to
neutral of phase-b and phase-c at the faults are identical,
a~d eq~al to V Fn , the arrow-head of V Fn lying at the
mid-pomt of the line joining E bn and E en . Although
phase-a does not carry any fault-current, the magnetic
linkage between phases causes a voltage-drop and the
phase-to-neutral voltage becomes Van'

11
Example 3.-Two-phase-to-earth fault in a solidly-earthed
system.
Fig. 6(a) shows a generator feeding a line with
earth-fault at F in phase-b and phase-c. The
fault-currents in phase-b and phase-c may each be
considered as comprising two components, namely a
phase-to-phase component, as in a phase-to-phase fault
(fig. 5), and a phase-to-earth component. In fig. 6(b), I he
and leh are the phase-to-phase components, and I hn and
len the phase-to-earth components.
The total currents in phase-b and phase-c are
therefore
I h = I he + Ihn' and
Ie = leh + len'
and the total earth-current is
Ie = I hn + len'
The generator-voltage E hn can be resolved into the
two components E'he and E'hn at right angles to each
other as shown. Similarly, the voltage E en can be
resolved into the two components E'eh and E'en' The two
component vectors E'bn and E'en are coincident. The
voltage-components E' be and E'eh are each equal to
one-half ofthe interphase-voltages E be and E eh , and each
is completely absorbed by driving the corresponding
interphase-currents Ihe and Ieb . These currents lag
behind their associated voltage by the angle 0. The
voltages E' bn and E'en are absorbed by driving the
earth-currents Ibn and len' which in a solidly-earthed
system lag behind their voltages by approximately 70°.
GENERATOR X
It should be noted that the phase-a driving-voltage
vector is horizontal in all the vector-diagrams. It is fairly
usual to draw it vertical; but the horizontal position is to
be preferred, because it is commonly used in
symmetrical-component work. It simplifies calculation
by eliminating an operator-j term; that is to say, the
voltage of phase-a is E an + jO, whereas if the vector is
vertical the voltage of phase-a is 0 + jEan. It is therefore
well to accustom oneself to make the phase-a
voltage-vector horizontal.
It will bear emphasis that vectors are of very great
value in bringing electrical conditions into the mind's
eye, and so in aiding the user to understand his problem
and the significance of calculated results.
EGb (not to scale)
Ecn
t Veb
-IeRg
~>
1\
l-l~
'I ~cn
I Ie

"
I
"' "'
b \ "' "'
n -IcH "'"'
_ _--;;;j,.:::::......:=-='""=-==-:="'=--::-:;~Eon
Von

NEUTRl\l
l:ARfHING
RESl5TOR
lb

(a)
Ebn
Vb.

Ebt. (not to scale)

10.
(b)
I
I
I FIG. 5.
\(Ub
,
\
,
\ VECTOR-ALGEBRA AND IMPEDANCE
NOTATIONS
Vector-Algebra
All students are familiar with the elementary principles
of vector-algebra, such as the expression of an inductive
impedance in the form Z = R + jX, and the
rationalization of expressions as in the following
FIG. 4. example:

12
 GENERATOR The scalar value of this is
Zg z.e
a. IZI = YR2 + X 2, and X/R = tane
Ib F I.
1\
Hence R = IZI cose,
----+ Ie c.
and X = Izi sine.
tIe
~ Substituting these values in equation (1) gives
(a)
Z = Izi (cose + j sine).
• Eeb (NOT TO SCALE)
It is proved in standard mathematical text-books that
II
cose + j sine = .i e .
Ee~
. --IrE'cb'T
Eeb
Substituting .i 8 in the equation for Z gives
I Z = IZI .i e (2)
Ie len This is known as the exponential method of specifying
a vector.
leI.
An impedance-vector has been taken by way of
example, but the same principles hold good for current,
Ea.n
voltage, or any other vectors. The physical significance
of a vector expressed exponentially is perhaps not so
I obvious as when it is expressed in rectangular
Ibe '
I coordinates, but the exponential form is sometimes

i
I
I easier to manipulate in division and multiplication. The
I
rules are the same as for ordinary algebra. Thus
I
AXx AV = A(x + y) and
: E'bc..E~C
Ebn
I
AX/AY = A (x-y).
If we take a voltage-vector E = lEI .i e .
Ebc( NOT TO SCALE) and a current vector I = II cie"I
(b) then EI lEI .i e , x III Je,
FIG. 6. I
EI III .j(e, + 8,), and
E/I lEI Je./ III Je, = (I EI / III )J(e, - e,)

Consider also the following.

E 5 + JIO Let Z = Z,Z2Z3/z..ZS.
I 2 + j3 Expressing this exponentially, we have
Z E
-
5 + JIO X 2 - j3 Z = Iz,1 .i e , x Iz21 .i e , x IZ3! .i e ,
I 2 + j3 2 - j3 I
Z.I .i e, x IZsl .i e ,
40 + j5
13 Iz.. Zsl
It is not proposed to go into details of this part of the ,
IZ 1 IZ./ IZ 31 x .j(ed ed ed - e, - e,)
work; we shall rather devote our attention to one or two
IZ·IIZs/
important aspects that experience shows are not so well
understood. e
1 ZTI .i , (3)

These are: where 1Z I I z,1 Iz21 Iz31

T 1z..IIZs! '
(a) the exponential method of specifying a vector;
and e (e, + e2 + e3 - e. - es).
(b) vector-operator-a; and
(c) the resolution of parallel impedances. The evaluation of IZTI and e is merely arithmetrical,
since all the components are plain numbers. If it is
The exponential method of specifying a vector desired to give the final value of Z in rectangular
Algebraically, and in rectangular coordinates, an coordinates, i.e. R and X, it is easy to do so, because
inductive impedance is expressed as R =IZTI cose, and
Z = R + jX (1) X = IZTI sine.

13
 A little reflection will show that equation (3) can be called operator j. Any vector-quantity multiplied by j is
written down at once for any division of vector thereby rotated 90° anti-clockwise.
expressions, without the preliminary steps indicated I
If any vector, say a current vector, II Ea, is multiplied
above. I
by vector I.i e , we get I.i(a e). The length of the vector
III is unchanged, but its inclination to the reference-line
Take now a numerical example, and suppose that it is is increased from a to (a + 8). Thus to multiply a vector
required to evaluate the following expression in terms of by U 12 lJ" means simply that its angle to the reference-line
Rand X. is increased by 120°, i.e. the vector is turned through
Z = Z,Z./Z.Z.Zs, 120° counterclockwise; and multiplying by l. j240' turns
the vector through 240°. The quantity l.i 120' is called a
where Z, = 2 + j3, 120°-operator, and is usually denoted by the small letter
Z. = 4 - j2, a. Operator U240' is then a'.
Z. = 3 + j4,
In rectangular coordinates,
Z. = 2 + j2,
a = I.i120'= cosl20° + jsinl20°
Zs = 2 - j4.
= -0.5 + jO.866
Writing the expression in exponential form gives a' = I.i240'= cos240° + jsin240°
Z =IZTI .ie, where IZTI = \z,\z·1 = -0.5 - jO.866
IZ·I IZ.I IZsl
Operators a and a' are used in symmetrical
and 8 = 8, + 8. - 8. - 8. - 8s.
component work (as described later) as a simple means
of rotating vectors through 120° and 240° respectively.
Then IZ,I = V2' + 3' = 3.60
8, = tan- 1 3/2 = 56°
The resolution of parallel impedances
IZ·I = V4' + (-~. = 4.471 If a circuit comprises impedances in parallel, the total
• = tan- -2/4 = _27° impedance is obtained from

/Z·I = V3' + 4' = 5.00: _1_ = ~1_ + _1_. + _1_ + ..

8. = tan- 1 4/3 = 53° Z Z, Z. Z.
IZ.I = V2' + 2' = 2.82 Thus, for three impedances in parallel,
8. = tan- 1 2/2 = 45° 1 Z2Z. + Z.Z, + Z,Z.
/Zsl = V2'+(-4)' = 4.47 : Z Z,Z.Z.
8s = tan- 1 -4/2 = _63° Z = Z,Z.Z.
Z.Z. + Z.Z, + Z,Z.
IZTI 3.6 x 4.47 = 0.25,
5 x 2.82 x 4.47 In working out an expression of this kind, each
impedance must be put in its vector from (R + JX) or
8 56 - 27 - 53 - 45 + 63 = _6°. IZ I .i e . A simple alternative procedure, which is
Z IZTI .i e = 0.25.j(-6') specially advantageous for more than two circuits, is as
R Izi cos8 = 0.25 cos (_6°) follows.
= 0.25 x 0.99 = 0.249. Let R, + jX" and
X IZ/ sin8 = 0.25 sin (_6°) R. + jX•.
= 0.25 x (-0.1) = - 0.026. 1 ~+~
Then
Hence Z = 0.249 - jO.026. Z z, Z.
1
+
The time saved by this method is well exemplified in R. + jX.
star/delta transformations, where the expressions
Z,Z,/Z" Z,Z,/Z" and Z,Z'/Z, require to be evaluated. Rationalise each term separately:
I
Here the calculations of IZ,I ' Z.I, IZ.! ' 8" 8., and 8. _1_ = 1 x R,-jX, + X R.-jX.
for the first expression are equally applicable to the Z R, + jX, R,-jX, R. + jX. R.-jX.
other two, whereas with rectangular coordinates there is
R, - jX, + R. - jX.
nothing common to the three calculations.
R,' + X,' R.' + X.'
R, + R. _j ( X, + X. )
Vector-operator-a R,'+ X,, R.'+ X.' R,~+ X,, R.'+ X.'
Two methods of expressing a vector have been The first two terms, consisting of resistance divided by
mentioned, namely the rectangular-coordinate method, the sum of the squares of resistance and reactance, are
e'f' Z = R + jX, and the exponential me!h~ e.g. Z called the "conductance" of the circuit, and such terms
= ZI.-I e . In each of these the quantity j = V-I, and is are denoted by the small letter g. Similarly, quantities

14
like the last two terms, involving reactance divided by ohms to a voltage-base other than that to which they
the sum of the squares of resistance and reactance, are belong in practice. In this connection students are
called the "susceptance" of the circuit, and are denoted doubtless familiar with the concept of transformer
by the small letter b. The last expression may thus be equivalent impedance, referred to the primary or to the
written as: secondary winding. In the same way any impedance can
liZ = gl + g2 - j(bl + b2), be transferred from one voltage-base to another. The
transferred impedance must of course have a value
and, generally, for any circuit involving a number of different from the natural impedance, in order that its
parallel impedances: effect in the circuit may be the same. The criterion so far
liZ = gl + g2 + ga + -j(bl +b2 +ba + ) as these calculations are concerned is that the same
= G - jB, proportion of the driving-voltage shall be absorbed by
where G = gl + g2 + ga + . the new value of the impedance. Expressed
algebraically,
and B = bl + b2 + ba + .
I1Zl/El = hZ2/E2,
Thus Z = _1_ , which, when rationalized, where the suffix (1) indicates the initial or natural
G -jB
conditions, and suffix (2) the new-voltage-base
gives, conditions.
G + jB From the above identity,
Z (4)
G + B2
2
Z2 ~ x ~ X Zl
The use of this equation for determining the El h
impedance of parallel circuits can be a great time-saver, E2 X ~ X Zl
and reduces the problem to little more than simple El El
arithmetic. Consider, for example, four parallel
(because the current must be inversely proportional to
impedances as follows:
the voltage)
Zl = 2 + j3, = ( ~: ) 2 X Zl (5)
Z2 = 4 - j2,
Za = 3 + j4, Taking transformer-impedance by way of example:
Z. = 2 - j2.
Z, = Zp(E,/E p)2 and Zp = Zs (E p /E s )2,
Then
where ZIand Zp are the total equivalent impedances of a
gl = 2 =0.154 bl = 3 0.231 transformer referred to the secondary and primary sides
22 + 32 22 + 32 respectively, and E s and E p are the secondary and
4 -2 primary voltages. Suppose that it is required to transfer
g2 = =0.200 b2 = = - 0.100 the impedance of a 33-kV overhead line (say 8.6+ j 11.4
42 + 22 42 + 22
ohms) to a voltage-base of 6.6-kV.
ga = 3 =0.120 ba = 4 = 0.160 Z33-kY= 8.6 + j11A
32 + 42 32 + 4 2
Zhh-kY =(8.6 + j11A) (6.6/33)2 =
2 =0.250 b. = -2 = - 0.250 0.344 + jOA56
g. =
22 + 22 22 + 22
Per-cent-notation
G = gl+g2+ga+g. = 0.724 B = (bl+b2+ba+b. = 0.041
The percent impedance of a circuit, or of a piece of
equipment, is the impedance-drop in the circuit, or in the
Z = G + jB 0.724 + jO.041 equipment, when it is carrying a specified current,
G 2 + B2 (0.724)" + (0.041)2 expressed as a percentage of the line-to-neutral voltage.
Thus, % impedance
0.724 + jO.041 = 1.38 + jO.078
0.526 ZI x 100, (6)
line-to-neutral voltage
Impedance-Notations where Z is the ohmic impedance of the circuit or
There are three ways of expressing the impedances of equipment, and I is the specified current.
the various components of a network, namely (I) in In practice, MVA is invariably used instead of current
ohms, (2) as a per-cent value, and (3) as a per-unit value, in connection with per-cent impedance; this is
and in each case the expression may be in vector or in permissable because MVA is proportional to current for
scalar form. a given voltage. Further, when specifying the per-cent
impedance of. for example, a transformer or a
Ohm-notation generator, it is usual to give it for its rated current
The only matter to which attention need be drawn in (MVA). Thus a 15-MVA transformer may have its
connection with ohm-notation is that of relating the impedance given as lOper-cent at 15 MVA or a

15
30-MVA generator may have an impedance of 20 approximate result is required, it is sufficient to treat the
per-cent at 30 MVA. impedances as scalar quantities, and so make the
When using percent impedances, it is frequently additions, subtractions, and so on purely arithmetical. If
necessary to transfer them from their natural MVA-base however, such a simplifying assumption is not
to some other MVA-base. Since the per-cent permissible, ohmic impedances must be expressed in
impedance-drop is directly proportional to current, and their R + jX or IZI .j6 form, and per-cent and per-unit
therefore to MVA, we have a very simple impedances in per-cent or per-unit resistance and
proportionality for such transfers, as follows: reactance drops, as given above in equations (8) and (9).
% impedance at MVA (A) =
Relations between impedance-notations
% impedance at MVA (B) x MVA (A) It often happens that the impedances of network-
MVA (B) components are not all given on the same basis; for
example, cable and line impedances are usually given in
For example, if a generator has an impedance of 15 ohms, whereas transformer and machine impedances
per-cent at 50 MVA, its impedance at 100 MVA is are usually given in per-cent or per-unit values. The
% impedance (100 MVA) = 15 x 100 = 30% same basis must obviously be used for all the
50 components of the network, and so it becomes necessary
to transfer some impedances from the given basis to the
Per-unit-notation basis chosen for the calculations. We shall therefore
derive expressions for the relations between the three
The per-unit impedance of a circuit, or of a piece of notations, in order that such transfers from one basis to
equipment, is the impedance-drop in the circuit, or in the another may readily be made.
equipment, when it is carrying a specified current,
expressed as a decimal fraction of the line-to-neutral Let Z =impedance per phase of the circuit or of
voltage. the equipment, in ohms,
I =any given current per phase, in amperes,
Thus, P.U. impedance E =the rated line-to-line voltage, in kV, and
ZI M = 3-phase MVA based on E and I
.................(7)
line-to-neutral voltage (M = V3EII1000).
From equation (6),
Obviously the only difference between per-unit and ZI
per-cent impedance is that the former is the % impedance x 100 = v'3ZI
1000E 10E
one-hundredth part of the latter. The 15-MVA
transformer mentioned above has a per-cent impedance v'3
of lOper-cent and a per-unit impedance of 0.1. The rule 1000M and therefore,
for transferring a per-cent impedance from one MVA Now I
v'3E ' substituting for I
base to another, as given above, is clearly applicable also
to per-unit impedances. % impedance v'3z x 1000M
10E v'3E
Vector-expression of per-cent
and per-unit impedances 100ZM
- -, (10)
If the ohmic impedance Z is written in its vector-form E2
R + jX in the expressions given above for per-cent and
and Z % imp. x E2 (11)
per-unit impedances, we have the concept of per-cent or 100M
per-unit resistance and reactance.
Similarly, P.U. impedance = -ZM
-, (12)
Thus, % impedance E2
_ _ _--=Z=I x 100 and Z P.U. imp x EO (13)
line-to-neutral voltage M
= (RI x 100) + jJSL x 100) ... (8)
Ean Ean For example, a 20-MVA transformer with lOper-cent
where Ean is the line-to-neutral voltage. impedance (at 20 MVA), and a rated voltage of 33kV,
has an ohmic impedance, from equation (11), of
Similarly, P.U. impedance= 2
RI + jJSL Z33-kV = 10 X 33 - 5.44 ohms.
(9) 100 x 20
Ean Ean
When all the impedances in a network are known to A 20-MVA generator with a per-unit impedance of
have, or may be assumed to have, the same, or 0.125 (at 20 MVA), and a rated voltage of 11 kVhas an
approximately the same, power-factor, or when only an ohmic impedance, from equation (13), of

16
 ZIl-kV =
0.125 x 11" - 0.76 ohm NETWORK-REDUCTION AND THE
20 CALCULATION OF BALANCED FAULTS
A 132-kV overhead line with an impedance of 12 An electrical power-network, from the point of view of
ohms has a percentage impedance on a basis of 100 fault-calculations, is merely an arrangement of series
MVA, from equation (10), of and parallel impedances between the source of supply
% impedance = 100 x 12 x 100 - 6.9, and the fault. For the calculation of the total
132 2 fault-current, the network is reduced to a single
equivalent impedance between the source and the fault.
and the P.U. impedance is 0.069.

GENEP~TOR I
IOMVA:IS.l'
rv
V GENERATOR 2
IOMVA:12'S!
For a radial network, the process of reduction is simply
the addition of the various generator transformer, and
line impedances. An example of this is given in fig. 7(a)
and 7(b), the impedances in 7(b) being shown in ohms,
- ....--T--....- IIkV
per-cent, and per unit values.
The value of the 3-phase fault-current is derived by
dividing the line-to-neutral voltage by the equivalent
impedance in ohms. If per-cent or P.U. impedances are
used.
OVERHEAD LINE OF Fault MVA Base MVA x 100
----'------,------,--, or
LOADS ~T II kVAND 33kV COPPER CONDUCTORS Total per-cent impedance
OMITTED AS NOT 0-1 SQ. IN. PER PHASE
RELEVANT TO THE PROBLEM z" (0'43 +j 0-57).a PER MILE Fault MVA Base MVA
Total P.U. impedance
In all these calculations the assumption is made that
the impedance-values are identical for each phase, and
so only one phase need be calculated.
-..,.. ...._ 33kV
Example of radial system
T2 S MVA: S1 6·6k'/ From fig. 7(b), the impedance of the equivalent circuit
is 0.774+j2.131 ohms at 6.6 kV.
2 MI~ES
Hence the fault-current
0·2 SQ. IN. P. I. L C_ CABLE
Z~(o·215+JO'122)1l.PER MILE FAULT
IF = 6600/Y3 575 - j1590
(a) 0.774 + j2.131
If only the numerical value of the current is required,

ZPU. Z = YR2 + X 2 = Y 0.774 2 + 2.131"

= 2.27 ohms, and
0+ j 68 0+jO'5S 0+jO·Z97 IF = 6600/Y3 - 1690 A.
2.27

The current in the 33-kV line is

O+jl00 a+J \-0 TRANSFORMER 1 0+ j a-43b
IF33 = 1690 x 6600 =340 A.
33000
Similarly
79+ j 105 0-79+ j 1-05 LINE 0-344+jO-456
IFll = 1690 x 6600 1020 A.
--!-- 33-kV BUSBAR
11000
Current in generator 1
0+j160 O+jl'6 TRANSFORMER 2 OtjO'69B

II = _--=Z=2__ X IFI
Z, + Z2

99+jS6 0-99+)0-56 CABLE 0·43+ jO'Z44

0.545 x 1020 = 463 A.
0.655 + 0.545
Similarly
178+j469 17S+j4'S9 TOTAL F TOTAL 0774+jZ-131
12 = Zl X IFll
(b)
FIG_ 7. Zl + Z2

17
 _ _0_._65_5_ _ x 1020 = 557 A. IZI % = Y178 2 + 489 2 = 519%
0.655 + 0.545 The 3-phase fault MVA = 100 x 100
It is important, if the phase-angles of the generator- 519
impedances Zl and Z2 are not equal, that each shall be = 19.3 MVA.
expressed in its R + jX or Izl.i6 form.
The fault-current
The voltage at the 33-kV busbars is the line-to-neutral
voltage plus the voltage-drop between the source and MVA x 1000
IF6.6 =
the 33-kV busbars. V3 x 6.6
The impedance to the 33-kV busbars in ohms at 6.6
kV is 19.3 x 1000 1690 A, as before.
Z =(0+jO.298) + (0+j0.436) + (0.334+j0.458) Y3 x 6.6
=0.334 + j1.l92 Expressing this as a vector quantity,
The current in amperes at 6.6 kV is e = tan- 1 489 = 70°, and
IF6.6 = 575 - j1590. 178
Hence the impedance-drop = - IZ IF6.6 = 1690 cos70 - j1690 sin70
= -(575 - j1590) (0.344 + j1.192)
= -(2099 + j144). = 578 - j1590, as before.
The procedure for P.D. impedances is obviously
The phase-to-neutral voltage at the 33-kV busbars, exactly the same.
expressed on a 6.6 kV basis, It is frequently permissible, if vector-results are not
= (E + jO) + IZ required, to assume that the phase-angles of all the
= (6600/V3 + jO) - (2099 + j144) impedances are the same. If this is done in the preceding
= 1716-j144. example, a total scalar impedance of 582% is obtained
on an MVA basis of 100. The three-phase fault MVA is
The scalar line-to-line volts. then
V6." = Y3X Y1716 2 + 1442 = 2980 V 100 x 100%= 17.2 MVA.
on a 6.6 kV basis. 528%
With vector-impedances, as above, the MVA is 19.3.
The actual line-to-Iine volts The error resulting from the assumption of equal
V33 = 2980 x 33/6.6 = 14,900 V. phase-angles is therefore
Error % = 19.3 - 17.2 x 100
Now, using the per-cent impedances figures of fig.
19.3
7(b), the total per-cent impedance on a 100-MVA basis
= 178 + j489. = 10.65%

e 0·67+ i 6·\

0·4 + j 3·62

o 24+jO·75
175+ j09 1·75+jO·9
0·Z4+jO·75

0-4+ j 3·62
~.

1·36+j 1·36
145+ jO·8 '·75+jO·9

(a.)

l
~~~~el
/·08 +jO·S5

o 55+j0224 0·55+1 C224

\ I
(d) (e)

FIG. 9.

18
 An error of such an amount is often quite permissible, equivalent star-group (say ZAB, ZBC' and ZCA) as
and because of the relative simplicity of scalar follows:
impedances they should be used wherever vector results
are not required, and where great accuracy is not ZAB = _ _Z_A_Z_B_ _ (14)
ZA + ZB + Zc
important.
ZBC = - -ZBZC
--- (15)
ZA + ZB + Zc
An example of an interconnected network
ZCA = _ _Z_cZ_A_ _ (16)
Consider now a simple interconnected network, as ZA + ZB + Zc
shown in fig. 8. Let it be supposed that a three-phase
fault occurs at sub-station C, and that it is required to
determine the currents in all branches of the network.
Fig. 9(a) is the impedance-diagram for the network of
fig. 8. In fig. 9(b) the impedances of the two parallel
cables, each 1.75 + jO.9, have been resolved into the
single impedance Zl = 0.87 + j0.45, and the four
series-impedances of the 66-kV line and transformers
have been resolved into the single impedance Z2 = 1.28
+ j8.74. Z2 is in ohms at 33 kV, i.e. the actual ohms at
66 kV of the line have been multiplied by (33/66)2, and
the transformer-impedances have been calculated on a

(o.)

20MVA

"_ ..........__..,..1.oooo-33kV

(b)
B

FIG. 10.

Applying this to the delta-group ZA' ZB, Zc of fig. 9(b)

D gives the equivalent star-group ZAB, ZBC' ZCA of fig.
9(c). For example:
ZAZB
ZAB =
ZA + ZB + Zc
(1.75 + jO.9) (1.45 + jO.8)
F
(1.45+jO.8) + (1.36+j1.36) + (1.75+jO.9.)
FIG. 8.
= 0.55 + jO.224.

33-kV basis. Although these steps have simplified the
impedance-network, the delta-group of impedances ZA,
ZB, and Zc is not amenable to reduction by the laws of
series and parallel impedances; but it can be replaced by
an equivalent star-group. Any delta-group of
impedances (say ZA, ZB, Zc in fig. 10) is related to the
Similarly
ZCA = 0.439 + jO.371, and
ZBC = 0.53 + j0.416.
The network may now be reduced to fig. 9(d), and
further, by combining the parallel impedances, to fig.
9(e), and finally to fig. 9(f) which shows it as a single
equivalent impedance of 2.3 + j7.17 in ohms at 33 kV;

19
and the total three-phase fault-current may be leaving a junction must be equal. Refer to fig. 11, which
determined thus: is an enlarged diagram of this part of the network, and
IF = phase-to-neutral voltage consider the junction between ZB' Zc, and Z2' First
assume a direction for the current I c ; it is immaterial
equivalent impedance
which direction is chosen so long as it is indicated clearly,
33,000
V3 X(2.3 + j7.17)
= 775 - j2420 amperes. ASSUMED DIRECTION FOR Ie

To find the current in each branch of the network, we

must now work back from the equivalent impedance to
the original network, dividing up the total current IF
between the various branches according to their z, z,
respective impedances.
From fig. 9(d) the currents in the branches Zx and Zy are
obtained by the ordinary rule for parallel circuits thus:
-
Ix = Z X If, where Z is the impedance of Zxand Zy
Zx in parallel = 1.08 + jO.~5 (fig. 9(e)),

= 1.08 + jO.85 = (775 _ j2420)

1.31 + jO.82
= 917 - j2078.
_ -Z FIG. 11.
Iy - X IF
Zy
= 1.08 + jO.85 x (775 - j2420) since the result is related to the direction chosen.
1.81 + j9.15 Suppose that Ie flows from left to right as shown in
fig. 11.
= - 142 - j342. Then
The distribution of current in fig. 9(d) is now I c + 12 I B , or
determined. The next step is to find the currents in the Ic I B - 12 (12 = I y of fig. 9(d))
delta ZA, ZB, Zc, of fig. 9(b), corresponding to those of (145 - j890) - (-142 - j342)
the equivalent star ZAC' ZBC' ZCA of fig. 9(c). There are 287 - j548.
two steps in this, namely first finding I Aand I B, and then
finding I c . To find I A and I B, equate the voltage-drops The result may be checked by considering the junction
between equivalent star and delta terminals as follows: of Zj, ZA' and Zc. Thus (again referring to fig. 11).
IBZ B = IABZ AB + IBcZBc (see fig. 9(c)), I, I A + I c , or
Ic II - I A (I, = Ix of fig. 9(d))
where lAB = If = 775 - j2420, (917 - j2078) - (630 - j 1530)
and I Bc = ly = - 142 - j342. 287-j548.

Hence The current in each of the two cables on the left-hand

I B (1.75+jO.09) (775 - j2420) (0.55+jO.224)
= side of fig. 8 is one-half of the current in impedance ZI of
+ (-142-j342)(0.53+ j0.416), fig. 9(b).
Thus
from which I B = 145 - j890.
Icables = ~ = 917 - j2078_ 458 - jl039.
Similarly, IAZ A = IABZ AB + IcAZ cA (see fig. 9(c)) , 2 2
where lAB = If = 775 - j2420 as before,
and I CA = Ix = 917 - j2078. Similarly, the current in each of the generators is
one-half of the total fault-current, since in this example
Hence the generators have equal ratings and impedances. Thus
I A (1.45+jO.8) = (775 - j2420) (0.55+jO.224)
+ (917 - j2078) (0.439 + jO.371),
Im!e = l!:.- = 775 - j2420_ 387 - j1210.
2 2
from which I A = 630 - j1530.
The total current and the current in each branch of the
To find the current Ie in the branch Zc, remember that network have been calculated, and the results are
the sum of the currents flowing into any junction is zero, summarized in fig. 12. The impedances ofthe 66-kV line
or, in other words, the total currents entering and and its associated transformers were reduced to ohms at

20
33-kY, and the actual current In the 66-k Y line IS method is usually more convenient than the per-cent.
therefore The per-unit method is usually preferred for
Ibh-kv I, x 33/66 synchronous-machine studies in general and for
(-142 - j342) x 33/66 calculator-work.
-71-jI71. (iii) When vector-impedances are to be used, there is
little to choose in fault-current and fault-voltage
This is the value given in fig. 12. calculations between ohms, per-cent, and per-unit
notations, unless most of the data happen to be in a
particular notation. In this case, the student should, to
begin with. use the notation thatcomes most naturally to
him.

SYMMETRICAL-COMPONENTS METHOD
Basic Relations
~-jI71 The basic principle of symmetrical-component theory is
expressed in the following relations:
B
I" = 1"0 + 1"1 + I,,:, (17)
Ih = I ho + Ihl + Ih :, (18)
Ie = Iell + lei + Ie:' (19)
where I". I h , and Ie' are the phase-currents, and
(i) components with suffix '0' have zero phase-
sequence.
(ii) components with suffix '1' have positive
phase-sequence, and
(iii) components with suffix '2' have negative
phase-sequence.
F Using operator a, these relations can all be expressed
TOTAL FAULT-CURRENT
775 - j 2420 in terms of phase-a as follows:
I a = laO + I al + I,,:, (20)
FIG. 12. I h = laO + a 2 I ai + ala:' (21)
Ie = 1"0 + alai + a 2 I"2 (22)
Choice of impedance-notation Equations (21) and (22) for the phase-b and phase-c
currents can be expressed in another way as follows:
Having now referred in greater detail to the three
notations in use, we may consider their relative spheres EQUATION (21):
of application.
I b = laO + a 21al + ala:'
(i) A decision must be made on whether or not it is = lao+ (-0.5 - jO.866)la1 + (-0.5 + jO.866) la2
permissible to use scalar values of ohms, per-cent, or = laO - 0.5 (Ial + la2) - jO.866(Ial - Id ..
per-unit. For phase-to-phase faults, or for phase-to-
earth faults in solidly-earthed systems, and where only ...................... (23)
the magnitudes of fault-currents and fault-voltages are EQUATION (22):
required (i.e. not their phase-angles), scalar impedances I c = laO + alaI + a 2 1a2
are very often permissible, and negligible errors result = laO + (-0.5 + jO.866) lal + (-0.5 - jO.866) la2
from their use. The reason for this is either that the = laO -0.5 (Ial + Id + jO.866 (Ial - la2) · (24)
phase-angles are very similar (for example the
impedances of generators and transformers are mostly Corresponding terms in equation (23) and (24) are
reactive), or that one kind of impedance predominates. identical, apart from the signs of the j terms, and this
(ii) When scalar impedances are permissible, per-cent simplifies the calculations of phase-b and phase-c
and per-unit values are usually preferred to ohms, unless currents.
most of the data are in ohms. The advantage of per-cent These relations between phase-values and component
and per-unit values is that they can be added together values hold good for phase-to-neutral voltages as well as
irrespective of voltage, whereas ohmic values have to be for currents.
brought to a common voltage-base. As between per-cent
Calculation of the sequence-components
and per-unit there is nothing to choose for fault-current
calculations. When voltages are involved, and when it is The utility of the basic principle expressed in equation
necessary to calculate voltage-drops, the per-unit (20), (21), and (22) above depends on knowing the

21
sequence-component currents lao, lab and la2' The first
step in the calculation of these is to determine the
impedance of the network to their flow. This is not
necessarily the same for currents of each sequence.
There are two reasons for this: first, that the impedance
of the generators, transformers, and so on may not be
the same for all sequence-currents, and, second, the path N.
.---- - - - - - - - - - - - --:-----0- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I
through the network, from the source to the fault, may

e
I I 3 I

not be the same for each. It is therefore necessary to e, ej>--:

have a network-impedance diagram for each phase- 2 Fl 4 :
sequence component. These diagrams are generally e, (b) e~--'
referred to as the sequence-impedance networks.
EoN,
A simple line-diagram of the network is prepared,
r------ ----- - ---.- -- --8-------- - ----- - ---- - --,
showing the generators, transformers, lines, and so on : :
with which the calculation is concerned, and the position
of the fault. The positive-sequence impedance-diagram
contains the impedances of all the parts of the network F,
between the source of supply and the fault; and the (ej POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK

~
values of the individual impedances (ohms, per-cent, or 2

~~
per-unit) for the generators, lines, and so on are the
ordinary star-impedances as used in three-phase
fault-calculations. The only voltages generated (by
normal machines) are positive sequence (a, b. c), and
'---------'-:
Fz
therefore the generator voltages are placed in the (d) NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE NETWORK
positive-sequence network. Fig. l3(a) is a single-line ro

~
diagram for a simple network comprising two
generating-stations with interconnectors, and with a
fault (of some kind) at F. Fig. 13(b) is the corresponding
positive-sequence impedance-diagram. It is usually
assumed that all generator internal voltages are equal in (e) ZERO-SEQUENCE NETWORK

magnitude and phase. On this basis the four FIG. 13.

generator-terminals 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all at the same
potential, and the diagram can be simplified by joining parts of the network directly connected to earthed
these points and using a single source of e.mJ. E, as in neutrals.
fig. 13(c). This impedance-diagram has two terminals, The zero-sequence impedances of the generators,
namely the neutral-terminal N I and the fault-terminal transformers, and lines are often quite different from the
Fl' positive-sequence and negative-sequence impedances.
Consider now the impedance of the network to the Neglecting the values of the impedances, the
flow of negative phase-sequence currents. The zero-sequence impedance-diagram for the network of
impedance-diagram is the same as for positive- fig. 13(b) is as shown in fig. l3(e). The neutral-point of
sequence. The impedances of transformers, lines, and so generator 4 is not earthed, and so the impedance of this
on to negative-sequence currents are the same as their
positive-sequence impedances, but for generators the N,
negative-sequence impedance is only about 70 per cent o
e
ofthe positive-sequence impedance. Further, there is no
generated voltage in the negative-sequence network,
because, as stated above, positive-sequence voltages
only are generated. Fig. 13(d) is the negative-sequence
impedance-diagram of the network of fig. 13(b). The
two terminals of the diagram are N z and F 2 •
In considering the impedance of the network to the
flow of zero-sequence currents, it should be
Z, Zz Zo

remembered that the three zero-sequence currents are

by definition equal in magnitude and phase. They can
only flow, therefore, when the fault provides an exit
from the phases whereby they can return to the
system-neutral. Such an exit is provided only when the
fault is between one or more phases and earth, and the
system-neutral must be earthed so that the return-circuit
to the neutral is complete. Thus zero-sequence currents
flow only in earth-faults, and they traverse only those FIG. 14.

22
machine does not appear in the zero-sequence network. Referring to the diagrams of fig. 15, we may now
There is, further, no generated voltage in the calculate the sequence-component currents as follows
zero-sequence network, because, as stated above, only (E is the phase-to-neutral voltage):
positive-sequence voltages are generated. The two Earth fault:
terminals of the zero-sequence diagram are No and F o. (see fig. 15(a)).
If the values of all the impedances in the positive,
negative, and zero sequence diagrams are known, each E ......................(25)
lao = I al = I az =
may now be reduced to a single equivalent impedance. Zo + Z, + Z2
The positive-sequence diagram now becomes the single Phase-to-phase-fault:
impedance Zj, the negative-sequence diagram Zz, and (see fig. 15(b)).
the zero-sequence diagram Zz, as shown in fig. 14. All E
that is now required to enable Iaj, I az , and lao to be ................................................(26)
calculated is a knowledge of the voltages impressed Z, + Z2
I az = -I al (27)
across the impedances Zj, Zz, and Zoo
Since the only voltage in the three impedance- lao = O.
diagrams is that in the positive-sequence diagram, the Two-phase-to-earth-fault:
negative-sequence and zero-sequence impedance (see fig. 15(c)).
diagrams must be connected in some way with the
I al = E (28)
positive-sequence diagram in order that
negative-sequence and zero-sequence currents may Z, + Z2 Zo
flow. The question is how the diagrams should be Z2 + Zo
connected, and it can be shown that the answer depends
on the kind of fault, i.e. whether it is phase-to-earth, I az = -I al x Zo (29)
phase-to-phase, two-phase-to-earth, or three-phase, a Z2 + Zo
different connection applying for each. The methods of lao = -Ial X Z2 (30)
connection for each kind of fault are shown in fig. 15(a) Z2 + Zo
to 15(d). For an earth-fault all the three diagrams are Three-phase-fault:
connected in series; for a phase-to-phase-fault the (see fig. 15(d)).
positive-sequence and negative-sequence diagrams are
connected in parallel; for a two-phase-to-earth-fault all I al = -E (31)
the three diagrams are in parallel; and for a Z,
three-phase-fault there is only the positive-sequence I az = O.
diagram. The correctness of these connections is proved
lao = O.
in books dealing with the theory of symmetrical
components. Attention should again be drawn to the important
convention that all vectors are for the positive direction;
that is to say, they represent quantities acting away from
N, N, NZ N, the source towards the fault. This applies equally to the
symmetrical-component vectors of the fault-current,
and therefore the values of I al , and I az , and lao derived
t, ~ 1., ... Z2 z, above are for the directions neutral-to-fault, as indicated
by the arrows in figs. (15a) to 15(d).
r,
NZ
F,
'2 F,
These relations are obviously very simple indeed, and
therefore the symmetrical components of currents for
\b)
P~.l$e ·to· phA$e .fl>Ult
(do.)
1""I.-ee-pr,a.-:.e-falllt
any of the four kinds of faults mentioned above are easy
to determine when the sequence-impedances are
known. When the components of current are known,
t Z2 the actual phase-currents are obtained by addition, in
accordance with equations (20), (21), and (22), or with
equations (20), (23), and (24).
The six steps are:
FZ ~N
E
N2
(i) Determine (by inspection) the sequence-

• 1..
t, ... Z, ...
impedance diagrams (the zero-sequence diagram
is required only for faults involving earth).
(ii) Fill in the values of the sequence-impedances.

ca.)
hnh·f<\ul~
F,

rTWO-;l~./t5t·
"

tc· euth-fa.vIC
'. (iii) Reduce the diagrams to their equivalent impe-
dances ZI' Zc, and Zo.
(iv) Connect the equivalent impedances together in
accordance with figs. 15(a) to 15(d), according to
FIG, 15. the kind of fault.

23
 GENERATORS
~, N, 1'4, 1'4, 1'4,
0 0 0 0
19kv 19kv 19kv 19kv

p
)2'6 )2,6 J 13 j 1·3

j 14 J IS J14 1 15 j 18 pI jl33
j 20
Q, R,
Q

)24

<)
:::1
" F, F,

(a)
FIG. 16.
N, 1'4, N,
(v) Calculate the sequence-component currents,
using equations (25) to (31) according to the kind
of fault.

J '·9 j 19 j095
(vi) Find the current in each phase at the fault by
adding the sequence components in accordance
with equations (20), (21), and (22), or with (20),
(23), and (24). j 14 j 15 J 14 )15 jl8

An example
Consider the network of fig. 16, and suppose that it is
required to determine the current in each feeder with a ]24 ) 24
two-phase-to-earth fault in the b-phase and the c-phase
at F.
Fig. 17(a) shows the positive-sequence impedance-
(b)
diagram, with it various stages of reduction to the
equivalent positive-sequence impedance, 0 + j13·3
ohms. In the second stage, the delta-group of impedance
j8, j20, and j12 are replaced by their equivalent star j4,
j6, and j2.4, using the delta-star transformation
equations. Thus the equivalent-star impedance at
jO'7 j07 jO'7,
junction Q, is
Z= 8 x 20 = 4 ohms,
8 + 20 + 12
j28 130 j28 po i 36 j42 j 24·9
at junction R I
Z= 20 x 12 = 6 ohms.
8 + 20 + 12
and at junction F I
8 x 12 = 2.4 ohms.
Z= j48 i 48
8 + 20 + 12
Similarly, figs. 17(b) and 17(c) show the reduction of
the negative-sequence and zero-sequence diagrams to
the equivalent impedances (c)
Z2 = j13, and Zo = j24.9 FIG. 17.

24
 The impedance of generator G z does not appear in the N, N, N, N,
0
0 0 0
zero-sequence diagram, since it neutral-point is E E E E
unearthed.
The equivalent positive, negative, and zero-sequence
impedances are now combined for the two-phase-to-
earth-fault as shown in fig. 15, and the sequence- ~-j870 ~-j 870 -1435~ ~ - j435

component currents la l, laz, and lao calculated as follows:

E
1 ~ -j468~ -)468
P,

~-j402 ~
• -j468.
lal ~- )402
-
= ------- -j870 -j402
Z2XO
-----
i27
R,
Z2 + Zo Q,

19000
= 0 - j870
j13.3 + j13 x j24.9
j13 + j24.9
~ -j870 ~-j870
-I al Zo
Zz + Zo F, F, F, F,
(a) (b) (C) (d)
·870 x j24.9 = 0 + j57!.
J j13 + j24.9 FiG. 19.
delta-impedance. Thus for the left-hand impedance of
-I al Z2
---- the delta
Z2 + Zo
I x j8 = (-j468 (j4) + (-j870) (j2.4)
j870 x j13 = 0 + j299. = 3952
j 13 + j24.9
These are the total values of the positive, negative, and I = 3952 = 0 - j495,
j8
and zero sequence currents through the equivalent and for the right-hand impedance of the delta
impedances, as shown in fig. 18, and they must now be
divided throughout the sequence diagrams according to I x j12 = -(j402) (j6) + (-870) (j2.4)
the relative impedances of the several branches. = 4492
a nd I = 4492 = 0 - J·375
j 12 .
For the current in the centre-impedence of the delta.
lao
equate the current flowing towards either of the two
junctions to zero, i.e. taking the right hand junction.
~ J299
(-j402) + Ix - (-j375) = 0,
or Ix = j402 - j375
= j27.
z, 2, 20
This value is correct in sign only from the assumed
FIG. 18. direction of the current Ix. which was from left to right. If
the opposite direction were taken. the result would be
Consider first the positive-sequence diagram. The -j27.
positive-sequence current of value 0 - j870 flows The two generator-impedances are equal and, the
through the equivalent impedances as shown in fig current in each is therefore -j870/2 = -j435.
19(a).In the left-hand branch of fig. 19(b) the current is This completes the current-distribution in the
positive-sequence diagram.
21 The distribution in the negative-sequence diagram is
I = (0 - j 870) x similar. because the positive-sequence and
21 + 18 negative-sequence impedances of the feeders are the
= 0 - j468, same. The values of the negative-sequence currents are
and in the right-hand branch. difficult from those of the positive-sequence currents.
because the total negative-sequence current is 0 + j571.
I = (0 - j870) x 18
------- whereas the total positive-sequence current is 0 - j870.
21 + 18 The negative-sequence currents in the branches can
= 0 - j402. therefore be obtained simply by multiplying the
This settles the distribution in the positive-sequence positive-sequence branch-currents by 571/870 , and chang-
diagram as far as fig. 19(c). The current in the delta of ing the sign of the j operators to plus instead of minus.
fig. 19(d) is obtained by equating the voltage-drops in The result is the negative-sequence-current distribution
two star-legs to that in the corresponding diagram of fig. 20.

25
 N, N, Then la = lao + lat + la2
= j138 + (-j402) + j264 = 0
I b = lao - 0·5(l al + Id - jO·866(lal - la2)
J 285 t G1 G2 t
)285
......................(eqn 23)
P,
= j138 - 0.5(-j402 + j264)
+J 571 306 • J 264
-jO.866 (-j402 - j264)
1 +
= j138 + j69 - 576
R,
= -576 + j207.
Ie = lao - 0.5(1al + la2) + jO.866(1al - la2)
= j138 + j69 + 576
f, f,
= 576 + j207
FIG. 20. The currents in any branch are found in exactly the
same way.
Similar considerations to those for the
negative-sequence-current distribution apply also to Distribution-factors
zero-sequence currents. The positive-sequence and In the preceding example the branch-currents were
zero-sequence impedances of the feeders are not equal, found by taking the total current for each sequen~e
but they bear (in this example) a definite relation to o~e diagram and dividing it between the branches 10
another, i.e.Zo/Z, = 2·0. (This is practical; the ratIO accordance with their respective impedances. An
varies with different networks). It follows therefore that alternative procedure is to take a total fault-current of
in this example the ratios of the branch-currents in the unity in each sequence diagram, instead of the actual
zero-sequence diagram are the same as those in the value and divide this between the branches in the same
positive-sequence diagram, although their values ar.e way. ' The branch currents so obtained are called
different, because the total zero-sequence current IS distribution-factors, and the actual current in each
o x j299 as compared with 0 - j870 for branch is equal to the distribution-factor multiplied by
positive-sequence. The zero-sequence currents in the the total fault-current.
branches are therefore obtained in this example by If the calculation is for only one kind of fault, e.g. a
multiplying the positive-sequence brach-currents by phase-to-phase-fault, there is little, if any, advantage in
299/370 , and changing the sign of the j operators from
calculating distribution-factors, since it is just as easy to
minus to plus. The result is the zero-sequence current calculate the branch-currents directly as to find the
distribution diagram of fig. 21. distribution of unity current and multiply the total
current by the distribution factors. When, however, the
No currents in the branches are required for various kinds of
faults, e.g. phase-to-earth, phase-to-phase, and
two-phase-to-earth, the distribution of the total
G, t ]299 fault-current in the sequence-impedence diagrams has
to be calculated for each kind. It may then be quicker,
Po instead of doing this, to calculate the distribution of
)161 t t1138 unity current in each diagram, i.e. to find the
-R distribution-factors, and then to multiply these by the
Qo Ro total sequence-component currents in each diagram, as
determined by the kind of fault. In other w~rds,
distribution-factors are applicable to faults of all kmds,
and therefore save time when more than one kind is
6f involved in the problem.
Fo o

FIG. 21. Voltages at any point in a network

As was mentioned earlier, the phase-to-neutral
The distribution of the sequence-component currents voltages at any point in a network are expressed in
is now completely determined, and the phase-currents in exactly the same relationships as the currents.
any branch can be found by applying the equations (20),
(21), and (22) or equation (20), (23), and (24).
Suppose, for example, that the value of the
phase-currents are required in the branch PRo Thus
From fig. 19, lal = -j402. E a = E ao + E al + E a2 (32)
2
From fig. 20, la2 = j264. Eb = E ao + a E al + aEa2 ·······································(33)
From fig. 21, lao = j138. Ec = E ao + aE al + a 2 E a2 ·······.·· .. · · · · (34)

26
 Alternatively, E b and E e may be expressed as Phase-to-neutral voltages:
E b = E ao - 0.5(E a1 + Eaz) - jO.866 (E a1 - Eaz) ....(35) E a = E ao + E a1 + E a2
E e = E ao - 0.5 (E a1 + Eaz) + jO.866 (E a1 - E a2 ) •. (36) = 209 + 17868 + 541 = 18618 + jO.
The calculation of the phase-to-neutral voltages at any E b = E ao - 0'5(E al + E a2 ) - jO.866 (E a1 - Eaz)
point in a network is therefore merely a calculation of
.............(eqn 35).
the sequence-component voltages E ao , E ab and E a2 , and
a combination of them in accordance with the equations = 209 - 0.5(17868 + 541)
just given. -jO.866 (17868 - 541)
The sequence-component voltages at any point are = 209 - 9204 - j15000
determined by subtracting the impedance-voltage = -8995 - j15000.
between the source and the point from the driving- E e =E ao - 0.5(E a1 + E a2 )
voltage. The driving-voltage in the positive-sequence
diagram is the normal phase-to-neutral voltage, but in + jO.866 (E a1 - Eaz) (eqn 36).
the negative sequence and zero-sequence diagrams it is = 209 - 9204 + j15000
zero, because, as has been said, only positive-sequence = -8995 + j15000
voltages are generated in normal systems. Voltages at fault-point F
The following example will make the procedure clear.
Sequence component voltages
Fig. 22 shows the positive, negative, and zero sequence
(i) Positive sequence:
From fig. 22(a),
E a1 =19000-(-j870 x j13.3)
~I N,
19kv = 19000 - 11580 7420 + jO
(ii) Negative-sequence:
jH. !-j435
From fig. 22(b),
-j435+ j2·6 , j299+ j07 E a2 = 0 - (j571 x j13) = 7420 + jO
P, A
(iii) Zero-sequence:
From fig. 22(c),
E ao = 0 - (299 x j24.9) = 7420 + jO.
Phase-to-neutral voltages:
E a = E ao + E a1 + E a2
= 7420 + 7420 + 7420
F, F, Fa = 22260 + jO.
E b = E ao - 0.5(E a1 + E a2 )-jO.866 (E a1 - E a2 )

-- -- --
19kv jiB j13 j24'9
N,O",~F, N, Q---'VII\r-O F, NoQ--J\lV\r-<) Fo
= 7420 - 0.5(7420 + 7420)
-j870 j 571 j299 -jO'866 (7420 - 7420)
(a) (b) tel = O.

FIG. 22. E e = E ao-0.5(E a1 + E a2 )+ jO.866(E a1 -E a2 )

= 7420 - 0.5(7420 + 7420)
+j.866 (7420 - 7420)
diagrams of the previous example, with values of = O.
branch-currents and branch impedances. Suppose that it The voltages at any other point in the network are
is required to determine the three phase-to-neutral found in exactly the same way.
voltages at points P and F.
Voltages at point P Earth-current, residual current,
Sequence component voltages: and residual voltage
(i) Positive-sequence:
It was said earlier that there could be no
From fig. 22(a),
zero-sequence current unless the fault provided an exit
E a1 = 19000 - (-j435 x j2.6) from the phases whereby the current could return to the
= 19000 - 1132 = 17868 + jO. system-neutral, i.e. the fauh has to involve at least one
(ii) Negative-sequence: phase-condurtor connected to earth, and the
system-neutral had to be earthed to complete the circuit.
From fig. 22(b),
No such reservations were required for positive-
E a2 = 0 - (j285 x j1.9) = 541 +jO. sequence and negative-sequence currents, which flow to
(iii) Zero-sequence: all faults, whether to earth or not. It follows that the only
From fig. 22 (c), currents in the earth-return circuit are the zero-
E ao = 0 - (j299 x jO.7) = 209 + jO. sequence components, i.e.

27
 Ie -(laO + I bo + leO), where Ie is the total
= Residual current is usually measured by three
earth-current, current-transformers connected in parallel, as shown in
= - 3Iao (37) fig. 24(a), and residual voltage by a broken-delta
winding on a three-phase voltage-transformer, as shown
The minus sign is used because of the convention that
in fig. 24(b).
all currents act away from the source; this convention is
illustrated with respect to the zero-sequence and earth
I.
currents in fig. 23. -+
-r-
a

The vector sum of the three line-currents at any point

in the network is sometimes called the residual current. b
Thus
I, = I a + I b + Ie c C

(laO + I bo + leO) + (lal + Ibl + lei)

+ (Ia2 + I b2 + Id·
J
Iao+lbo+1co
Til'
~ 10.0 lao Ibo -...b-
leo
__ Ibo :
b 'FAULT /
I
_leo c'
I

,,: (L) lb'

- 1 _

I
I FIG. 24.
Ie' -(Iao+ lbo+ Ico)
i • - 3 lao
Ie ~
.__.J Faults in phases other than those for which the
L-. _~

(b) basic equations are established

(a)

FIG. 23. The methods of connecting the diagrams for the four
main kinds of faults, as given in fig. 15, and the equations
The components in the last two brackets are balanced, that follow for the calculation of the sequence
and by definition their sum must be zero components, are based upon earth-faults in phase-a,
phase-to-phase-faults between phase-b and phase-c, and
Therefore two-phase-to-earth faults between phase-b and phase-c
and earth. The procedure holds good for these
I, lao + I bo + leo
=
3I ao
= (38)
Here Lao is the zero-sequence current flowing at the
point in the network under consideration. The current I,
may therefore equal the total earth-fault current in mag-
R
o
..o
nitude, or only part of it, if there is more than one path to 80 oy co ob 8o---<>Y
the fault; and it may sometimes consist of capacity-
current only.
The residual voltage at a point in a network is the
vector sum of the three line-to-earth voltages.
R < R
o o
Thus
80
E, E ae + E be + E ee
=
bO 8/0Y

= (E ao + E bO + E eo ) + (E al + E bl + Eel)
+ (E a2 + E b2 + Ed
As before, the resultant of the last two components is
R
zero, and therefore o
b
o
E, = E ao + E bO + E eo OY 0<

= 3E ao ·

E ao is the zero-sequence voltage at the point under

consideration.
Residual currents and residual voltages are used in La.) Lb)

protective schemes for the detection of earth-faults. FIG. 25.

28
conditions only, i.e. phase-a must always be the faulty
phase for earth-faults, and phase-b and phase-c must
always be the faulty phases for phase-to-phase-faults
and two-phase-to-earth-faults. If the phase-marking of a
system is R, Y, B, for example, and a calculation has to
be made for an earth-fault in phase-Y, this phase is
phase-a for the purpose of the calculations. Phase-B
then corresponds to phase-b, and phase-R to phase-c.
The various correspondences between the
calculations-phases a, b, and c, and the named phases R,
Y, and B, are shown in fig. 25(a) for earth-faults, and fig.
25(b) for phase-to-phase faults and for
two-phase-to-earth faults.
CONCLUSION
These notes have covered many of the basic elements of
29
precedure in the calculation of fault-currents and
fault-voltages, and, as was stated earlier, some of the
principles are also applicable to load-distribution and
other studies. Many fault-conditions (or prospective
fault-conditions) are completely soluble by the methods
described, but it should be understood that conditions
can and do arise in practice to which the formulae and
the procedure given herein are not immediately
applicable. Two examples of this are cross-country
earth-faults and broken-conductor faults. The details of
procedure for the calculation of these and other special
conditions is outside the present scope. Sometimes it is
merely a matter of extending the principles described
above, but sometimes additional concepts are necessary.
Whatever the problem may be, however, a proper
understanding is necessary of the basic principles dealt
with in the foregoing exposition.
CHAPTER 2 The Use of the Network Analyser in the
Solution of Unbalance Problems
By J. B. PATRICKSON.
SUMMARY
The network analyser has made possible the routine
investig~tion of m~ny unbalanced-power-system prob-
lems whIch were hItherto untackled because of the tedi-
ous calculations involved. The mathematical analysis of
the majority of such problems has been well established
for a number of years now but for only the less compli-
cated problems was it feasible to apply paper analysis,
the more complicated networks involving too much
effort.
The introduction of the method of symmetrical-
component analysis answered the need for a simpler
mode of attack and it was soon apparent that a familiar-
ity with the method made it possible to visualize the
processes involved in quite complicated unbalanced
conditions. This has been described as "the
symmetrical-component outlook" and the acquiring of
this "outlook" constitutes a major advance towards the
understanding of the phenomena of a 3-phase unbal-
ance.
There is a great similarity between the method of
symmetrical-component analysis and Fourier analysis as
applie? to the solution of problems involving non-
sInusOIdal wave forms. In both cases an appreciation of
the physical significance of the method leads first to an
understanding of the problem and secondly to a facility
for the evaluation of the problem.
In this paper the two distinct advantages to be
obtained from a knowledge of symmetrical-component
analysis will be stressed and it will be shown that, when a
network analyser is used, the "symmetrical-component
outlook" is in many cases more important than the use of
the method for the actual evaluation of the effects of the
unbalance. This is because the analyser "looks after" the
calculation but the problem must be correctly posed to
the analyser and the results correctly interpreted.
The solution of unbalanced 3-phase conditions is not
always best obtained on an analyser by using symmetri-
cal components and frequently the actual 3-phase net-
work is "modelled" on the analyser and the unbalance
applied in the same way as in the power-system. When
two or more unbalances simultaneously exist or when
the problem involves partially unbalanced reactances in
each of the three phases of a power-system, even the
symmetrical-component method may become too cum-
bersome and 3-phase modelling may be a more profit-
able approach.
It is important to realise that when the method of
symmetrical components is used on the analyser, only
the quantities associated with the reference phase are
read directly. The quantities associated with the other
phases must be calculated from those of the reference
phase. This latter calculation usually takes much longer
than the actual reading of the reference-phase quantities
30
and a number of different types of "vector computor"
are used to speed up what can be a very tedious set of
calculations.
When all three phases of the problem system are set
up on the analyser, all quantities are read directly on the
analyser instruments and no subsequent calculations are
necessary.
In the following sections an attempt will be made to
illustrate the use of the analyser in the solution of prob-
lems involving 3-phase unbalance. Methods involving
3-phase modelling and symmetrical components will be
discussed and examples given to illustrate procedure in
both cases. It will be assumed throughout that all are
familiar with the principle formulae and manipulation of
symmetrical components, and an attempt will be made
to interpret these in terms of physical phenomena.
In view of the fact that an intimate knowledge of the
a.c. network analyser is confined to a relatively small
number of engineers the first part of the paper is devoted
to a brief general description of the features of the
typical modern network-analyser which are involved in
unbalance-problems.
Subsequent parts dealt with the use of 3-phase model
networks and the application of the theory of symmetri-
cal components to the network-analyser. In these parts,
only the less complex cases are dealt with as a thorough
grasp of the fundamentals in the simple cases opens the
way to the tackling of the more complex cases.
Part I.
THE CONVENTIONAL A.C. NETWORK
ANALYSER
GENERAL
The simplest a.c. network analyser to describe and
understand is what is termed the "conventional" a.c.
network analyser. In this analyser the impedances of the
power system being studied are modelled using specially
designed variable inductors, capacitors, resistors, and
transformers. Any desired "scaling factor" may be used
in the model system as regards ohmic value and fre-
quency but the phase-angle of all impedances must be
strictly observed. Generally, the frequency is fixed in
anyone design and scaling of ohmic value is applied.
The variable impedances can be interconnected in any
manner and the network so formed energized by means
of voltage generators of continuously-variable phase
and amplitude.
Impedance Scaling
It is usual to scale the impedance values to conform to
"percentage" notation or "per-unit" notation because
the majority of analyser problems are more easily solved
using these notations and most analyser impedances and
meters are correspondingly calibrated. A familiarity
with percentage (or per-unit) notation is assumed and it
will merely be noted that the percentage impedance
(Z%) of any branch (of impedance Z ohms) in a network
is
Z% = MVA . Z ohms. 100
(kV)2
where "MVA" is the base quantity to which all impe-
dances are referred and "kV" is the phase-to-phase
voltage of the part of the system in which Z ohms is
connected.
Per-unit notation is similarly defined except that there
is no factor of 100.
Measuring Equipment
Most analysers are fitted with four main measuring
instruments. There are:
(a) Voltmeter.
(b) Current-measuring meter.
(c) Single-phase wattmeter. (VI cos 8)
(d) Single-phase varmeter. (VI sine 8)
Each meter has a number of 'ranges' and the scales of
each are calibrated in percentage or per-unit according
to how the impedances are calibrated. The meters can be
connected to any point in the network analyser.
When percentage notation is used on the network
analyser, its meaning is clearly illustrated. If, for exam-
ple, a voltage of 100 per cent is applied across an anal-
yser resistor of 100 per cent, the current-meter will read
100 per cent and the wattmeter will read 100 per cent.
There is no reactive power in this case. If this analyser
resistor represents a particular resistor in a 132-kV sys-
tem and the base chosen is 100 MVA, the meter read-
ings would be interpreted as follows:
100% voltage - 132 kV phase-to-phase
3 minimum of effort.
100% currenf _ 100 x 10 = 435 amperes per
\/3 x 132 pnase
100% watts - 100 megawatts.
Other quantities are interpreted similarly, the percen-
tage voltage and percentage current changing their
meaning according to the voltage of the part of the
system in which measurements are taken.
An instrument to measure relative phase-angle is also
usually included and this can be used to measure the
phase-angle between any voltage and current, or the
phase-angle between either of these quantities relative
to a reference. This instrument usually indicates phase-
angle direct in degrees.
Use of Instruments
With the above instruments it is possible to measure all
the quantities requried in the solution of unbalance
3-phase problems. In many instances the wattmeter and
varmeter are not used as such but are connected to
measure the real and imaginary components of either
the voltage or the current. The following illustrates this
31
type of connection.
Consider that it is required to measure the vector
current in a particular branch of a network and that
per-unit notation is used. The amplitude of the current is
measured by the current-meter and this current is passed
through the current coils of both the wattmeter and the
varmeter.
The voltage-coils of both the wattmeter and varmeter
are connected in parallel and fed from a "reference"
voltage which is fixed in phase and amplitude. The actual
phase-angle of this reference is chosen as convenient and
the amplitude is fixed exactly at 1 per-unit (i.e. 100%).
The wattmeter reads (VI cos 8) and, if V is fixed at
unity, it reads (I cos 8) where 8 is the phase-angle
between the current I and the reference voltage. The
value (I cos 8) is the real part of the current I referred to
the axis fixed by the phase-angle setting of the reference
voltage. The varmeter similarly reads the imaginary part
of the current.
In this way, any current can be read in cartesian form;
I = a + jb
If the phase-angle instrument is used to measure 8
direct, the current can be expressed in the polar form:
1=111 L8
where III is read on the current-measuring meter.
If a reference current is passed through the current-
coils of both the wattmeter and varmeter, any voltage
may be read in cartesian or polar form in exactly the
same way.
When quantities are being measured in sequence net-
works, the cartesian form is preferable as corresponding
quantities in each sequence-network must be added to
give the true reference-phase quantity. This reference-
phase quantity is then transformed to polar form. With a
good vector computer, it is possible to read from it the
final quantities in polar or cartesian form with the
If the unbalanced problem· is modelled in 3-phase
form, the voltages and currents of any phase at any point
can be read directly in cartesian or polar form.
The real and reactive power at any point can be read in
all cases by using the wattmeter and varmeter in the
normal way.
Part II.
SOLUTION BY MEANS OF 3-PHASE
MODELS
INTRODUCTION
When the power-system problem is modelled in 3-phase
form it is necessary to simulate, accurately to scale, all
the parameters of the power system. The major items in
a power-system are:
(a) Overhead lines and cables.
(b) Reactors.
(c) Transformers, regulators, etc.
(d) Rotating machinery.
Of these, the last is the most difficult to simulate
accurately on the analyser because of its complicated
nature (involving rotating parts), and because the para-
meters vary with time, mainly due to armature-reaction
effects.
All these items are characterized by the fact that each
phase has self-impedance and, between phases, mutual
impedance to an extent depending on the equipment. It
should be borne in mind that the self and mutual impe-
dance of the three phases of an equipment are the basic
impedance-parameters and that the sequence impe-
dances are derived from them. In many instances, when
the 3-phase model has been set up on the analyser, its
validity may be checked by measuring the three
sequence-impedances.
When the actual self and mutual impedances are not
known, the sequence impedances may be used to derive
these parameters. In many instances this is the case, as
present-day practice is to quote the sequence impe-
dances of an equipment rather than the basic para-
meters.
In almost all cases, the self impedances of each phase
and the mutual impedances between phases are differ-
ent for each phase due to asymmetry in construction of
the equipment. These differences are usually small and
the average value of the impedances can be taken and
symmetry assumed.
In some instances, of course, the different per-phase
impedances must be represented on the analyser, and
this can lead to a degree of complication which makes
the process very tedious except for the smaller problems.
In fact, the process of 3-phase modelling is invariably
confined to the small problems, since the representation
of all self and mutual impedances in a large network
demands a very large number of analyser impedance-
units.
In the following sections, the use of 3-phase models
will be discussed and illustrated and every attempt will
be made to draw attention to the reationship between
the basic parametta"s and the derived sequence para-
meters.
Representing the Basic Parameters
Throughout the following discussion, the three phases of
all equipment are assumed to be symmetrical as regards
impedance.
The self-impedance of the three phases of an equip-
ment are easily represented using the resistors, induc-
tors, or capacitors of the analyser set to the appropriate
value.
The mutual-impedance between phases can be rep-
resented by the inclusion of an impedance common to all
phases or by the use of "perfect" transformers of unity
turns-ratio connected between phases and to an impe-
dance which represents the mutual impedance. The per-
fect transformers have a very low excitation-current and
negligible resistance and leakage-reactance.
Fig. l(a) shows the use of a common impedance to
represent the mutual impedance and fig. led) illustrates
the use of perfect transformers. It will be seen that the
common-impedance method results in the loss of the
identity of the three phase connections on one side of the
32
network while the transformers method preserves the
identity of the three phases on both sides ofthe network.
The former can be used when the equipment is con-
nected between the three phases and neutral and the
latter when the impedance is a "series" impedance such
as the series impedance of an overhead line or bank of
reactors.
Referring to fig. l(a), the self impedance of each
phase (Zp) is, with
Za=Zb=Zo
Zp=Za+Zm,
and the mutual impedance between phases (Zpp) is
symmetrical, and
Zpp=Zm.
Exactly the same values are obtained using three per-
fect transformers as in fig. l(b). The impedance Zm is
reflected equally into each phase and again
Zp=Za+Zm
Zpp=Zm·
The circuit of fig. l(c) is electrically equivalent to fig.
l(b) but uses one less transformer.
Fig. led) illustrates the use of a single four-winding
transformer of equal turns per winding. This arrange-
ment is equivalent to that of fig. l(b) or l(c) but is
obviously more econimical as regards transformers.
The above network can be used to represent many
3-phase circuits either by using a number of networks
each representing an individual equipment or by using
one network to represent a section of a power-system
involving many different equipments.
It is interesting to examine these networks as regards
their sequence impedances. Looking at fig. l(a), if
positive-sequence voltages are applied to the three
upper terminal (with the lower terminal at neutral
potential) the point P will be at neutral potential and the
impedance of each phase is Za. Thus, Za in the network is
the positive-sequence impedance (Zd. Za is also the
negative-sequence impedance (Zz).
If zero-sequence voltages are applied to the upper
terminals, the impedance of each phase becomes:
Za+ 3Zm·
This is most readily seen by re-arranging the network
of fig. l(a) so that the single impedance Zm is replaced by
three parallel impedances each of value 3Zm as in fig.
2(a). When this has been done, the points X, Y, Z are
equipotential points for zero-sequence applied voltages
and may be opened to form the network of fig. 2(b)
where it is obvious that the zero-sequence impedance
per phase (Za) is:
ZO=Za+ 3Zm·
The network of fig. l(a) thus has equal posltlve-
sequence and negative-sequence impedances and a
zero-sequence impedance which depends on the value of
Zm, the mutual impedance. The zero-sequence impe-
dance can be made greater or less than the positive-
sequence impedance by making the impedance of Zm of
opposite sign to that of Za. Thus, if Za is inductive, Zm
can be made capacitive. There are obvious limitations to
this manipulation when resistors are involved.
The network of fig. l(b) is equivalent to the above
 Za Zb

Zm

ZI =Z2=Za ZI =Z2=Za
Zo=Za+3Z m Zo=Za+3Z m
(a) (h)

Zj =Z2=Za ZI =Z2=Za
Zo=Za+ 3Z m Zo=Za+3Z m
(e) (d)

FIG. 1. DIAGRAMS REPRESENTING 3-PHASE SELF AND MUTUAL IMPEDANCES.

network except that as the 3-phase terminals are avail-
able at each end of the network it can be used to repres-
ent, say, a bank of reactors with mutual impedance
between phases, or 'the series impedance of a 3-phase
line or cable. The impedance offered to positive-
sequence and negative-sequence current is:
Z\=Z2=Za,
and that to zero-sequence currents is:
ZO=Za+ 3Zm.
Figs l(c) and led) behave in an exactly similar
manner.
A furthet arrangement of impedance and perfect
transformers is given in fig. 3. Here the second winding
of each two-winding transformer is open-delta con-
nected with an impedance 3Zm.
The impedance offered to positive-sequence and
negative-sequence currents is the excitation impedance
of each transformer, which is so high as to constitute an
open-circuit. The impedance offered to zero-sequence
currents is 3Zm13=Zm per phase, i.e. ZO=Zm.
Fig. 4 shows a further arrangement using the four-
winding transformer of fig. led) with the fourth winding
open-circuited. Under positive-sequence or negative-
sequence conditions this transformer introduces zero
impedance into each phase because the total flux in the
magnetic circuit is zero. The impedance per phase
offered to zero-sequence currents is, however, so large
as to be infinite in the practical case, the actual impe-
dance being governed by the excitation impedance of

33
 They are thus applicable to all but equipments involving
rotating parts such as the induction motor etc. where the
positive-sequence and negative-sequence impedances
differ considerably. In many cases, however, they can be
used to represent synchronous motors and generators
without excessive error.
Overhead Lines
An overhead line has both series and shunt impe-
dance. The series impedance constitutes the resistance
and inductance of line and the shunt impedance the
capacitance of the line. The shunt leakage resistance can
usually be neglected in the absence of corona.
In this case it is convenient to consider the series and
shunt impedances separately and to choose the simulat-
ing network by examining the self and mutual impe-
dances of each phase conductor. The validity of the final
(a) 3-phase model can then be checked by measuring the
sequence impedances.
If each conductor is considered singly as constituting
an "earth-loop", the conductor forms the "upper" part
of the loop and the earth-return the "lower" part as
shown in fig. 5. The earth-return is common to all
phases.
The self impedance (Zp) of each "earth-loop"
could be measured directly by applying a voltage at one
end (with the other end connected to earth) and measur-

(h)

FIG. 2. ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF FIG. I(a).

the transformer. The transformer thus acts as an open-

circuit or short-circuit in each phase depending on the
sequence voltages and currently involved. If, as in fig.
I(d), an impedance Zm is connected to the fourth wind-
FIG. 3. THREE-PHASE DELTA NETWORK.
ing then an impedance 3Zm is reflected into each phase
under zero-sequence conditions.
This network can be used in the approximate rep-
resentation of 3-phase transformers etc. when, as is
usual, only the sequence impedances of the transformer
are known, and the complex self and mutual impedances
are unknown.
I _Jr
I

In the following section, some examples of the use to

o

I!I~~
which these circuits can be put is illustrated.

di~
Representing Power-system Equipment
General c
The networks described in the previous section can be
used, either singly or in combination, to represent many
equipments encountered in power-systems. Their use is
confined, however, to those cases where the positive- FIF. 4. FOUR-WINDING TRANSFORMER WITH FOURTH
sequence and negative-sequence impedances are equal. WINDING OPEN-CIRCUITED.

34
 ,-
I
CONDUCTOR b
r-i
I I
CONDUCTOR a
r " ' E , . . - - - - - - - - - EARTH·RETURN - - - - - - - - ; ; , . . . ,
FIG. 5. BASIC PARAMETERS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE.
ing the resulting current with the other conductors
open-circuited. The impedance measured is Zp. In a
similar manner, the mutual impedance Zpp between the
separate earth-loops can be measured. These two para-
meters can be calculated by the method due to Carson
with good accuracy.
The network of figs l(b), l(c), or led) can be used to
represent the series impedance of the overhead line. The
self impedance Zp is then
Zp=Za+Zm,
and the mutual impedance between conductor loops
is:
Zpp=Zm.
In the previous section it was shown that the positive-
sequence and negative-sequence impedances of this
network were:
Zj=Z2=Za,
and the zero-sequence impedances:
ZO=Za+ 3Zm·
Expressing these derived quantities in terms of the self
and mutual impedances of the phase conductors:
Zj=Z2=Zp-Zpp
Zo=Zp+2Zpp .
It can be shown that these values of the sequence
impedances in terms of the self and mutual impedances
hold for all types of overhead-line construction. The
addition of an earth-wire merely changes the value of the
self and mutual impedance, the form of the equations
remaining unchanged.
In fig. 6 the network is drawn with the impedances
marked in terms of Zp and Zpp with the alternative
notation in Zj, Z2, and Zoo The network of fig. led) is
used as a basis.
The shunt capacitive-reactance of the line can be con-
sidered in exactly the same way. Each conductor has
self-capacitance to earth which is measured with all con-
ductors completely open-circuited and there is also
mutual capacitance between the three conductors.
These values can be measured or calculated, and if the
values are expressed in terms of self and mutual
capacitive-reactance (Xp and X pp ) at the power-
CONDUCTOR c
--------0
- - -0
Zpp
-+-Zp
frequency a strict analogue holds with the series impe-
dances Zp and Zpp and the same network can be used to
represent them.
Fig. l(a) is the most convenient form to use and it will
be seen that the self capacitive-reactance X p is rep-
resented by
Xp=Za+Zm,
and the mutual capacitive-reactance X pp by
Xpp=Zm.
By analogy with the case of the series impedances
Zj=Z2=Xp-Xpp , and
Zo=Xp+2Xpp .
This is illustrated in fig. 7 where the two notations are
again given. When all phases are considered symmetri-
cal the circuit of fig. 7 is preferred to the usual capacitive
circuit using eight capacitors in star and delta connection
both because of the smaller number of capacitors
involved and because the self and mutual capacitances
are more readily visualised.
The series and shunt networks can now be used to
simulate the 3-phase overhead line as in fig. 8 where the
line is represented as a 7f' section, half the capacitance
being connected at each end.
In long-line problems a number of such sections are
used to represent the line.
The above argument can be extended to include the
case of the double-circuit overhead line. Considering the
self and mutual series inductance and resistance only,
fig. 9 shows the network used as the model. In this
network, the mutual impedance has been split, forming
an impedance divider which is adjusted to give the cor-
rect mutual impedance between the conductors of one
circuit and the mutual impedance between the conduc-
tors of the two separate circuits.
The mutual impedance between the two circuits is
effective only for zero-sequence currents flowing in one
or two circuits and is termed the zero-sequence mutual
impedance, designated Zoo.
It should be noted that the only resistor in the mutual
branch is that common to both circuits and is the resis-
tance of the earth-return of the overhead lines.
35
 1r l
=
c:3J
Zp--Lpp

L
o
ZI=Z2=Zp- Zpp
Zo=Zp+2Z pp
FIG. 6. THREE-PHASE SERIES EQUIVALENT OF AN OVERHEAD LINE.

Fig. 10 shows the associated capacitance net-work for return.

the double-circuit line and includes the mutual capaci- Knowing these reactances it is necessary to form a
tance between the two circuits. This network is com- 3-phase model which has the same reactances. One form
bined with that of fig. 9 in the same way as for the of this is shown in fig. 12. The analyser "perfect" trans-
single-circuit line (fig. 8).

r
3-phase Transformers 0 0
i

1
I
In the previous section, it was shown that a 3-phase
model of the overhead line could be built up from a
consideration of the self and mutual impedances of each x, --L
I
1 X p -- X pp
Ti
L
phase conductor. These quantities are readily calculable
and their use leads to a good understanding of unbalance I
I
in 3-phase lines. I
When dealing with power-transformers however, it is
generally not possible to build up a 3-phase model from ~
the self and mutual impedances as these are not nor-
mally quoted. The sequence impedances are generally
given for any transformers and it is from these that the
X o XI
-3-
1 X pp
3-phase model is designed. The positive-sequence and
negative-sequence impedances are identical in power-
transformers and the zero-sequence impedance varies
with the type of transforI)1er.
When modelling power-transformers the basic net-
I
-
XI X2 =X p--X pp
works detailed at the beginning of Part II are used to
form, in most cases, a composite 3-phase network. In all Xo~Xp I 2Xp~
cases, the power-transformer magnetizing impedance FIG. 7. THREE-PHASE CAPACITIVE EQUIVALENT OF AN
can be neglected and, for clarity, the winding resistance OVERHEAD LINE.
will be neglected here.
Considering first the star-delta transformer of fig. formers T I and T z are necessary to ensure the correct
11(a) with the starred windings connected to earth, the reactances. Note that T 1 comprises three separate units
sequence impedances are as illustrated in fig. 11(b). and that T z is a four-winding transformer. For positive-
The positive-sequence and negative-sequence reac- sequence of negative-sequence currents flowing from
tances are identical and the zero-sequence reactance of star-winding terminals to delta-winding terminals the
the delta winding is infinite due to the lack of an earth- only reactance is that marked XI. This is because the

36
 I o I I

o
3

.----_/~-----,

-~-T~

o-------1>-----t-----~-~ -F~-T I

1\<
,( )

XO-XI :1
2 3 !
I
-i-

FIG. 8. THREE-PHASE 1r SECTION OF A SINGLE-CIRCUIT LINE.

~----v
CIRCUIT I
" y,----
CIRCUIT 2
FIG. 9. THREE~PHASE SERIES EQUIVALENT OF A DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINE.

37
 CIRCUIT
,_---A.---.. . .
x.l
1 1
FIG. 10. THREE-PHASE CAPACITIVE EQUIVALENT OF A DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINE.
analyser transformer T 2 offers no reactance to positive-
sequence and netative-sequence currents, and the trans-
former T l offers infinite reactance.
For zero-sequence currents passing from the earth
connection to the "star" terminals, the per-phase reac-
tance is:
Xl + 3 (Xo-Z l ) = X o.
3 used to illustrate the relationship between the basic
There is no path for zero-sequence currents in the
delta winding due to the infinite per-phase impedance of
T 2 offered to zero-sequence currents.
The 3-phase model of a star-delta-star transformer is
built up in the same way but the fact that both starred
windings can be earthed leads to a more complicated
network.
Fig. 13(a) shows the star-delta-star transformer with
both star windings earthed. The positive-sequence and
negative-sequence reactances are identical and each star
winding has a zero-sequence reactance which is low as a
result of the delta winding. Zero-sequence currents flow-
ing in one star winding will induce zero-sequence vol-
tages in the other star winding due to leakage-flux link-
ages, and for complete modelling this should be included
even though the effect is normally small.
Fig. 13(b) shows the sequence reactance of this trans-
former. The coupling between the two star windings is
apparent.
Fig. 14 shows how these two sequence-impedance
networks may be combined to form a single 3-phase
network. Again, a combination of analyser "perfect"
transformers is used and it will be seen that the correct
sequence impedances can be measured at all terminals.
38
r_--- CIRCUIT 2
A
....- - _ . "
x,I 1 1
Part III.
SOLUTION USING THE PRINCIPLE OF
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
GENERAL
In Part II, the solution of unblanced problems using
3-phase models was discussed and these models were
per-phase parameters and the sequence impedances. In
the following discussion, the only impedances used are
the sequence impedances but, where possible, the
effects using these impedances will be interpreted in
terms of physical quantities.
When the analyser is applied to the solution of unbal-
anced problems using symmetrical-component theory,
the general pattern of connection of sequence impe-
dances is unchanged from that when the problem is
solved by calculation. Each sequence network is "set
up" on the network-analyser in single-phase form and
the networks are interconnected as one would intercon-
nect them if a calculation were being made on paper.
The networks are energized and readings taken in
each to establish the positive-sequence, negative-
sequence, and zero-sequence currents and voltages. The
quantities are those associated with the reference phase
and, as outlined in Part I, these can be read in cartesian
form by energizing the current or voltage coils of the
wattmeter and varmeter from and independent source.
Straightforward addition of the reference-phase quan-
tities in each network yields the true phase-quantities of
the reference phase. The quantities associated with the
other two phases must now be calculated from those of
the reference phase in the same way as when calculating
results.
 (a)

0>------------'

X,=X2
0
1fOTIO! 1..-------0

X,=X 2 POSITIVE.SEQUENCE AND

0 tQOOO'1 . . - - - - - - - 0 NEGATIVE.SEQUENCE
IMPEDANCE
X I =X 2
0 ~' - - - - - - - - 0
(h)

Xo
C ----0

Xo ZERO·SEQUENCE
----0 IMPEDANCE

Xo FIG. 11. DIAGRAMS REPRESENTING

----0 (a) Star-Delta Power-Transformer and
(b) Sequence Impedances.
-

XI

XI
STAR DELTA
WINDING WINDING

XI

3 (X o- X,) FIG. 12. THREE-PHASE EQUIVALENT OF

STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMER.

39
 As mentioned previously the latter process is usually
carried out using a vector computer and can be very
rapidly completed. A vector slide-rule can be used, but a
fair amount of manipulation is still necessary.
When symmetrical-component calculations are made
on paper, much of the time is spent in sequence-network
reduction, a necessary prelude to the interconnection to
the sequence networks to conform with the type of fault
or unbalance being investigated. The interconnected
networks are then used to establish the total unbalance
currents and voltages and their sequence components at
the point of unbalance. Knowing these, it is then neces-
sary to establish the distribution of current and voltage
in each network to determine the true distribution in
terms of phase quantities.
Thus, most of the time is taken in reducing the net-
works and in calculating current-distribution through
them, both of these operations having little connections
with the principle of symmetrical components.
When a network-analyser is used for the same prob-
lems, no circuit reduction is necessary and the current
and voltage distribution is read directly in each network.
The calculation of actual phase-quantities is also rapidly
accomplished using the vector computer.
This freedom from calculation enables more time and
thought to be devoted to studying the underlying princi-

'-----"""'0

STAR STAR
WINDIf\JG 0 WINDING
'01' 'b'

c--------i '--------;0

(il)

XI Xl
0 roOQ\- 0
XI Xl
0 romrXl
XI
0
POSITIVE-SEQUENCE AND
NEGATIVE·SEQUENCE
IMPEDANCE

0
rzJOO' 0

X OOl Xob
0 roQOI -1JOO'\
"
/\0;1 Xoj OJ
---D ZERO-SEQUENCE

X OOl Xob
f IMPEDANCE

0 roo
XoOlb Xo01b Xo01b

(hi
FIG. 13. DIAGRAM REPRESENTING (a) STAR-DELTA-STAR POWER-TRANSFORMER. AND (b) SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES.

40
 FiG. 14. THREE-PHASE EQUIVALENT OF STAR-DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMER.
pIes behind the interconnection of sequence networks
and this has led in many cases to methods which are
suited particularly to the network-analyser.
Physical Representation of Symmetrical Compo-
nents
The essence of symmetrical-component theory is that
any configuration of three vector quantities can be rep-
resented uniquely by three sets of "balanced" vectors,
these sets being designated positive-sequence,
negative-sequence, and zero sequence quantities. The
vector quantities are usually those associated with vol-
tage and current.
This fact in itself is of limited use in numerical analysis
unless it can be applied to the solution of unbalanced
problems and the importance of symmetrical compo-
nents is due solely to the fact that the balanced resolu-
tion of unbalanced vectors leads to a simple analytical
method applicable to many cases of practical interest.
The widest and most direct application is to the analysis
of fault-conditions, i.e. single-phase to earth, phase to
phase, and phase-to-phase to earth.
In this section it is shown how the unbalance currents
and voltages can be considered as being generated by
sets of sequence-voltage sources at the point of un-
balance.
Referring to fig. 15, this sketch shows three single-
phase resistors fed from a 3-phase "infinite busbar" (i.e.
zero-reactance source). There is no mutual impedance
between phases. The system is subject to a single-phase
fault to earth (red phase) and is so simple that the
41
currents and voltage are at once apparent.
Using an analyser the phase-to-neutral voltage of
each phase would be 1 per-unit and, say, the value of
each resistor 1 per-unit. The current in the faulty phase is
then 1 per-unit and is zero in the other two phases. The
voltages at the points R', Y', B' will be undisturbed and,
at the faultpoint, the red voltage is zero and the other
two phases are at nominal voltage. It is obvious that this
system could be modelled on the analyser and the above
quantities read directly but the solution could equally
well be obtained by symmetrical-component methods.
Without evaluation, two facts are apparent. At the
fault-point, the red voltage is zero and the yellow and
blue voltages are of normal phase and amplitude. Sec-
ondly, current flows in the red phase only. These vol-
tages and currents are illustrated in fig. 16.
Fig. 17 shows the same circuit drawn in a different
way. The fault is removed and voltage-generators have
been connected to all three phases at the fault-point. The
horizontal sets of three generators are adjusted to give
respectively a positive, negative, and zero sequence set
of 3-phase voltages and each is adjusted until the vertical
summation in each phase gives:
Red-to-neutral voltage = zero;
Blue-to-neutral voltage = normal voltage;
Yellow-to-neutral voltage = normal voltage.
Fig. 18 shows one possible adjustment of the
generators to comply with the above conditions. The
positive-sequence generators are 2/3 per-unit amplitude
and are "out of phase" with the negative-sequence and
zero-sequence generators, the latter being 1/3 per-unit
amplitude. The circuit is now completely balanced in a
 B'
y'
r--+--+------~---~Oy
FIG. 15. SIMPLE SINGLE-PHASE UNBALANCE.
3-phase sense but behaves as if the original inbalance
due to the fault still exists.
Fig. 19 confirms that the vertical summation of these
generator voltages is correct. Thus, if these nine
generators are connected in place of the fault, the system
as a whole behaves in the same way as if the fault were
connected. The voltages across the yellow-phase and
blue phase-resistors is zero and the current in these
phases is therefore zero. The voltage of the red phase at
the fault is zero and the two other phases are at normal
voltage.
If now we apply the principle of superposition to fig.
16 to determine the currents flowing in the circuits as a
result of all nine generators, we can treat each set of
generators of the same sequence separately and obtain
the sequence currents.
The three sequence impedances of the resistors are
identical and equal to 1·0 per-unit since no mutual
impedances exist. Taking first the zero sequence
generators, the zero-sequence current per phase is as
shown in fig. 20 which should be read in conjunction
with fig. 18. Taking. now the negative-sequence
generators alone the currents will be as in fig. 20. When
considering the positive-sequence generators, there are
two sets to consider, that of the source as well as the
added generators. The net positive-sequence voltage is
the vector sum and this, with other sequence voltages, is
given above the resulting positive-sequence current in
fig. 20.
From fig. 21 it is seen that the correct current-
distribution is obtained but care must be taken with
vector conventions; driving voltages and voltage-drops
must be identified.
This simple example illustrates the physical signifi-
42
w'-------------<I) 8
cance of the sequence voltages and currents and shows
that a solution can be obtained using 3-phase models and
first principles. Any of the 3-phase equivalent circuits
discussed in Part II could have been used in place of the
three resistors thus catering for different positive, nega-
tive, and zero-sequence impedances. Sequence currents
can in this way be looked upon as being driven by the
artificial generators at the fault-point. The most complex
problem can be treated in this way but obviously the
treatment would be tedious. When the impedance
offered to currents of the three sequences is different in
size and phase-angle it is almost impossible to choose the
correct "mixture" of sequence voltages for the artificial
generators so that they simulate the voltages with the
fault applied.
In all cases involving singie-phase-to-earth faults it is
the current sequence-components which make the solu-
tion unique. The relative phase and amplitude of these
are always known from the fact that there is current in
the faulty phase at the fault-point and none in the other
two phases. Consideration of this leads to the conclusion
that in all cases, independent of the sequence-
impedances of the faulty network, the current
sequence-components are as shown in fig. 20 where all
components are of equal size and the reference (faulted)
phase-components are in phase. The sizes and relative
phase-angle of the voltage sequence-components at the
fault-point are governed by the sequence impedances of
the network.
Fortunately, for the direct faults it is possible to con-
nect the sequence-impedance networks in the pre-
scribed manner to determine the sequence voltages at
the fault-point and the sequence currents flowing at the
fault-point.
 VB'

1'0 1'0
}---~-VR'
""
, 1·0 ]Y 0
Vy'
f
Vy
IB 0
VOLTAGES AT R'y'B' VOLTAGES AT RYB CURRENTS THROUGH
RESISTORS
FIG. 16. VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS OF FIG. 15.

y'

R' R

/. . .......

Vy V2 B,'""-')
VOR ., ....

l
~- ... ~

(,"-:~I
,
/' '1
\
,, ~ ''
V,y
,
,, ,
~

'IVIB(~\I
'
.
1 r'-.J ;
, " '
.
" ~
V2R I. A..,.I .i ..
, /
~

"I'~,y (~\:
... ... , \

,... "
\
VIR : I""\.J I
\
... ...' '

FIG. 17. PHYSICAL REPRESENTATION OF FIG. 15.

Fig. 22 shows the familiar connection for a single-
phase fault. The circuit applies only to the reference
phase, in this case the red phase. It was seen that, in this
phase, the sum of the sequence voltages should be zero
at the fault-point. This is satisfied in fig. 22 by the
closed-loop connection. Note that the individual sequ-
ence vQltages are not specified; only the summation to
zero is known in the general case. It is further known that
at the fault-point current flows in only the reference
phase. This indicates that the other two phases carry no
current and, as stated above, there is only one set of
sequence currents which will satisfy this condition. Thus,
the loop-connection is correct for all single-phase-to-
earth faults and it will solve for all reference-phase quan-
tities no matter how complicated the network may be.
The same approach, for say, phase-to-phase faults can

43
 V1B
V1B
z3

~
Z .l
3 3
VIR V1R 3 t 3 VOR "'" 1.
3

¥ VOY
"" 1
3
V1Y VoB
'"
V1Y

POSITIVE-SEQUENCE NEGATIVE·SEQUENCE ZERO·SEQUENCE

FIG. 18. SEQUENCE VOLTAGES AT THE FAULT·POINT.

RED PHASE YELLOW PHASE BLUE·PHASE

RESULTANT RESULTANT RESULTANT
IS; IS: IS:

~~
FIG.
ZERO

19.
1 0

SUMMATION OF SEQUENCE VOLTAGES AT THE FAULT·POINT.

'\0

J
VOR~
1
VOY~
1
VOB~

1
IOR~
1
IoY~
1
IoB~

NET POSITIVE NET NEGATIVE NET ZERO

FIG. 20. SEQUENCE.COMPONENT VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS.

1,0 ZERO ZERO

- - - - - -.. v ------,/
RED·PHASE CURRENT YELLOW·PHASE AND BLUE·PHASE
CURRENTS
FIG 21. SUMMATION OF SEQUENCE CURRENTS.

44
be made and the significance of the parallel connection
of the sequence-networks is apparent. In this case the
known conditions at the fault-point which have to be
satisfied by the artificial generators are:
Yellow-phase and blue-phase voltages are identical;
Yellow-phase and blue-phase fault-currents are equal
and opposite;
Red-phase fault-current is zero.
As there is no fault-connection to earth, no zero-
sequence currents are involved and fig. 23 shows the
sequence currents with, in fig. 24, the summation. Note
here that to satisfy the conditions for the phase currents
at the fault, there is only one possible arrangement of the
two sequence-currents to give no current in the refer-
ence phase and equal and opposite currents in the other
two phases. Similar conditions can be drawn regarding
the sequence voltages, and the phase-to-phase-to earth
fault yields to similar treatment.
It should be borne in mind that when the sequence
networks are connected together in a particular fashion,
the composite network so formed has no true physical
significance. It can be looked upon as forming a compu-
tational aid in solving for the sequence currents and
voltages. The composite network is thus a form of
'analogue computer' into which the constraints are fed in
the form of voltage and current equations which define
the unbalance.
The majority of faults (i.e. phase-to-phase, one or two
open conductors, and so on) can be solved by the con-
ventional series of parallel connection of impedance
networks. These are "complete" phase unbalance cases
in the sense that the impedance of one phase is infinite or
zero in a series or shunt sense. When the impedance of
one phase is finite and different from that of the other
two, these two connections are again valid but when all
three phase impedances are different, more complicated
connections have to be devised, some of which demand
the use of "unilateral" mutual impedances. Solutions
involving two simultaneous faults or "unbalances" are,
in general, of this form.
Application using the Network Analyser
General
In the previous sections, a physical picture of the
working of the method was given for one case of a direct
fault and it was indicated that the other faults could be
interpreted in the same way. In applications using the
analyser, the conditions.at the fault or unbalance must
always be examined first and, from these conditions the
sequence-impedance networks are then interconnected
to satisfy the conditions at the unbalance point.
In many cases, the analysis of unbalance follows an
analyser power-flow study coupled with an investigation
into circuit-breaker 3-phase performance. The results of
these studies dictate the interconnection of the system
for normal operation. Earthing and protection arrange-
ments are then considered and a series of studies made
to examine the performance of the system under fault-
conditions.
45
F N
F
N
Ro= "0
N F
FIG. 22. SINGLE-PHASE-TO-EARTH CONNECTION.
In the following section, the methods usually adopted
will be outlined for these routine studies.
Routine Investigation of Unbalanced Faults
The most direct method of solution is to set up on the
analyser all sequence-impedance networks and to inter-
connect them in the established manner. This method is
applicable to all networks but physical limitations of the
analyser usually prohibit its use when the network is
large. The large number of analyser impedance-units
required by this method is the usual limiting factor.
It is usual with large networks to set up on the analyser
each sequence-impedance network in turn and to meas-
ure voltages and currents in each separately. When deal-
ing, for example, with the negative-sequence network
one unit of fault-current is passed through the network
from the neutral plane to the fault-point. All branch
currents are now measured as a proportion of the total
fault-current and the phase-angle is measured relative to
that of the total fault-current. The latter is usually made
zero degrees for ease of reference.
In this way the vector distribution of the total fault-
current through the three networks is established, usu-
ally for a number of fault-positions. This distribution is
expressed as a "distribution factor" and each branch has
three such factors in the general case, one in each sequ-
ence network, for a particular fault position. A large
number of analyser readings is, of course, entailed by an
extensive network and the data obtained so comprehen-
sive as to become unmanageable in many cases.
The distribution factors obtained for each network
are universal and can be used for all types of fault. The
total fault-current for each fault-point can be deter-
mined by using three simple equivalent impedances
connected in the usual way according to the type offault
being studied. Knowing the total fault-current, the sequ-
ence currents previously measured as distribution fac-
tors in each branch can be "scaled" from the values
 hR .......--------\

Ity
\ [2Y

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
FIG. 23. SEQUENCE CURRENTS FOR A PHASE-TO-PHASE FAULT·.

ZERO

Jy
YELLOW-PHASE BLUE-PHASE
RED-PHASE CURRENT
CURRENT CURRENT
FIG. 24. SUMMATION OF SEQUENCE CURRENTS.

obtained using the assumed unit value for this fault-
current.
The above method enables each phase current in each
network-branch to be evaluated as well as all neutral
currents and the total fault-current. In many instances, it
is only necessary to know the zero-sequence-current
distribution through the network for the purpose of, for
instance, earth-fault protection-grading or mutual-
interference problems. When this is the case, only the
zero-sequence impedance-network need be set up on
the analyser and the "distribution factors" are then
measured as described above. Only the lumped equival-
ent impedance of the positive-sequence and negative-
sequence networks is required to determine the total
fault-current. The positive-sequence equivalent-
impedance is usually obtained during the load-flow
studies which frequently precede the unbalance studies.
The negative-sequence equivalent-impedance can, in
the majority of cases, be taken as equal to the positive-
sequence value but special measurement may be essen-
tial when large induction motors are involved or faults
adjacent to power-stations are being studied.
It should noted that while it is usual to evaluate the
branch currents in terms of amperes-per-phase, the "dis-
tribution factors" alone often yield valuable information
and can, for instance, show to what degree the sequence
voltages developed at the fault cause unbalanced vol-
tages and currents at points in the system remote from
the fault.
Special Methods
A number of special methods are used but all these are
derived from the basic methods described above.
Numerous 'dodges' are often resorted to for the purpose
of simplifying calculations which must eventually be
made when the unbalance currents and voltages have
been measured. For example, the equivalent circuits of
equipments such as impedance relays can be set up on
the analyser and, with the analyser meters connected to
the output terminals of the equivalent circuit, the input
terminals are connected to the appropriate point in the
power-system network. The analyser meters thus
responding the same way as would the actual equipment,
and much valuable information regarding the perfor-
mance under complex unbalance conditions can be so
obtained. This technique can be extended to deal with
many other unbalance problems including those associ-
ated with induction motors.

46
CHAPTER 3 D. C. Primary Transients in
Power-Systems
By F. L. HAMILTON.
INTRODUCTION
This article is intended as a study of simple exponential
d.c. transients which is necessary for understanding the
behaviour of current-transformers and protective sys-
tems in the transient state. This latter subject will be
dealt with in a subsequent artiele.
Faults on power-system components and interconnec-
tions are mostly of a sudden nature and, because of this,
are accompanied by transient components of current.
These may last only for a few cycles of system frequency
but, even for this short duration, they may affect the
performance of fast-acting devices such as circuit-
breakers and protective gear.
The transient currents may be oscillatory or of a
unidirectional type. The oscillatory types are mostly of
high frequency unless they are concerned with large
values of capacitance, such as series capacitors. These
oscillatory current-transients do not usually last long
enough to affect protective gear and they do not consti-
tute a current-transformation problem. Extreme condi-
tions of current and high frequency may, however, cre-
ate an insulation problem on the current-transformer
secondaries and on the associated relay equipment.
The exponential transient, with which this article is
concerned, is of importance both in circuit-breaking and
in protective gear. In the latter, the large current levels
and the low-frequency character of this transient create
difficulties in accurate current-transformation.
Familiarity with the d.c. primary transients can be of
great value in application problems, in the assessment of
test circuits, and in the interpretation of test-data such as
oscillographic records. The basic phenomena are simple
and are treated in most text-books, but some of the finer
points are not always appreciated by many engineers in
relation to practical problems.
Basic Switching Exponential
There are a number of different ways of explaining or
deriving the basic exponential d.c. transient which
accompanies the making of a circuit containing linear
resistance and inductance as shown in fig. 1.
The basic mathematical analysis gives the required
solution as:
-tiT
i = I.sin (wt + a -~) - I.sin (a -~) e
I being the peak value of the steady-state current.
The transient term is of initial amplitude equal to that
of the starting value of the prospective steady-state cur-
rent, and is of opposite polarity to satisfy the require-
ment that total current must start from zero with induc-
tance in the circuit. The case of zero transient is obtained
if switching takes place at a prospective steady-state
47
current zero, while the maximum transient is given by
switching at a prospective current maximum. The rate of
decay of the transient is determined by the time-constant
L/R, which is also directly related to X/R or the circuit Q
factor, or to the circuit power-factor or phase-angle.
It is not necessary, in practice, to have more informa-
tion than the basic time-constant of the circuit, the pros-
pective steady-state current, and the "point-on-wave" of
making the circuit. The form of the transient is the same
for all switching points except in respect of polarity and
initial starting value. The familiar "off-set" or fully
asymmetrical current is shown in fig. 2(a), which gives
maximum d.c. transient. Also shown in 2(b) and 2(c) are
oscillograms of switching 30° in advance and 30° later
than prospective current maximum. Note the initial
minor loop for the advanced making.
Some Useful Properties of Exponential Current
Some of the properties of the exponenial can be useful
both in the analysis of test-results and in the interpreta-
tion of test-data and oscillograms. The more interesting
of these are described below.
Time-constants
The time-constant can be shown mathematically as
being the time when the transient is reduced to lie
(36'8%) of the initial starting value. In addition, it can be
shown that the tangent to the exponential at zero time
intersects the time axis at a value equal to the time-
constant. These are shown in fig. 3. Another property of
the exponential which can be of value in this respect is
that the ratio of currents at equal successive intervals of
time is constant and equal to e--.'lt/T. Each of the above
properties can be used for the evaluation of time-
constants but, because of practical errors of measure-
ment, the average result of more than one method is
usually preferable. A table is given in fig. 4 of the corres-
ponding values of time-constant, phase-angle. and cir-
cuit power-factor for various ratios of X/R at 50 cis. Fig.
5 gives typical values of X/R for the various components
in a power-system. These of course are only typical but
are sufficiently correct for most purposes. However, it
should be remembered that, in practice, we are con-
cerned with the overall time-constant of the circuit
which may be somewhat complex and contain a number
of components in different configurations. Allowance
has to be made for this in evaluating the effective X/R of
the total fault-current which is the quantity usually
under consideration. These effects, together with the
influence of arc-voltage on effective X/R, are dealt with
later.
 e = E sin (wt+ IX)

E sin (wt + IX)

~I sin (wt + IX - </»

FIG. 1. BASIC CIRCUIT.

48
 (a) Full asymmetry. (b) 30" in advance. (c) 30° later.
X/R::!!: 16.
FIG. 2. ASYMMETRIC CURRENT WAVEFORMS.
1·0

i2 i3
-:- = -:- = e- bt!T
,( '2

6t ot T

FIG. 3. EXPONENTIAL TIME-CONSTANT.

T Log/Linear Plotting
X/R III Cos III
(m.secs)
The exponential waveform has the useful property
that when it is plotted on a log/linear scale the result is a
i 1·59 26·5° ·895 straight line. This is a useful way of obtaining exponen-
1 3·18 45·0° ·707 tial curves, particularly for data purposes. Typical data
2 6·36 63·5° ·446 curves on this basis are shown in fig. 6. Linear plotting of
4 12·72 76·0° ·242 exponentials is most easily done using the constant ratio
8 25·44 82·8° ·123 of successive values already referred to.
10 31·8 84·3° ·099
12 38·16 85·3° ·082 Values of Transient-current Peaks
14 44·5 86·0° ·07
16 It is often necessary, for the purpose of assessing
50·9 86·5° ·061
18 contacts, circuit-breakers, and protective gear, to know
57·2 86·8° ·054
20 the values of current-peaks in an asymmetric waveform.
63·6 87·25° ·05
22 70·0 87·4° The theoretical upper limit of twice the steady-state
·045
24 peak current is only achieved with extremely long time-
76·3 87·6° ·042
26 constants outside the range normally met in practice.
83·2 87·8° ·038
28 89·6 88·0° For the case of peak values of current, maximum
< ·035
30 values are obtained, not with maximum d.c. transient,
96·0 88·2° ·033
but with the slightly lower transient current occurring
FIG. 4. CORRESPONDING X/R, TIME-CONSTANT, AND when the circuit is made at voltage-zero. Although the
CIRCUIT PHASE-ANGLE VALUES IN 50 cis SYSTEMS. transient is lower in this case, the peaks occur earlier,

49
 Component Voltage (kV) Range of X/R Remarks

Generators alone 11-15 30-120 Generally large generators at high

X/R, but these are usually combined
with transformers

Generator Transformers 11 or 15/ 20-40 Large generators for transmission

132-275

Transformers for transmission 275/66--132 30-35 Value depends on % reactance required

and primary distribution 132/66 for system reasons
66/6--33

Transformers for distribution 3·3-33 5-10 Reactance values kept low for
regulation reasons

Reactors - 30-120 Depends on throughput and economic

design of losses

Cables 3·3-6·6 0·16--1·0 Largely depends on rated current.

11-22 0·2 -2·0 Larger values tend to be obtained with
33-132 1·0 -5·0 large-section single-core types
275 2·0

Overhead lines 11-22 i-2! Depends on rated current

33-66 H-3
132 2!
275 4 2 x ·175 in" conductors
9 2 x ·4 in" conductiors
400 9 2 x ·4 in" conductors
15 4 x ·4 in" conductors

FIG 5. TYPICAL RANGES OF X/R (50 cIs SYSTEMS).

giving the slightly increased values of peak current. The
values of the first peak of current are plotted against X/R
in fig. 7. Values are given for the first peak for switching
at both voltage-zero and at prospective maximum cur-
rent, but it can be seen that the difference is only signif-
icant at relatively low values of X/R. The first current-
peak is an important value for the rating of a contact.
Other points which may be of importance on a
transient-current waveform are at times of about 50ms
and 7Oms. These are the approximate times which fast
circuit-breakers and protective gear would take to
achieve contact-separation. Values for these times are
also given in fig. 7.
The values of d.c. component can of course be
obtained by subracting 1 per unit from the values given
by these curves.
Minor Loop on Fun Asymmetry
It is quite common to see sketches of oftset current
waves with maximum d.c. transient not showing any
minor loop at the commencement. While this is reason-
ably valid for larger time-constants it should be appreci-
ated that there is theoretically always a minor loop
associated with this condition. Fig. 8 shows an analysis
for this particular effect. The total current is the differ-
ence of the exponential and cosine wave and the minor-
loop effect can be seen by plotting an exponential cur-
rent and cosine current together. The shaded area rep-
resents the minor loop in duration and magnitude. It can
be seen from this that the duration of the minor loop is
significant for X/Rs between 2 and 8 but that the amp-
litude of the minor loop is not greatly significant for
X/Rs above 4. This effect is pointed out because it can be
important in assessing accurately the switching point
particularly of low X/R circuits and also because this
part of the waveform is frequently shown in an expanded
form on some oscillographic records. The existence of
this minor loop would also be important in protective-
gear devices responsive to polarity of current and posi-
tion of current-zero.
There is no minor loop at all in the other important
case of switching the circuit at voltage-zero.

50
 Time of First Major Peak on Full Asymmetry
It is quite common to estimate the peak-value of a
loop, particularly the first major loop, by adding the
peak-value of the steady-state current to the instantane-
ous values of the d.c. component at that point. Theoreti-
cally this is not exact but the accuracy is quite sufficient
for all practical purposes. The exact time of occurrence
of the first major peak and its value can be obtained by
plotting curves of d.c. exponential, sin wt, and d.c
exponential/X/R. Again the disparity is most noticeable

I I~ ---H~
e
I f\1 I-+---tl---+-------i ._--l-r----.----\r-...---------=t"-.'--+-+-+-----+-+_
_-+-'--+--,,'...... ....

! ~ Pl'I il'-r-.x
~f
I
I
'I
!

I
I \
N
i

1\
,x
I
I
I
1\.

Ii
i -H~" ~
i ' !'
I I '"
I

0= 4
,;
I
f

i
borx -i--------+----+-[--+-+-i-R'--'-t-=--r-8-;
". R= 6
1- =
R 2: 'I i " I

IllJl
'
~
i I i I i I 1',
IU
[I II I!

O· I
t i I I Ii
5 10 15 20 25 30 t (m. sees)

1·0

I
0·5

10 20 30 40 50 60
t (m. sees)

FIG. 6. LOG/LINEAR PLOTS OF EXPONENTIALS.

51
2·0r I =r=r I I I I I
1transient
f I I '1~~=t=t=1~t;t:t:~+=~~~t:f:$=Fff=t=~~t:t=t=t
-
_Io--'i""""'"
/\ --+--I---l---l~f-::"I~f---~+--+-+---+-+-+-+--+--+--+--+-- 1-- --+--+-+--+--+-- c-
I stead y-state --+--+_Ai9"~--I---l--lC-A_t
t-I._0t-m_st-f0i-r_mra_xrim.-+um-+t_r.a-+n_si-+e_nt-+--+--+-. 1--_ --1--1-' -+-~-J
I .5 ~+-+-+--J.n/~~q===*===*=t=1 FO~ s~it~h in1g ~t-+--+--+-+--+--+--lJ-~J:.:::.J=..::t-=!-=+--:[-J
~V vo I,ta g e ze ro !.-' :.- :.- :.- r-- :.-- :.--:---:.--~
I . 4 ~t-t-+/~+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+-'+-~~-+-+-+-+-+--+:::;;;"-;''''''''-"'f~-+-+--+-._j----
~'(J I V V
V~V"""
II 50 ms ~ V
: : f.--+-/+~JIH--+-+--+--+--+--1-/-+/--+V-+-V~/-+v-+/-+-/-+/--I:..,...q--+--+-·+----, -_ ~-+--r-+--+-_.
1

i/ / V/,~70 m,

1.1
I
I
I
I
1/ 2

/3
V

l::= tv )/----+~I
I
"-- --+--r--- --~-f!---- -I---+--+---+·---{-I

:~. I
,
1/ ._.- -- -
It..-JL

·-P~-8
. OS

i-i1
- - f - _. 1--- - - '-

.
.
II· .
~~
04 f··- - 1--+--1---

-03 1/ -+--,--t--+---i-¥---\--+---+-+---+--iL---4-

·02 _. +--1,".- j.' c--- .- ... -., - --- .-'

V V V \
I :
: I
: I

·01 c ..
I

_1._1
'

2
IJ
4
:L 6 8 10 15 20 25 30

FIG. 7. PEAK VALUES OF CURRENT.

52
 ·61-----
·51----
·4
·31----
·2
·1 ' - - - - _ .._----
2 3
FIG. 8. INITIAL MINOR LOOP WITH MAXIMUM D.C. TRANSIENT.
on time-constants in the range of 2-4 but comparison
between values of peak current obtained accurately
from this construction and the additive method used for
fig. 7 gives negligible errors, as shown on the construc-
tional diagram, fig. 9.
Effects of Arc-voltage
The presence of an arc-voltage in series with the cir-
cuit has a pronounced effect on the waveform of the
resulting transient current, even for relatively low values
of arc-voltage. It is not possible, of course, to calculate
accurately the effects for complex arc-waveforms, but a
common case is that of a relatively small arc-voltage of
rectangular waveform. The general circuit is shown in
fig. 10 and the resulting total current can be obtained by
superimposing the currents resulting from the two sepa-
rate voltage-sources, one being the normal prospective
tra'nsient current without arcing and the other being the
current resulting from the replacement of the arc by an
equivalent squarewave generator. It must be remem-
53
4 m. sees
bered of course that there will will be a discontinuity
when the resulting total current passes through zero.
The expression is given for the resulting transient cur-
rent which is still exponential in waveform but which is
asymptotic to a horizontal line through kX/R. An
approximate evaluation of the increased rate of decay
due to the presence of the arc is given by the equivalent
time-constant
T' = T
(1 + kX/R)
In this expression X/R is the natural value of the circuit
and k is the per-unit value of arc-voltage referred to the
peak sinusoidal voltage. An example of the extent of this
increase is obtained by taking the X/R= 15 and k= 1/25,
T' being equal to ·625T. The complete waveform of
current for this particular case is plotted in fig. 11. Dur-
ing the first loop the resultant current is obtained from
the transient expression shown in fig. 10. At current-
zero the arc-voltage is restarted with opposite polarity.
I· 0 . . . - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,

-
- ~
"- -
·1 e
-tiT
X./
;1f
\
\ -
f - - - - - - - - - - 1 , - - - - - - - I - - - - - ) : ( for T=2 ---+-------t--+--1
\
R \
\
..... 6·]0
,
i....£.

Correction for~ = 2
R
= 6·YO
~ -+ I peak -- ·22 + cos 6·YO
·22 -1- ·99
= 1·21
compared with 1·2
from fig. 7.
·01 ~-------l
The error will reduce --f----·------f----·----fi
with increasing XjR. ----j----------+---------I1
t---------t---------t--------.---------~--------_+__--------_t1

f - - - - - - - - - f - - - - - - - - - - t - - - - - - - - - - - - --------+-------.-"11

f - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - + - - - - - ---------+----------+--------11

f-------------- ----------+-----------.- ---------+-------------"11

6 7 8 9 10
m. secs ---">0-
FIG. 9. ACCURATE METHOD OF ASSESSING FIRST MAJOR PEAK.

54
 R L

'7 ea

It
I

R L R L

) +
ANALYSIS FOR EFFECT OF ARC-VOLTAGE

i = I ( e -tiT - cos wt)

1·0
p.u.I
it = I ( e-tiT
I - cos wt ) - R
e. (I _e -tiT)
E~IX. If e
a
= kE = kIX,
then. for 1st loop. it = I[ e- t/T - cos u,t] -k r; [I - e- t/T ]

= I [{ e -tiT (I + k~) - k~ }- cos wt]

PRO PECTIVE ~~-TRANSIENTCURRENT

TRANSIENT WITHOUT ARC = e- t/T
CURRENT
WITH ARC (I st LOOP)
e -t/T(1 .L k?S)-k ~ __--\,.-__~...
. ' R R

O-+------~~---_.:."f....-----------
" ---7- t
"
""
"" " ",
............
...... -..............

-k ~ f - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - ....1- _
R T

FIG. 10. EFFECT OF ARC-VOLTAGE ON THE RATE OF TRANSIENT DECAY.

55
In addition the decay transient of the current i', which
was the ultimate value of the previous arc-voltage trans-
ient current, has to be taken into account. Subsequent
loops are obtained by repetition of this process. Fig. 12
shows the approximate correction factor for various val-
ues of X/R and arc-voltages.
Mixed Circuits
In general, the concentrated componets of a power-
system such as generators, transformers, and reactors
have X/R values which are greater than those of cables
and ovehead lines, although- in the latter case the factor
is only about 2 or 3 for very-high-voltage lines with
bundle conductors.
In practice, therefore, the total circuit-current under
short-circuit conditions will usually involve impedances
having different X/R values and this should be taken
into account when evaluating the transient currents.
There are four basic circuits, which, when analysed,
can usually cover most practical cases. These are as
follows.
Series Impedances
This is shown in fig. 13 and represents, in general
terms, the common case of a fault beyond the switching

Total current
with arc-drop

1·0

OI-l----------H::...:.----II-<;:;--=:--------1rr"'----~r_----

-- ---;..---
/' j'
.6 (I - e- t/T ) /

·61-----------+_

FIG. 11. EFFECT OF CONSTANT ARC-VOLTAGE ON FULL-ASYMMETERY WAVE-FORM.

Natural X/R = 15
e a = 1/25E.

56
[~J 25
[~r [~J
I

[I + k ~J I
k -
k = ea/E 50
20 I
k
40
k = ---I
30
I
15 k = --
25
I
k -
20
I
k ---
10 15
I
k -
10

i<- ~ ~ _:_':=__--- ~-----~--

5 10 15 20 25 30

FIG. 12. ApPROXIMATE CORRECTION-FACTOR FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF X/R AND ARC-VOLTAGES.

or relaying point, the fault being fed by predominantly
generator and transformer plant.
The fault-current, apart from reducing as the fault is
moved out along the line, will have a reducing X/R value
Simple Shunt Circuit
This is as shown in fig. 14 and is representative of a
close-in busbar-fault, with two types of infeed to the
busbars. Generally, part of the fault-MVA will be
derived from generators and transformers having an
effective X/R value about 30-40, and the remainder will
be infeeds from the system, having X/R values approxi-
mately that of the lines, i.e. of the order of 3-15. This
results in two components of fault-current, each with a
transient corresponding to its own particular X/R value,
and an initial magnitude corresponding to the respective
steady-state value.

X Xl + X ParaUel/Series Circuit
Total circuit - = -----2 This is an extension of the previous case of mixed
R R1 + R2 infeeds, but has the complication of a common length of
FIG. 13. SIMPLE SERIES-CIRCUIT. line between the fault and switching point, as shown in
fig. 15. The line impedance is mutual to the two infeeds
since the line X/R is less than that of the source. The and the solution is therefore more difficult. A degree of
equivalent X/R of the total fault-current is easily simplification is possible if one infeed, i.e. that due to
obtained by dividing the total circuit-reactance by the line infeed, has the same X/R as the line impedance
total resistance. Curves relating equivalent X/R with between switching point and fault as will generally occur
various busbar MVAs and line-Iengths-to-fault are given in practice. Analysis of this case shows that the total
for various system-voltages on pages 25 and 26 of R.R. fault-current has two exponential transients, one at the
174. (A Reyrolle Review Reprint). X/R value lying between that of the line and that of the

57
 generator-transformer X/R. The exact value of this lat-
ter X/R, and the magnitude of each component of the
transient have been evaluated for a range of
impedance-ratio values in figs 16 and 17. These are
based on an X/R of 30 for ZI and an X/R of 9 for Zz and
Z3 which are the approximate figures for the 275-kV
system. The values obtained from these curves are inter-
7I esting since they show that, for a wide range of practical
cases, x' is substantially below the maximum value of 30,
and the proportion of current having a transient of the
minimum X/R=9 is large. A simple example is when
~=~=1
FIG. 14. SIMPLE SHUI'T-CIRCUIT.
Zl Z3
This is the case of a station, in which the total short-
circuit MVA is divided equally between generator/
transformer plant and line-infeed from the system, the
fault for a 275-kV 15,000-MVA level being about 15
miles from the busbar. In this example, ·75 of the fault-
current has an X/R = 9 and ·25 has an X/R= 17. The
curves can be used to evaluate the total d.c. component
of fault-current,- or to determine current-transformer
requirements.
Shunt Resistance
This simple case, shown in fig. 18, sometimes gives
rise to difficulty because of the use of such circuits to
produce the 50-cycle conditions equivalent to a series
circuit. Since this equivalence is only valid at the one
frequency, 50 cycles, a completely different current-
transient can be expected in each case.
On making, the current is immediately established in
the resistance, with no transient, and the current in the
inductance is accompanied by a normal exponential
transient. This transient is not, however, related in
time-constant to the original circuit power-factor, but
only to the natural X/R of the inductive branch. This
transient will be considerably longer than the equivalent
series circuit for the same overall power-factor.

Three-phase Faults
TOTAL FAULT-CURRENT TRANSIENT Three-phase transients will be of the general form of
X the single-phase cases already covered. As the starting
;2-3 at Ii: of x2 values of the prospective steady-state currents add up to
X
(i-c) i I at - between zero, so also will the three d.c. transients summate to
R zero at all times. With three phases, however, there is
_L_~==~::::::::::::::~~;~~~X I and x2 always a higher probability of experiencing asymmetry
of fault-current in the system. There will, theoretically,
always be a minimum of 86% asymmetry in at least one
or more phases. Some differences arise with sequential
closure of the different phases of the circuit, but these
tend to be of academic rather than practical interest.
FAULT TRANSIENT IN Z2
Conclusions
Analysis of the d.c. transient arising from faults on a
power-system shows that the basic exponenital form is
applicable, with some modification, to most practical
-_"---1\ I systems. These modifications can be important in the
.•. ci I evaluation of the practical fault-conditions needed to
FIG. 15. TRANSIENT CURRENTS IN assess the realistic requirements of equipment such as
PARALLEL/SERIES CIRCUIT. current-transformers and protective gear. It is hoped

58
to
x
_ = 30
Xl = 10 Xl = 12
V / Xl = 15
~
X
rl ZI - =9 / ~

3)r-1 Z~ ~
~ V ~
- / v / I
Xl = 18

Y ~9 / V V
Z2 / XI ~= 21

R ./
V V / '/
~
v~ Xl = 24
4
/ vv/ v v
V V VV,V
~

L
Xl = 27

V Vv ~I Vv
io"'"
~ I---"
l-- ~
l..--- ~ ~
2

~~ I
~
i-"""
l--- ~~ VV
V
I-'" V
1·0

0·8 - Xl
V I.-'"
17
~
?'
V
/

/
/
I/'

1/
/
/

J
V
/ ,

~ l.--" / J /
0·6
0·5 / / /
VI V I

---
0·4

V " / I
l.I I
I
o· 3 r-.....
" - -- V I
V
0·2
V
1I /
0·' ·2 ·4 ·5·6
V
I
·8 1·0
/ 2

FIG. 16. COMPLETE X/R VALUE (xl FOR CURRENT il.

59
 4

f----
i

2 ~------

1·0i----

·99
0·1 2 4

FIG. 17. PER-UNIT VALUE OF TRANSIENT CURRENT

IN TOTAL FAULT-CURRENT AT LINE X/R.

60
 between the busbars and the fault and this will have the
same X/R as the line-source input.
This particular case can be solved with a minimum of
mathematics, if certain circuit concepts are borne in
mind.
The general circuit is shown in fig. 19.
The steady-state currents will be divided in the ratio
I1/Iz=ZZ/Zl and the resulting transient components in
each loop must satisfy this division.
From inspection, two loops exist with Z3 as the mutual
impedance. It was previously pointed out that the expo-
nential current in a circuit comprising impedances of the
same time-constant does not generate any external vol-
tages. It is possible, therefore, for the loop ZZZ3 to carry
an exponential of the line time-constant without inter-
reaction with the loop ZIZ3, and this is one of the trans-
ient currents.
The other transient, involving ZI, must intereact with
Zz and will be of a time-constant intermediate between
that of the generators and that of the line, and be distri-
buted so as to satisfy both the inter-reaction and the
initial starting requirements.
X
T=-
rw

Transient Current Distribution

Let II and I z be the steady-state components of cur-
rent in the two loops. The transients i 1 and iz will distri-
bute as shown in fig. 20.
Total transient current =(1 - c) i 1 + i z,

wherec= ~
ZZ+Z3

i 1 must start with initial value = IJ,

iz must start with initial value = lz + elJ,
and the total transient with II + I z.

FIG. 18. SHUNT-RESISTANCE.

z)

E
that the data provided in this article will help in this
respect, because there is always the possibility that the
over-simplification which results from lack of working
data may give rise to excessively pessimistic require-
ments. '

APPENDIX
Circuits of Mixed Time-constants
Detailed Analysis and Alternative Presentation
As previously discussed, many practical systems can
be reduced to the form shown in fig. 15. This constitutes
one input source of predominantly generator and trans- FIG. 19.
former characteristics, and another in which line charac-
teristics predominate. Also, there will be a length of line

61
Thus, the per-unit of current at the line time-constant And the effective Q of this series circuit will be
1+c!l
= A = Iz+cl i Iz =
___
x =
ZI + Z'
Iz+11 II
1+ - ~+£
Iz XI Xz

or, expressed in terms of Xz

x (z + 1)
Xz +1

Presentation
The above expressions can be shown as in figs 16 and
17. However, more generalised data-curves relating the
values to the various fault-MVA levels at the busbars
and at the line are more useful and are shown in figs 21,
22, and 23.
Independent variables are obtained involving three
short-circuit levels such that

x = Total MVA at the fault

Total MVA at the busbars

Y
MVA at the busbars from line-source
Intermediate time-constant MVA at the busbars from generator-source
The intermediate time-constant of the transient i 1 can Fig. 21 shows the per-unit value of fault-current at the
be readily obtained from fig. 20. line time-constant for various values of X and Y.
Total impedance seen by this transient Fig. 22 shows the dependent variable z plotted against
various values of x and y.
= Zl + Zz Z3 = Zj+Z'. Fig. 23 gives the intermediate X/R (Q value) for vari-
ZZ+Z3 ous values of this dependent variable z.

62
 1·8
·l·~-
---~

i
6'" I
I
II I I
<:( I
1·6
--1

I ·4 t-----+--t----+-+----~~-

1·2
w
U
a::
w:)
Uo
a:: V>
:)a::
00
V> I-
w< 1·0
za::
- w
-'z
::E w
O\.:J
a::::E
""0
V> a::
a:: .... 0·8
<V>
ela::
:) <
ell ell
V>
I- :)
< ell
<I-
>< 0·6
::E<
>
::E
II
>-
0·4

0·2H--+-+-+-~1£_-~:....-_t-~~-_+----_::::l:_-~--_!

A = 0'\

o 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 /·0

MVA AT FAULT
X = MVA AT BUSBARS
A =-_,-
+ I
= ~
FRACTIONAL D.C. COMPONENT
OF LINE TIME-CONSTANT (T)
Y
FiG. 21. FRACTIONAL D.C. COMPONENT OF LINE TIME-CONSTANT.

63
 I ·8.----.----,-

I ·6 t------+----t-----+---+---+---+--t-----tc--+--t---

1·4 t - - - - - - - \ l - - - - -

W
u 1·2
'"
w::::>
uo
"''''
::::>",
00
"'I-
W<
z'"
- W
....I
'·0
Z
L W
o~
"'L
u.
o
"''''
"'u.
<'" 0·8
co",
:><
co

II
>-

1·0

MVA AT FAULT
X= MVA AT BUSBARS
z =
Y+X
I-X
FIG. 22. GRAPH FOR DETERMINiNG Z IN TERMS OF X AND y.

64
 6

5
I--
Z
UJ
Z
0Q..
I:
0
U 4
UJ I--
I-- Z
< <
I--
0 V)
UJ
I: Z
ex: 0
UJ UI
I-- 3
z UJ
I:
LL i=
0 UJ
I-- Z
Z ...J
c;(
I--
V)

z 2
0
UI
UJ
I:
i=

x I""
x"

Xl GENERATOR SOURCE TIME-CONSTANT

X2 LINE TIME-CONSTANT
x z+1
-=----
X2 z_ + I
__
XI!X2
FIG. 23. TIME-CONSTANT OF INTERMEDIATE COMPONENT.

65
CHAPTER 4 Current-transformers in Relation to
Protective Gear: Steady-state
Considerations
By F. L. HAMILTON.
INTRODUCTION
The wide application of current-transformers to power-
system requirements presents a scope greater than can
be dealt with in a single article. As part of a course on
protective-gear, this article deals with some of those
aspects which are of interest to protective-gear
engineers, both designers and users, and which are con-
cerned with the behaviour of current-transformers in
protective-gear circuits. From consideration of such
aspects it is possible to obtain a better understanding of
the problems and difficulties which arise in the design
and application of protective gear.
Whenever possible, a complicated mathematical
approach has been avoided in favour of graphical
analysis. The use of some mathematics is, however,
inevitable and a reasonable knowledge of this and of
basic electrical circuit theory has been assumed.
The importance of the current-transformer needs no
emphasis. The device is basically a very simple one but
its behaviour, particularly under saturated and transient
conditions, is rather complex. These conditions are of
particular interest in the design and understanding of
modern protective-gear.
Equivalent Circuits
The use of equivalent circuits can be invaluable in the
study of curren-transformer problems and full use
should be made of these techniques. The basic equival-
ent circuit of a current-transformer is shown in fig.! and
is similar to that of a power-transformer.
The effective impedances of the current-transformer
imposed on the primary energizing system are invariably
small compared with the natural impedance of the prim-
ary system, even under fault-conditions when the prim-
N sec.
turns
RpN2 Primary resistance
XLPN2 Primary leakage-reactance
Rs Secondary resistance
XLS Secondary leakage-reactance
ZM Shunt magnetizing impedance
Zs Secondary load
FIG. 1. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CURRENT·TRANSFORMER.
66
ary impedance is reduced, and the circuit can be consi-
dered as current driven as shown by fig. 2. On this basis,
the primary resistance and leakage reactance may be
omitted to give the simplified current-driven circuit
shown.
In most cases, current-transformers are of the ring-
core type, with toroidal secondary windings and sym-
metrical primary windings. For these, the leakage reac-
tance of the secondary winding is very small and may be
omitted from the equivalent circuit. With unsymmetrical
primary windings, incomplete winding of the core, and
built-up cores, the secondary leakage-reactance may be
high and, in extreme cases, comparable to the secondary
load, in which case it must be included in the equivalent
circuit. These two categories of current-transformers are
defined in B.S. 2046 (Protective Transformers) as low-
reactance and high-reactance current-transformers, and
different testing and application techniques are required
for each type. Low-reactance types are generally prefer-
red for use in protective systems.
The shunt impedance ZM of the equivalent circuit
represents the magnetizing and iron-loss impedances of
the transformer and it is convenient to consider these as
a linear reactance in shunt with a linear resistance for
many calculations where high accuracy is not required. It
is important to remember, however, that these impe-
dances are non-linear and must be considered as such
when accurate calculations in the unsaturated region are
required or when operation in the saturated region is
being considered.
For the case where the shunt impedance ZM is consi-
dered linear, a further variation of the equivalent circuit
is possible by using Thevenin's Theorem, as shown in fig.
3. This gives an equivalent circuit which is voltage-
energized. It is important to realise that the voltages
Zs
Rererred to
secondary
} level
 RpN'
Ip,N
EpN l Primary system-voltage
ZpN2 r and impedance referred
to secondary level.
FIG. 2. SIMPLIFIED CURRENT-ENERGIZED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CURRENT-TRANSFORMER.
developed across ZM in this circuit are theoretical and do
not occur in the actual current-transformer windings.
This circuit gives the same value of secondary current in
the load and the same errors as that in fig. 2.
Design Factors and Steady-state Performance
Accuracy
The main criterion of performance is the accuracy
with which the primary current is reproduced in the
secondary circuit with respect to both magnitude and
phase-angle. This steady-state performance is expressed
in terms of 'Ratio error' and 'Phase-angle error,' defined
as:
Ratio error = [_NI~Ip] 100%
Phase-angle error = "y in fig. 4
(+ ve when Is vector leads IplN vector as shown).
Considering the simple equivalent circuit shown in fig. 2,
a given primary current will be divided between the
shunt impedances ZM and (Rs + X LS + Zs) in accordance
with their relative magnitudes and phase-angles as
shown in fig. 4. Thus the accuracy of output for a given
total secondary impedance will be governed by the value
of ZM' This is directly ~elated to the length of the magne-
FIG. 3. VOLTAGE-DRIVEN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CURRENT-TRANSFORMER.
67
XLpN' Rs XLS
Zs
Rs
XLS
tic circuit, the quality of iron, the cross-sectional area of
iron, and the number of secondary turns. Most of these
factors are affected by the space available for accom-
modating the current-transformer and the design factors
are such that, for a given space, there is an upper limit of
accuracy which can be attained for a particular secon-
dary burden and primary rating. This maximum accu-
racy can be increased by the use of high-permeability
low -low steels for a part or the whole of the core. The
accuracy is also dependent on the secondary load-
impedance and will be increased as this impedance is
reduced. In the limit, the value of accuracy on short
circuit is determined by the secondary-winding resis-
tance and leakage reactance. Many protective current-
transformers operate under conditions approaching this.
The value of secondary turns will be related to the
number of primary turns, the transformation ratio, and
the rated secondary-current. When the rated primary-
current is below about 300 amperes, the number of
secondary turns, especially with a 5-ampere secondary
rating, may become too low to achieve a particular accu-
racy with a bar-primary (single-turn) so that multiple
primary turns must be used. The effect of secondary
turns and rated secondary current is considered in more
detail later.
Rs XLS
Zs
 jp/N The saturation-factor is dependent, to a large extent,
on the same factors which govern the accuracy and, for a
given space, primary rating, and core material, there will
be an upper limit to the saturation-factor which is attain-
Vs able.
Although saturation effects the greatest departure
from linearity, most magnetic steels are fairly non-linear
over most of the working range, giving typical voltage/
current characteristics as shown in fig. 5(a). There is
generally a region of low initial permeability followed by
Vs a region of high permeability and finally the region of
low permeability resulting from saturation. Such non-
linearity results in harmonic components of magnetizing
currents even in the unsaturated region.
The type of curve shown in fig. 5(a) is associated with
a core of homogeneous cross-section, such as obtained
with a ring-core comprising either annular stampings or
spiral-wound strip. Cores of the built-up type using over-
lapped butt construction exhibit an effect of two-stage
saturation, as shown in fig. 5(b). This is due to saturation
at the butt joints, where the cross-section is halved and
the flux-density is about twice that in the remainder of
the core. This results in an equivalent air-gap line before
Ratio error _n_ -(IMsin0 + IlL cos 0) 1000 total saturation is reached. Built-up cores are not often
Ip/N x 10.
used for main current-transformers, except at low vol-
Phase error y lead tage, but they are generally used for auxiliary current-
1M cos 0-IJL sin 0
radians. transformers.
Ip/N
The hysteresis loop is such that harmonics are pro-
FIG. 4. SIMPLE EXPRESSIONS FOR ACCURACY. duced due to the hysteresis-loss current, i.e. the shunt
resistance representing the iron losses is really a non-
linear resistance. In order to produce sinusoidal iron-
loss currents, the hysteresis loop would need to be ellip-
Saturation and Non-linearity of Iron tical in shape (see fig. 6). Both these effects make the
The main departure from linearity in the shunt impe- vector combination of magnetizing and loss currents
dance ZM occurs when the core flux reaches saturation. with the primary and secondary currents, as in fig. 4, an
This is accompanied by a rapid reduction of ZM and a approximate process of convenience. The inaccuracies
large increase in errors. It is important to know the involved are not great, however, and for most
secondary current at which this departure from reason- protective-gear purposes may be neglected below the
able accuracy occurs. It is often defined by Saturation region of saturation.
Factor, which is the multiple of rated current up to which
the current-transformer is accurate for a specified sec-
ondary burden. The correlation of accuracy, burden, Design-data Curves
and saturation-factor is used in B.S. 2046 as a conve- The characteristics of various typical materials used
nient method of specifying the general capabilities of a for current-transformer cores are conveniently shown in
current-transformer. the design-data curves in figs 7a, b, and c. Log/log scales

V
volts Ie

UNSATURATED REGIO~,

:=J
REGION
Ie amps

FIG. 5(a). NON-LINEARITY OF ZM'

68
 Total Saturation

I
/ ""
I Equivalent
I
I
Equivalent Air-gap line Air-gap -:.~
I

L:""''" "b""JOO",~_
FIG. 5(b). TWO-STAGE SATURATION-STACKED CORE.

are used to maintain accuracy over a wide range of Area = 19·4 sq cm

values. These curves are based on Lm.S. ampere-turns LMP = 63·5 cm
and peak flux-density at a frequency of 50 HZ and are Total secondary impedance Z = 1+7.5/60°
normally given for a sinusoidal voltage, the current and = 8.0/54°.
thus the ampere-turns containing harmonics. This is a Total secondary voltage = ZXl sec (r.m.s.)
compromise which is generally justified in practice and is = 4.44 B M A f N 10-8
referred to again in the following section on 'Basic Per- from which B M = 620 I sec lines/cm"
formance Data.' The curves are expressed in unit values where B M = Peak flux-density, and
and the separate values of magnetizing and iron-loss I sec = secondary Lm.S. current.
ampere-turns are given so that it is relatively easy to
relate them to a specific design-problem. For example,
to calculate the phase-angle error and ratio error for a
300/1 Stalloy current-transformer having LMP = 25 in, 300
a cross-section of 3 in", and a secondary-winding resis- IlL = ·212 ATlL/cm, where
tance of 1·0 ohm, assume a range of secondary currents 1M and IlL are the Lm.S. magnetizing and iron-loss
up to 20 amperes and a burden of 7·5 ohms/60°. components of exciting current.

FIG. 6. EFFECT OF HYSTERESIS ON WAVE-SHAPE OF MAGNETIZING CURRENT.

69
 o 5,...---,...----,.---,..---,..----,..------,

0'2·
E
u

c:
~
0 I
'"
~
<>
0..
E
« '05
.,;
E Grain-orientated Silicon-iron
~ '015" SPIRAL CORE

'02

~'-:--.-L~~.~
200 500 1000 2000
Peak Flux-density - Gauss
5000 10000

1.0 r - - - - - , - - - , . - - - , - - - - r - - - - , - - - , . . - - - - - - . - - ) " ! - . . . ,

o 5 r----j---t---L----.l.---.L....--+----r---b'-~-
(b) Hot-rolled Silicon-iron
'03" RING STAMPING

o2

E
u
0·1
c:

'"
~
<> 05
0..
E
«
E
cr:
'02

·01

(cj Nickel-iron (Mu-metal)

'015" SPIRAL CORE

20 200 500 I 10000

Peak Flux-density-Gauss

FIG. 7. CORE-MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS.

70
 For various values of I'e<> values of BM and thus 1M and
IlL are obtained, the ratio and phase errors then being
calculated.
The values of ratio error and phase-angle error are
shown plotted in fig. 8 for a range of currents up to 20
amperes.
By reducing the number of secondary turn from 300
to 292, the ratio-error curve would be referred to the
new axis through a (see fig. 8), and the effective error
would be reduced over most of the working range, but
would not affect appreciably the phase-angle error.
Turns compensation is used to increase the accuracy of
metering current-transformers but it is rarely necessary
for protective current transformers, although it is often
done to make these also suitable for metering.
It will be seen from the above example that the: region
of low initial permeability results in a considerable
reduction in accuracy at low currents. This region is
important in both metering and protective current-
transformers as it limits the lower value of current for
which high accuracy may be obtained.
Basic Performance Data
Performance can be predicted from a knowledge of
the design parameters, the connected burden, and the
characteristic curves of the core material, as shown in the
previous section. A production current-transformer will
generally be tested to show that it falls within a specific
class and that the predicted performance is obtained.
B.S. 81 and B.S. 2046 give details of the classes and the
tests which are normally called for.
Accuracy
Accuracy can be checked by bridge methods against
standard transformers for the required secondary bur-
dens. Such tests are usually associated with metering and
instrument current-transformers and are not normally
required for protective current-transformers.
For protective current-tranformers, a suitable ratio-
check with zero burden and rated current is usually
made to check the turns ratio, which is an important
factor in protective systems, particularly those of the
balanced type. In addition, the excitation-currents are
measured (see 'Open-circuit Excitation Curves' below)
since, in this type of application, this is considered to be
sufficient indication of the expected accuracy under
working conditions. Special ratio-tests are seldom called
for.
Internal Resistance
This also may be important in the operation of balance
systems of protection. Whilst it can usually be predicted
with sufficient accuracy, the measurement of this is done
as a routine test.
Open-circuit Excitation Curves
These are used to define the volt/ampere characteris-
tics of the shunt-impedance ZM' They may be predicted
from the basic data curves in fig. 7 and/or by actual
measurement on the current-transformer. The predicted
or measured open-circuit excitation characteristic of a
particular current-transformer may be used as a data
curve for general design-purposes, as shown in fig. 9.
The scale factors of the two coordinates are obtained
from the core dimensions and secondary turns. The
phase-angle of the exciting current and the secondary-
winding resistance are often shown on the same sheet.
The knee-point voltage (see the following sub-section)
can also be shown as it is independent of the scale
factors.

%
.... %
0
.... 0
.... 10 Secondary Current ·20A +2
UJ -I
0
.;::; +1
-2
'"
a::. -3
--:;o..c;..-------+..------=-..o;;;:--.L--i 0'
10 20A -I
-4 Secondary Current (new aXis)
-2
mins

40

L 30
g
UJ
20
~
'"
..r:::
0-
10

0 ~---l~:_t-__t-_+---,O
Secondary Current 20A

-10

FIG. 8. ACCURACY CURVES FOR WORKED EXAMPLE.

71
 R.m.s.
Volts
Volts
CSA N
Kv rr:-4 x 119
....,
~ 30 1'0
LMP
39 x
119
-N
"0
> 0·8
..to
.",
c 0'6
\\
c
0 in Material : Stalloy.
.,
u
V> 0'4 Dimensions: 4" x 51" diams x 2·k" deep.
10 Std. LMP 39 em. Std. CSA : 11·4 sq. em.
0'2 Winding 119 turns 14 S.w.g,

0 0
"0 '·5A
R.m.s. Secondary Current

FIG. 9. TYPICAL STANDARD OVERCURRENT EXCITATION CURVE.

(4)

Volts
150 .----------r----------...."."-------.-~

rl~:::~IE]
100

.,
::l""
"0
>
..to
"c:
8.,
V>
~

"
v 50
'y
.,
c:
Stalloy Core: St" x 7~" dlams )( 3' deep
a.
0
Secondary VVlndlng' 300 turns
(I) & (2) Average-reading Instruments

(3) & (4) R.m.s.-reading instruments

o .\.L----------'-----------'-----
o 50 100 150 A.T
EXCiting Ampere-turns

FIG. 10. OPEN-CIRCUIT EXCITATION CURVES USING VARIOUS TEST-METHODS.

72
 These curves are widely used for protective current-
transformers as, for a low-reactance current transformer,
they contain all the information necessary to assess
the capabilities of a current-transformer and its con-
sistency with others of the same nominal design. It is
important to appreciate, therefore, that the form of this
curve is affected by the methods of test, the instruments
used, or the basic data curves from which it is derived.
This is illustrated in fig. 10, which gives a series of
excitation curves for the same current-transformer for
different test-conditions. The first curve (1; is for aver-
age values of voltage and exciting current for applied
sinusoidal voltage. The second curve (2) is similarly for
average values but is for sinusoidal current.
Considering curves (1) and (2), the average value of
voltage, regardless of waveform, depends on the average
flux-change, which depends on maximum flux and hence
on peak magnetizing-current. Two points on these
curves, (a-a') of equal average voltage, would have the
same peak magnetizing-current. The current of curve
(1), being peaky, will have a smaller average value than
that of curve (2) and so will lie to the left.
The Lm.S. value of a quantity is very dependent on
wave-form, and this is noticeable in curves (3) and (4).
Taking the sinusoidal-voltage case (3), the Lm.S. value
of the peaky magnetizing current will be greater than its
average value but will still be less than that of the
sinusoidal current, and this curve will thus lie between
(1) and (2).
For similar values of sinusoidal current (b-b') the
average voltage being the same, the Lm.S. value of the
peaky voltage will be very much higher, raising the level
of this curve as shown. This sinusoidal current/Lm.s.
curve gives the impression of a higher saturation level.
Curves of average values are shown because many
average-reading instruments of the rectifier type are in
general use, these being scaled in terms of 1· I times
average value, which gives the true r.m.s. value only for a
sine wave.
It should be noted that all the curves coincide in the
unsaturated region because both current and voltage are
approximately sinusoidal.
The curve normally used for protective gear is No. (3)
i.e. sinusoidal voltage with r.m.s. reading instruments,
and most design-data curves, e.g. those in fig. 7 and fig.
9, are given for this condition. This is valid in most
applications of low-impedance schemes with linear bur-
dens since the secondary current, and thus voltage, is
nearly sinusoidal. For high-impedance schemes the vol-
tage may become very peaky on internal faults and curve
(4) is more applicable. However, this is not gen~ral1y
used even for high-impedance systems, the addItional
voltage obtained being considered .as an add~tional
safety-factoL In any case, the validity of using a curve
would depend upon whether the relay used is responsive
to Lm.S. values or average values.
Knee-point Voltage
The transition from the unsaturated region to the
saturated region of the open-circuit exitation charac-
teristic is a rather gradual process in most of the core
73
SO%i
IO~.v
KNEE POINT
o
>
u
a
Exciting Current
FiG. 11. KNEE-POINT VOLTAGE.
materials except, perhaps, mumetal. It is difficult to
define this transition, and use is made of the so-called
'knee-point' voltage for this purpose. It is generally
defined as the voltage at which a further 10 per cent
increase in volts requires a 50 per cent increase in
excitation-current as shown in fig. 11. For most applica-
tions, it means that the current-transformer can be con-
sidered as approximately linear up to this voltage. This
voltage does not necessarily correspond to that given by
the saturation factor and its associated burden, but will
be of the same order.
Special Requirements for
Protective Current-transformers
Instruments and meters are required to work accurately
up to currents of the order of full load only. Accuracy is
not rquired above this and saturation may, in fact, be
advantageous in limiting the overload imposed on a
secondary burden. Saturation could therefore take place
at secondary currents above about 150 per cent of nor-
mal rating but, in many cases, it will be considerably in
excess of this because of the iron section needed to
obtain the required accuracy. This is not necessarily so
when high-permeability core-materials are used.
Protective gear, on the other hand, is concerned with a
wide range of currents from fault-settings to maximum
fault-currents which may be many times normal rating.
While larger errors may be permitted in protective
current-transformers it is extremely important that sat-
uration should be avoided whenever possible in order to
eliminate gross errors. The widely differing require-
ments of current-transformers for instruments and for
protection usually mean that it is advisable to provide
separate transformers for these two duties. In smaller
classes of switchgear, however, economic limitations
may require that instruments, such as ammeters, are
energized from the protective current-transformers.
An acknowledgement of the special requirements of
protective current-transformers is given by B.S. 2046,
which is concerned with the specification of current-
transformers for non-balance systems of protection.
B.S. 81, for Instrument Transformers, is under-going
revision and may in future utilize some of the methods of
specifying performance given in B.S. 2046. It should be
noted that B.S. 2046 is concerned with current-
transformers for protective systems such as overcurrent,
earth-fault, and distance. In the latter case, special con-
sideration may be necessary for high-performance
high-speed distance. The requirements associated with
balance systems of protection are so various and so
dependent upon the particular protective system that it
has not yet been considered advisable to attempt to
standardise this type of current-transformer. However,
the methods of specifying and defining output used in
B.S. 2046 are applicable to current-transformers for
balance systems and are to be preferred to those used in
B.S. 81. In addition to the current-transformer tests
specified in B.S. 2046, balance systems of protection
would require conjunctive testing of some form either as
type-tests or individual proving-tests.
Choice of Secondary Rating
Though B.S. 81 and B. S. 2046 give a preferred value of
rated secondary current of 5 amperes they permit a
I-ampere or O· 5-ampere level to be used where (a) the
number of secondary turns is so low on a 5-ampere
winding that the ratio cannot be adjusted within the
requisite limits by the addition or removal of one turn,
and (b) the length of the secondary connecting-leads is
such that the burden due to them, at the higher secon-
dary current, would be excessive.
Requirement (a) may be largely associated with met-
ering applications, as the precise transformation-ratio of
protective current-transformers is not particularly
important so long as the current-transformers are all the
same. It has already been pointed out that the number of
secondary turns can have a marked effect on the
capabilities of a current-transformer both in respect to
Volts
150
'"
~ 100
o
>
300
FIG. 12.
accuracy and to saturation-factor. As most current-
transformer specifications seem to favour the 5-ampere
level and as the I-ampere level is often preferable from
protection design considerations, it is worth while
reviewing the significance of the secondary level in more
detail.
As previously pointed out, the main requirement
associated with protective current-transformers is that
they should maintain their ratio with a prescribed accu-
racy for primary currents greatly in excess of the rated
current. This factor is important in both slow-speed and
high-speed protective systems and in both balance and
non-balance systems. For slow-speed balance systems
the required saturation-factor is determined largely by
the steady-state stability conditions, but a much higher
saturation-factor will generally be required for high-
speed balance-systems due to the transient fluxes occur-
ring in the current-transformers under fault-conditions.
In some high-speed non-balance systems, such as dis-
tance protection, transient effects may have to be taken
into account and similarly high saturation-factors will
thus be needed.
This requirement of high saturation-factor has
become an important aspect of modern protective-
systems. The level of performance required of
protective-systems has increased and system conditions
have become more severe. In order to achieve adequate
protective-systems it has been necessary to reduce the
VA requirements to as Iowa value as possible and, in
some cases, to a value which is low compared with the
internal burden of the current-transformer and the
external lead burden.
With these considerations in mind, for high-speed
low-VA protective gear a I-ampere secondary level is
very desirable except for those current-transformers
having primary ratings sufficiently high to give the
required saturation-factor with a 5-ampere secondary.
At these higher primary ratings the physical problem of
RCT= In. (at 300A)
600A
Primary Rating
I-AMPERE SECONDARY.
74
 Winding drop
Volts
150
r--_.. .====~~==========
100
o
>
c Saturation Factor = 30
o
.;:;
~
..
~
Vl
50
Relay volts
o 300
FIG. 13.
winding I-ampere secondaries would, in any case,
favour a 5-ampere secondary. The following analysis
may help to bring out the particular problems involved
in choosing the secondary level.
Fig. 12 shows the saturation-voltages plotted against
primary rating (and thus secondary turns) for a bar-
primary current-transformer of core-section 'a' and sec-
ondary rating of 1 ampere. Also plotted are the various
voltage-drops, which would occur at a multiple of the
primary rating, given by the saturation-factor. Typical
values are given from which it is seen that, for a primary
rating of 300 amperes and a saturation-factor of 30, a
core-section of 3 square inches would be required. For a
600-ampere primary-rating the core-section required
would be 2 square inches, since the required saturation-
voltage is only 50 per cent greater and there are twice as
many secondary turns.
Fig. 13 shows the equivalent ca~e for a 5-ampere
secondary rating, the VA in the winding and load being
the same, but the lead burden being kept at the same
ohmic value.
It can be seen that, in order to give the same
saturation-factor, a core-section of about 7 times that
used in the I-ampere current-transformer would be
required. Such a current-transformer would be difficnlt
to accommodate and would often be impracticable. In
many cases it would be necessary to accept a current-
transformer with a much smaller saturation-factor in
order to permit accommodation.
One of the points often quoted in favour of the
5-ampere secondary level is that it does not give rise to
such high peak-voltages when the current-transformer is
open-circuited. This is not always so if the lead burden is
significant and if the same saturation-factor is provided
in both cases. In fact, in the cases shown in figs 12 and 13,
a higher open-circuit peak-voltage is possible with the
RL= I Jl
o·oaJ1.
Ro=0·04J1. (at 300A)
600A
Pri mary Rat; ng
5-AMPERE SECONDARY.
5-ampere secondary level as shown below.
Peak open-circuit voltage for I-ampere sec.
VI = Kalp.n.
Peak open-circuit voltage for 5-ampere sec.
V s = K7alp.n/5
where K and ex are constants for given core-material,
and n is the number of turns of a I-ampere secondary.
VS/V I = 1·4.
Some Steady-state Problems
Fault Settings
In applying protective gear, it is important to be able to
assess the primary fault-setting in relation to the
minimum level of fault-current to be expected. This is
relatively easy in relay-systems where the reflected
relay-impedance is small compared with the effective
value of ZM, the shunt exciting impedance, as it will be
sufficiently accurate to refer the actual relay setting-
current to the primary by the turns-ratio of the feeding
current transformer. Such conditions will probably
apply to overcurrent relays, some earth-fault relays, and
some low-impedance differential relays. The value of
relay-impedance may not be low compared with exciting
impedance, however, in the case of low-set earth-fault
relays, high-impedance differential relays, and low-
impedance differential relays in protective-systems
where there are many current-transformers connected
in parallel. Where this arises, the primary fault-setting
must be obtained by referring the vector addition of total
exciting-current and secondary relay-current to the
primary by the turns-ratio as shown in fig. 14.
The above general calculation will be sufficient for
most cases, but it is applicable to a given ratio of
current-transformer and a given relay-setting. It some-
75
 Simple Case of Two Current-transformers in Balance
The simple case of two current-transformers and a
differential relay is shown in fig. 18. The separate equi-
valent circuits of the two transformers are connected as
shown for through-fault conditions where tQe primary
currents 'in' and 'out' are equal. This equality will exist
on the secondary level, provided the turns-ratio of the
transformers is the same, and the return current-paths
may be omitted, a simplified equivalent circuit being
obtained as shown.
It can be seen that the relay is connected across a
Ip N( 1/+ 4~)' bridge formed by the burdens and the exciting impe-
I' Secondary output of feeding current-transformeJ, dances. The condition for no unbalance current is given
by R]/R z = ZMdZMZ' It is thus possible to obtain
-> ->\
( IR + 3 IE . theoretical balance for differing current-transformer
designs and loading by satisfying this requirement. This
FIG. 14. FAULT-SETTINGS. condition is only true when ZMl and ZMZ have similar
phase-angles.

times happens that the best choice of these parameters

has to be made in the design stages to give a minimum
primary fault-setting. [piN
In the first case, many relays such as overcurrent and Is
earth-fault have a range of settings obtained by provid-
ing a tapped operating-coil. The VA burden at the
relay-setting will remain constant, but the ohmic burden
will vary and so will the accuracy of the current-
transformer if its design is fixed. The primary fault-
setting will be given, as shown in fig. 15, by the vector
Ip/N Is + IE
sum of exciting current and relay current. Expressing
primary setting as a function of relay-setting will give: VA IS(ZMIE)

I p = N«VA/ZMIs) + Is) Ip/N Is + .',1A .

ZMIs
The minimum value of Ip is given when VA/ZMI s = Is FIG. 15. FAULT-SETTING:
i.e. when the exciting current and relay current are FIXED CURRENT-TRANSFORMER
equal.
RATIO. CONSTANT RELAY - VA.
This is shown in fig. 16 for the case when the phase-
angles of ZM and ZR are equal. When the phase-angles
I
are unequal the same condition, i.e. ZM! = !ZRI ' gives a
minimum primary-setting but the vector sum of the two
currents must be taken.
Another problem is the case where the turns-ratio of
the current-transformer is variable and the relay-setting
is fixed, as shown in fig. 17. A similar condition,IzMI =
I ZRI, is required for minimum primary-setting, the
turns-ratio being chosen to satisfy this relationship.

Steady-state Balance
The value of unbalance current in the relay-circuit of a
balanced group of current-transformers carrying
steady-state through-fault current is important in slow-
speed systems of protection as it will determine the
upper limit of stability. Even where care is taken to avoid VA
saturation, some unbalance is to be expected where ZMIs
current-transformers of different design or loading are
used. The equivalent circuit is particularly useful in Is
obtaining an estimate of the unbalance which will result FIG. 16. VARIATION OF FAULT-SE1TING
with a particular arrangement. WITH RELAY-SETTING.

76
 Is

ZMcxNZ kNZ
IpjN Is + IE
I + ISZR
S kNz

Ip IS(N+;~)
For minimum Ip
ZR
N
kN
i.e. ZR=kNz=ZM.
FIG. 17. MINIMUM FAULT-SETTING: FIXED RELAY-SETTING, VARIABLE CURRENT-TRANSFORMER RATIO.

When RdR z and ZMljZMZ are not equal, it is possible
to calculate fairly easily the resulting unbalance current.
Using Thevenin's theorem the voltage across the relay
circuit, when this is open-circuited, is determined. The
unbalance current is calculated by applying this voltage
to the relay impedance and exciting impedances as
shown in fig. 19. It should be noted that, for accuracy,
ZMl and ZMZ are complex values, but some simplifica-
tion is possible if they are of the same phase-angYe.
In this type of calculation it is normally sufficiently
accurate to assume that the impedances ZMl and ZMZ are
linear, and some average values for these are obtained
from the excitation curves in accordance with their
respective approximate working levels.
Principle of Magnetic Balance
It can be seen from fig. 18 that, if the value of ZMZ is
small compared with 2Mb the value of R z must be made
small compared with R I . The limit of R! will be when
there is no external lead burden and it be~omes equal to
the winding resistance. This value of R z may be still too
large for balance and to eliminate it from the relay
connection an additional winding is provided on
current-transformer 2 so that, in the equivalent circuit,
the relay may be considered as being connected across
ZMZ as shown in fig. 20. The approximate expression for
out-of-balance current is also shown. For small unbal-
ance ZMZ must be kept small with respect to 2Mb which
is an advantage in tranformer protection where the
high-voltage current-transformer is usually much
inferior to the low-voltage one.
This particular arrangement can be considered in
terms of the ampere-turns on the inferior current-
transformer. The secondary current of the good
current-transformer is sufficiently accurate to supply
secondary ampere-turns to the inferior current-
transformer which almost balance the primary ampere-
turns. The small unbalance does not result in appreci-
able output, because of the low value of ZMZ' This
approach leads to the name "Magnetic Balance."
Single-phase Balance of Multi-terminal Group
The use of equivalent circuits can be extended to the
case of a number of current-transformers in a balance
group under divided through-fault conditions as shown
in fig. 21. When the exciting impedances and lead bur-
dens are different the calculation is tedious although it
involves simple circuit-calculations.
In most cases, some simplification is possible. For
example, if all the current-transformers are of the same

N N

[p [p

FIG. 18. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR SIMPLE CURRENT-BALANCE.

77
 Interposing Transformers
The transformers can be inserted into the equivalent
circuit as shown in fig. 24, and calculations of unbalance
are possible though more laborious than in the simple
case. Generally speaking, their inclusion should be
avoided unless essential to some feature of the protec-
tive system, wither as a summation-transformer or to
change the level of current. There is usually some
minimum required core-volume relative to the main
current-transformer volume and this will depend on the
particular duty. They have a special application in some
modern systems of protection where the burden of the
relay equipment is low compared with the lead burden.
By reducing the current level and mounting the interpos-
ing transformers close to the main current-transformers
the overall burden may be reduced and better perfor-
mance obtained with a relatively small interposing trans-
former. In fig. 25 this condition would be given as fol-
v Vca-Vcb lows:
Ip Voltage required from main current-transformer
Vca "- N' Rl (ZMl ) }Rl)
without interposing transformers
Vcb J'_ Ip (Rl +R2) Z =IpIN (R 1 +R 2)
N' (ZMl +Z102)' MI
Voltage required from main current-transformer with
Ip RIZM2-R2ZMl
v £" -N'-'-ZMI + ZM2 interposing transformer
= IplN (R 1 +R 2/n 2 +2r).
Voltage required from secondary of interposing trans-
former = IplNn (R z+rn 2 ).
The relative values of Rio R z, and r will determine
FIG. 19. SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION whether any advantage is gained from fitting interposing
OF UNBALANCE CURRENT. transformers. It should be noted, however, that if it were
practicable to obtain the overall ratio of Nn on the main
current-transformer itself, this would be the better
design and loading the equivalent circuit is reduced to arrangement.
that shown in fig. 22 and it can be seen that balance is
obtained assuming the exciting impedances are linear. Steady-state Saturation
This would not be strictly correct and the calculation
should be made taking the mean values of ZM from the The Importance of A voiding Saturation
exciting curve according to the respective working levels When the primary current and secondary burden are
as shown in fig. 23. The divided fault condition, how- such that the required secondary voltage is in excess of
ever, is normally capable of being reduced to the simple the knee-point voltage, a current-transformer will pro-
form of two current-transformers in balance, making the duce a secondary current of distorted waveform. This
calculation of unbalance a simple matter. secondary current will contain a high proportion of odd

FIG 20. SlMPLE ARRANGEMENT OF MAGNETIC BALANCE.

78
 [p/3 [p/3

R.
[p/N ~-;;--J\NV'v-- ......----lp/3 N
_·---,.----JV..,.,..--r-----,~--'ffl'--_--__+-- [p/3 N
"'--"N\...... ---+---+-_ [p/3N

FIG. 21. CURRENT-BALANCE WITH MORE THAN TWO CURRENT-TRANSFORMERS-DIVIDED FAULT.

.r-"""R...,.... ---~ Ip/3N

·--r-"""'V---..,..----r:-""".,.....-~--__+-- ... ·[p/3 N
L-"\",.,~--__t---t_. \p/3 N

FIG. 22. SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT-DIVIDED FAULT.

R R/3

FIG. 23. DIVIDED FAULT. ALLOWANCE FOR MEAN VALUE OF ZM'

79
 N N
Ip_/N~n,--,.-~",R",'n"".--_-.._..J'I"'Rrv,"-_-.._.J\JR"l"'-_ _r--JvR."nv'\.-_-r_I;LN n
FIG. 24. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT INCLUDING
INTERPOSING TRANSFORMERS.
harmonics, will have a larger ratio-error, and may have
zero-points considerably displaced from those of the
primary current. Such steady-state saturation must, in
general, be avoided up to the maximum value of
through-current in balanced and phase-comparison sys-
tems of protl~ction. In high-speed protective systems the
requirements for transient conditions, discussed later,
automatically cater for this. In non-balance systems the
results of saturation, while not so serious, still require
some consideration. The harmonic content and limita-
tion of output may modify time/current characteristics
of overcurrent relays, directional relay characteristics,
and the accuracy of distance protection.
As with any non-linear system, calculation of the
effects of steady-state saturation is not simple. It is not
often that exact computation is required or justified, and
as the effects will depend on the type of circuits and
relays connected to the secondary winding actual test
and observation are generally necessary.
However, an understanding of the mechanism of
steady-state saturation is worth-while and the following
sections describe the effects obtained with simple secon-
dary loads of resistance, reactance, and capacitance.
Saturation with Capacitive Burden
The combination of capaCIty and non-Imear induc-
tance is known to produce complex waveforms through
the action of what is known as "ferro-resonance." The
solution of these problems is difficult, even with the
simplification of two-stage excitation characteristics.
The general shape of the waveform is as shown in fig. 29
where it appears derived from graphical analysis and fig.
31(c) which reproduces the actual oscillograms, 9 and
10. Oscillogram 10 shows some general agreement with
the graphical result but the interesting feature about it is
80
that the violent distorti.on takes place at a current about
half the value corresponding to saturation in the previ-
ous two cases. This is because the non-linearity in the
open-circuit impedance of the current-transformer is
such that the incremental inductance in gradually reduc-
ing at flux densities above half the saturation-level.
Ferro-resonance causes the cyclic peak of current-
distortion at such levels, this current-peak being due to
the flux level in the inductance being driven beyond its
normal level, giving saturation and consequent dis-
charge of the capacitor through this saturated induc-
tance. In the oscillgrams shown, the distortion is of rela-
tively short duration and the waveform recovers to nor-
mal. The results given by the graphical analysis are for
conditions of high current for which saturation could be
normally expected. Because of the risk of resonance and
distortion, the use of a capacitive burden is not common.
Where it is used, care must be taken to design to much
lower values of maximum flux-density than would nor-
mally be acceptable. There are other problems associ-
ated with capacitive burdens in relation to transient
response which make them undesirable.
I:n
rn'
N
FIG. 25. INTERPOSING TRANSFORMER
AND LEAD BURDEN.
 Ie with L,
Ie with L,
Is
-Is ~.-
t = 01
I
I
I L, 1 L,
FIG. 26. GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION SHOWING SATURATION WITH RESISTIVE BURDEN
(FINITE SLOPE IN SATURATION).
Peak-voltage on Open-circuit or High-resistive Burden
The peak-voltages developed in the secondary wind-
ing do not generally present any problem provided that
saturation does not take place. In recent years, however,
attention has been given to the risk of high peak-voltages
in current-transformers which have been inadvertently
open-circuited on load or, under fault-conditions, in
current-transformers which feed high-impedance relays.
In both cases, considerable saturation takes place with
consequent high peak-voltages. These are usually more
of a problem in modern high-performance current-
transformers, particularly those of the post-type, with
multi-turn primaries.
For the conditions referred to, the peak primary
ampere-turns are greatly in excess of the ampere-turns
required to saturate the core. In the simple case, neglect-
ing secondary load and iron losses, a pulse of voltage of
- TIME
L,
high value and short duration will occur as the primary
ampere-turns cross the zero, from the negative to posi-
tive saturation-levels and vice versa as shown in fig. 30.
If the saturation-level of ampere-turns is small com-
pared with the peak primary ampere-turns, the peak
value of voltage will be directly proportional to the peak
primary ampere-turns, since the primary current has an
approximately constant slope in this region. Oscillogram
11 (fig. 32) shows this waveform for a low-loss mu-metal
core but it will be noticed that the pulse of voltage is
displaced from the primary current-zero and has dissimi-
lar leading and trailing edges. This is due to the effect of
the hysteresis loop. Fig. 32 shows a construction which
takes this into account and which agrees closely with the
flux and voltage waveforms shown in oscillogram 11. It
can be seen that the hysteresis effect does not materially
reduce the value of peak-voltage.
81
 Is

Js I,

FIG. 27. SATURATION WITH RESISTIVE BURDEN (ZERO SLOPE IN SATURATION).

IplN

JJ
'IB

L LB
Ip/N

Ip/N
t

FIG. 28. SATURATION WITH REACTIVE BURDEN (ZERO SLOPE IN SATURATION).

82
Saturation with Resistive Burden
The effect of saturation when the burden is a pure
resistance is shown by the graphical analysis of a simple
case (see fig. 26) and by the oscillographic records 1-4
(see fig. 31). The waveforms of secondary current and
exciting current in fig. 26 are obtained by assuming a
two-stage excitation curve for the current-transformer
with constant slopes in both the saturated and unsatu-
rated regions. The analysis is started at any point in time
and the circuit conditions are changed when the exciting
current passes through the values corresponding to the
onset of saturation. With this type of change, a connect-
ing exponential transient involving the magnetizing
inductance and the secondary resistance must be
included at each change. The transient in the unsatu-
rated region is assumed to be long and is approximately
equivalent to a constant offset in the exciting current. In
the saturated region, the transient is of short duration.
Prospective
Is
-Is-I--
,~o~
t'
I
FIG. 29. SATURATION WITH CAPACITIVE BURDEN (ZERO SLOPE IN SATURATION).
A simplification is obtained if the slope of the excita-
tion curve is assumed to be zero in the saturated region.
The transient when changing into the daturated region
then disappears. The resulting waveshape is shown in
fig. 27.
It can be seen from the analysis and the oscillograms
of progressively increasing primary current that the dis-
tortion resulting from saturation is generally in the form
of a loss of the trailing part of the half-cycles of secon-
dary current. This gives rise to a general loss of output,
considerable harmonic content, and a possible large shift
in the zeroes of the secondary current. This latter effect
is especially important with respect to phase-comparison
systems of protection. It is sometimes wrongly assumed
that such protection is more immune from the effects of
saturation than differential protection. This, as can be
seen, is not necessarily the case.
-- TIME
-;+0
-I., Jp/N.
.-
~
181
83
 .. Current, Ip=",It

ls......--+~~- - - - - - - - --'''''---
_____ +-_~_ TIME..-

B-H Curve '"

V = -k",I -JIo._--J

FIG. 30. OPEN-CIRCUIT PEAK-VOLTAGE, IGNORING LOSSES.

Saturation with Inductive Burden
Similar analytical methods may be used in the case of
an inductive burden, the exciting current having a differ-
ent phase-relationship from that of the resisitive case.
Again, connecting transients are required but in this case
the time-constant in the saturated region will not be
zero, but will be determined by the Z/R ratio of the
burden and the current-transformer-winding resistance.
The resulting contruction is shown in fig. 28 and it can be
seen that the secondary current does not drop to zero
when the current-transformer saturates, but is main-
C.T. and
Load Data Jp = 125
tained with a slow decay by the inductance of the load.
Successive oscillograms of increasing primary current
are shown in the oscillograms 5-8 (see fig. 31) which line
up with the graphical waveform. It can be seen that the
effect of saturation, in this case, is to lose the peaks of the
secondary-current waveform, leaving zeroes relatively
unchanged. Phase-comparison systems would be less
affected by saturation of this type than differential sys-
tems. This is useful in some phase-comparison systems
where the main secondary burden may be largely reac-
tive due to the use of sequence networks.
Ip ~ 250 1p ~ 500 Ip = 1000

0
N = 300
50.,

(a) Resistive Burden.

Ip 00 125 Ip ~ 250 (p ~ 500 jp = 1000

(]
N ~ 300
50,.,

(b) Reactive Burden.

Ip~ 60 Ip ~ 125

b
N ~ 300
50,.,

(c) Capacitive Burden.

FIG. 31. eRO records showing effects of steady-state saturation.

(Primary and secondary current-traces superimposed).

84
 -TIME

B-H Loop

FIG. 32. OPEN-CIRCUIT PEAK-VOLTAGE, ALLOWING FOR HYSTERESIS.

In most practical cases, the effect of eddy-current
iron-loss or secondary resistive-loading must be taken
into account. As the eddy-current loss can be rep-
resented by a shunt resistance in the equivalent circuit,
its effects will be the same as a secondary loading resis-
tance. Fig. 33 gives the mathematical and graphical solu-
tion to this problem. It can be seen that the transient
generated in the shunt reactance and loading resistor
slows down the rate-of-change of flux, alters the
waveform of the secondary voltage, and reduces it peak
value. Analysis for various values of resistance shows the
dependence of the time-constant, and thus the peak
value of voltage, 'on the resistance; but the area of the
secondary voltage-wave remains substantially constant,
as one would expect. Oscillogram 12 (fig. 33) shows the
practical results obtained by loading the secondary wind-
ing with various values of resistance, starting initally
with the open-circuit condition of oscillogram 11 in fig.
32.
The effect of the eddy-current iron-loss is to give an
expression for peak-voltage as follows:
v= Kl~
The value of K depends on the core dimensions, lamina-
tion thickness, type of material, etc. B also depends on
some of these but it is 'generally a fractional index rang-
ing from about 0·4 to 0·6.
Design-data curves have been evolved to enable
peak-voltages to be estimated with corrections for
external resistive loading, but there is still some disag-
reement between the calculated figures and the test
figures. Practical testing of transformers is difficult as it
is necessary to preserve a sinusoidal waveform on the
primary and this requires high-power test-supplies. Cal-
culation methods are of considerable value, therefore,
and work is going on to improve their accuracy.

Differential Equation:
dimidt + rx i m = rx w It
Solution:
.
1m =
I
w t- ocI[ 1_ e -rx(t + to)]
W

iR = i-i m

= ---"'-.! [ -rx(t + to)]

rx I-e

FIG. 33. PEAK-VOLTAGE WITH HIGH-RESISTANCE SHUNT.

85
CHAPTER 5 Effects of Transients in Instrument
Transformers
By F. L. HAMILTON.
INTRODUCTION
Curren~-transformers and voltage-transformers play an
important part in the operation of modern power-
systems. They provide the link over which information is
derived from the main high-voltage system for the pur-
pose of measurement, control, and protection. Meas-
urement and control are generally concerned with the
longer-term steady-state conditions and transients will
not be of any great significance.
Protective equipments, particularly the modern high-
speed types, are concerned with instantaneous condi-
tions. The performance of current-transformers and
voltage-transformers is therefore of considerable impor-
tance to protective gear at all times and particularly
under conditions of fault on the primary system. The
subject of the transient response of instrument-
transformers is therefore dealt with in this article, with
particular reference to its effect on protective gear. The
transient response will be the same in relation to instru-
ments and meters but its significance will be less.
Primary and Secondary Transients
Transient conditions are set up in the power-system
whenever it is dlstu:cbed, either by the occurrence of a
fault or by the re-arrangement of connections, for exam-
ple, by switching operations. These transient conditions
give rise to transient voltages and currents which, under
idealised concitions, should be reproduced accurately in
the secondary circuits of voltage and current transfor-
mers. Since practical voltage-transformers and current-
transformers are far from ideal, transients receive con-
siderable modification in passing through them and it is
the errors and imperfections so caused which are of
interest to protective-gear engineers.
In general, it is sufficient to consider the response of
current-transformers with respect to current-transients
on the system and of voltage-transformers with respect
to voltage-transients.
Current·transients
The main forms of current-transient which may occur
in a power-system are:
(a) D.C. components of exponential form such as
those which are produced at the start of fault
conditions (see fig. 1.). Similar currents can be
produced under load conditions by the switching
of reactive circuits.
(b) High-frequency oscillatory currents caused by
switching operations or restriking conditions in
circuit-breakers.
The latter type of transient is generally of short dura-
tion and is not of major significance to the secondary
equipment. D.C. components, however, are of relatively
86
long duration and impose onerous conditions on
current-transformers and are thus of considerable
importance. The emphasis in this article is therefore
given to this type of current-transient.
Voltage-transients
Transients in voltage wave-forms can occur due to
primary faults or to switching operations. They are gen-
erally of the form of a step-function representing a sud-
den change in voltage and may be accompanied by high-
frequency oscillations due to the reactance and capaci-
tance of the primary circuit. Again, these oscillations are
of relatively short duration and are not of great signifi-
cance to secondary apparatus. In some cases, where the
phase-angles of lines and power-system components are
not equal, the flow of d.c. exponential fault-current can
give rise to d.c. exponential voltages and these may have
to be taken into consideration. Fig. 2 shows how those
d.c. voltages may occur under fault-conditions.
Secondary transients
Besides the secondary reproduction of the primary
transient, secondary transients may be generated in the
internal and external circuits of instrument transformers
under rapidly changing conditions. These secondary
transients may be extremely important and will depend
upon the design parameters of the transformer and the
nature of connected secondary burden.
Reproduction of Transients in
Voltage-transformers
Voltage-transformer devices at present in use are of
two main types:
(a) A conventional transformer having primary and
secondary windings and a magnetic circuit of high
permeability.
(b) A capacitor-transformer device using a capacitor
voltage-divider, a tuned circuit, and an auxiliary
transformer of conventional type.
The two types are widely different in their characteris-
tics and respond to transients in different ways. The
response of the capacitor voltage-transformer (CVT) is
of considerable importance since this type of trans-
former is being applied almost universally at system-
voltages of 132kV and above.
Transient response of wound voltage-transformers
The transient response of wound voltage-
transformers is generally good, and the secondary
reproduction of the transient primary wave-form is sub-
stantially correct.
 Ils Xs - COMPONENTS OF SOUIlCE IMPEDANCE UP TO
IlELAY POINT
ilL XL-COMPONENTS OF IMPEDANCE BETWEEN IlELAY AND FAULT

t_
-1.
~'AXIMUM PRIMARY TRANSIENT CURRENT ~I. T

T co EFiLCTIVE PR:MARY TIME CONSTANT ~ (X~ + X~)

• w( S + L)

INITIAL VALUE OF CURRENT -R

V
( S + RLl
[J I ,w1 22 1
T •

FIG 1. PRIMARY D.C. EXPONENTIAL CURRENT TRANSIENT.

In general, the design requirements for normal (d) Recovery of voltage from the fault voltage to
steady-state accuracy are low winding resistance and normal system-voltage- which occurs when the
leakage reactance compared with the connected burden. fault is cleared by operation of circuit-breakers.
These, together with relatively low working flux- (e) A d.c. exponential voltage which may occur
densities tend to minimise the problems of transient under (c) if the system impedances have different
reproduction. A detailed analysis is not often necessary, time-constants.
but some general consideration of the effects is of inter-
est.
The most common primary transients likely to be
impressed up on a voltage-transformer are caused as Transient voltage at R :;:. v
dt
follows:
- t [ XL (RS ' RL)]
(a) Energisation or de-energisation of the trans- SolVIng, y Ie T RL - ----:--
(XS ; XL)
former at normal voltages- equivalent to a cir-
cuit being switched in or out. Ie
-.1 [mRL -
T
RS ]
• where m
(b) Sudden increase of voltage to a value above nor- m -. I
mal. This can occur on a system with insulated or For one important case RS ~ a
resistance-earthed neutral with voltage- Vo SL V. _m_ _ . ~.
transformers connected between line and earth. (m + 1)2 XL
(Increased voltage is V3 time normal). ThiS gives a maximum Initial value of v when m = I,
(c) Collapse of voltage from normal system-voltage
to fault voltage. This happens when a fault occurs
on the primary system, the fault voltage depend-
Ie. Xs XL [RL usually being small with respect to XL l
ing on the system constants and the type and
position of the fault. FIG. 2. D.C. EXPONENTIAL VOLTAGES.

87
 Vs

OFF~
SWITCH ON SWITCH

'm

rp

< > - /--/VV\N'--~---""'---<:>

L R - - ; . - Vs

c;- / - L_ _- - - J L - - - - - o

[r << R]

Note If voltage collapses due to fault, then T2 ~ TI

FLUX

V2
(N.B. V
2
TRACE
INVERTED)
(a) (b) (c)

FIG. 3. SWITCH-ON AND SWITCH-OFF TRANSIENTS (WOUND YOLTAGE-TRANSFORMERS- LINEAR CASE)

WITH TYPICAL OSCILLOGRAPH RECORDS, A, B, AND C.

88
 In the case of switching-in a voltage-transformer, the
transients are similar to those in power transformers, the
main transient appearing as an exponential
magnetising-current, with possible consequent doubling
of peak flux-density at the start of the transient. The
output voltage is not unduly affected and, with the small
frame-sizes of such transformers, the transient time-
constants are fairly short being of the order of one or two
seconds. At the switch-off point the magnetising current
will decay exponentially through the connected burden
and iron loss resistance, and will produce a small d.c.
ouput-voltage depend on the relative values of magnetis-
ing current and load current. The basic forms of the
switch-on and switch-off transients are shown in fig. 3
together with typical oscillographic records a, b, and c. If
a voltage-transformer were designed to work at rela-
tively high flux-densities similar to those of a power-
transformer, some distortion of output wave-form
would take place due to transient saturation and this
would be exaggerated further if there were initial rema-
nence in the core of the same polarity as the transient
flux rise. The increased magnetising current under such
conditions could cause appreciable volt-drops in the
primary resistance and leakage reactance, as shown
diagrammatically in fig. 4 and associated oscillograms d
and e. These results are exaggerated in order to enhance
the effects.
The effects of transient flux rise would be further
increased in the event of a rise in voltage above normal,
as in the case of an earth-fault in (b) above.
Considerable attention is given to the avoidance of
serious saturation in voltage-transformers, especially
where this might lead to non-linear resonance (ferro-
resonance) between the neutral inductance of the trans-
former and the capacity of the associated primary sys-
tem. This phenomenon was occasionally experienced
some years ago, in the circumstances shown in fig. 5.
Such conditions can lead to high over-voltage harmonics
(neutral inversion). Designing for low flux-densities and
resistance loading of secondary windings have elimi-
nated this problem.
In practical voltage-transformers, the windings have
distributed capacity to earth between layers and bet-
ween HV and LV windings. This capacity, in conjunc-
tion with the transformer reactances, can produce oscil-
latory transients at the switch-on and switch-off points in
addition to those described above. They are generally of
high frequency and short duration and are not usually
significant, although it is well to appreciate that they can
occur. Examples are shown in fig. 6 and oscillograms f
and g.
The case of reduction or restoration of voltage, during
or following a fault condition are generally similar to
those described for switch-on or switch-off. However,
when a fault occurs on the primary, the voltage-
transformer primary winding is effectively short-
circuited and the flux at the instant of fault will die away
exponentially. Rapid restoration of the voltage may
occur while this flux still exists so that some increase in
the peak flux-densities might be expected on this
account.
89
The condition of a d.c. exponential voltage on a
wound voltage-transformer is fortunately not too severe
in practice. The solution for transient secondary voltage
and magnetising current is shown in fig. 7. It can be seen
that the secondary output has an exponenital voltage in
addition to the 50 cis voltage, this transient changing
polarity at the point of maximum d.c. magnetisation.
The value of d.c. magnetisation will depend on the
power-system parameters and the secondary loading. If
typical values are inserted in the expressions derived in
fig. 7 it will be seen that the maximum d.c. flux-density is
not much in excess of, and may be even less than, the
normal steady-state peak flux density at full voltage.
With the use of normal flux densities, saturation can
usually be avoided.
Summarising, it can be said that, with the normal
designs to be expected in practice, the transient response
of wound-type voltage-transformers is very satisfactory.
The most serieous phenomenon which might occur is
that of ferro-resonance and this is generally avoided by
the use of relatively low flux-densities and as much resis-
tance loading of the secondary as is practicable, either
directly as secondary load or in the form of a loaded
tertiary-delta winding.
Transient response of capacitor voltage-transformers
The primary voltage transients to be considered are
those already described for wound voltage-transormers,
but the capacitor voltage-transformer has far more com-
plexities because it is basically a tuned circuit and can
generate transients of its own during rapidly changing
conditions. In order to consider the response of this
device, it is necessary to consider the basic circuit and its
method of operation. Fig. 8 shows the general layout
with the equivalent circuit in its reduced simple form. In
this equivalent form it can be readily seen that the
capacitor volage-transformer has the elements of a
band-pass filter. The band-width and cut-off frequencies
depend on the choice of design parameters, but with
many standard designs the power-system frequency is in
the region of mid-band. Under shock excitation, such as
occurs with sudden change of primary voltage either
under fault conditions or switching conditions, the
device will ring at two frequencies, one below the supply
frequency e.g. 8-16 cis and the other above the supply
frequency, e.g. 200-300 cis. The former oscillations are
between the series capacity and the magnetising reac-
tance and the latter are between the series reactance and
the leakage capacitance. The magnitude of the trans-
ients will depend on the particular point-on-wave at
which the voltage change occurs. The duration of the
transients will depend on the amount of damping pres-
ent i.e. the iron and copper losses of the various compo-
nents and, in particular, the value of resistance in the
load. The most pronounced effects will be experienced
when the voltage is suddenly reduced, e.g. on the occurr-
ence of a fault, since in this case the transient may be
superimposed on a relatively small power-system vol-
tage. Under these conditions, relays such as distance or
directional relays may be modified in their performance.
The restoration to normal voltage after a fault is not
 'm
_Vp L R _v, sao
v
/
I
~ ],.k'/ 1m
Typical values used (or
analysis 3 R )00 - , S:lt

\ r-Jorm:ll pC'Jk s.s 1 m 'm -

Vp & V,

'm i m ptak
------
t
.-."

~alurated I \
; value i m /
• normal
( / (stead Y ltc1lei m
/
\ t _.i-
\
\
;'
\ / \
/

('~lle f 00 )' j~l

- -;- /~ p('zk)
- - - - ",---" -+ I
'm \ I
/ i 'vc prospective im
t ~
i m during
saturation I
~
\
/ . dun ngsa1uratlon
/

/ 1~
. </~V
\
I /
\
I /
\
i i .~. ~! ',./ ........ J

Tinle·consunt T2 in satllrated region =.::.'= IOO~. 3 ~ 0'005 sec.

FIG. 4. WOUND VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMERS-SWITCH-ON TRANSIENT WITH SATURAnON; SEE OSCILLOGRAMS D AND C.

90
 R
0---

y
0---

B
0---

EARTH

Lw EAR1H

"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
NG "-
R
EARTH
/
/'
./
./
./
./
./

The neutral earth-point is moved outside the system-voltage ~.

Note the voltage between N G and Earth is not of fundamental frequency.

Under normal condition I/Cw < < Lw, but if saturation takes place series
resonance may occur between the saturated inductance on one phase and the
capacitive inductance on the other phase, with consequent high voltages and
displacement of the neutral.

FIG. 5. NEUTRAL INVERSION-BASIC EFFECT.

91
 "
r - - - - -," ,- - - - - l
"
1
I
1

- -,- -
1

~vs
I
1
1

'p 'p
"

_v.

(f) (g)

FIG. 6. WOUND VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMERS-EFFECT OF WINDING CAPACITY (SEE ALSO OSCILLOGRAMS F AND G). THE
FREQUENCY OF THE H.F. OSCILLATION IS APPROXIMATELY THAT OF THE CAPACITY AND PRIMARY LEAKAGE REACTANCE
FOR THE CASE OF COLLAPSE AND RESTORATION OF VOLTAGE.

92
 -,
v---=voe T

T __ t Assume rs & Xs «< R.

x p < < < LW,and
T = system time-constant neglect iron loss

Let va ~ kY (see fig. 2), where Y ~ peak value of normal voltage.

-va (-~).
e T ~ 1m + L
- . dim
-d . gives
. Solved, thIS . . ~ (v- o ) ( e-~t -e-~t)
1 m ~ Q.-
rP Vp t t'-~ rp
I rp
~ ~ f' ~ ~-L' (Usually ~> > ~).
Solution for maximum value of im,
I
.,
I
m
~
kY
---
fp
( Y )I-y , were
h Y ~
~-
CI.

If ~ < < ~, i'm -> k( ~P ) 1m , where 1m ~ peak steady-state magnetising current at normal voltage.
p

For maximum case of fig. 2 and for 70 line, 0

Xs
m ~ XL ~

XL
-- tan 70° ~ 2·75
RL
TIl RL I
k (m-t-ff2 • XL n
Max. i'm ~ l!f(~:)lm = it (2:~)lm ~ 0·5 1m

Maximum d.c. excitation for example shown ~ 50% peak a.c. excitation at normal voltage.

FIG. 7. WOUND VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMERS- RESPONSE TO D.C. EXPONENTIAL.

93
 0

I
1 CH
X
N:I
y

CL

BASIC ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER

R,

em Equivalern
leakage capacity

Vln~ VOUt

FIG. 8. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER.

94
quite so significant, the transient being superimposed on
the normal working voltage.
The damping may well be an important factor and it is
better that capacitor voltage-transformers be resistance
loaded up to their rated burden in order to improve the
transient performance. Typical oscillograph records of
capacitor voltage-transormer wave-forms are shown in
fig. 9 for the various conditions of collapse and restora-
tion of voltage. Little difference is observed beween the
conditons of voltage being switched on or off and the
conditons of collapse or restoration. This is understand-
able when considering the equivalent circuits, the differ-
ence being only in the inclusIOn or omission of the high-
voltage capacitance.
In the case of the d.c. exponential primary voltage, the
device being essentially a band-pass filter will not repro-
duce the d.c. voltage very faithfully and this transient
will be attenuated very rapidly. There will, of course, be
the usual oscillatory transients at the commencement
due to the shock excitation. The response to this type of
transient is shown in record (h), the oscillogram being
taken by switching in at the fault voltage in order to
avoid confusion with transients due to collapse of vol-
tage.
The lower capacitor of a capacitor voltage-
transformer is provided with protective spark gaps
which may flash over under impulse conditions on the
primary circuit or for short-circuit conditions on the
secondary circuit. Flashover in the former case is usually
of short duration, but one may expect transients to be set
up in the capacitor voltage-transformer circuit due to
this shock and these transients are similar to those
already described. The conditions may be made more
severe by repeated shock excitation under intermittent
flashovers.
Most of the transient conditions in capacitor voltage-
transformers can produce flux densities in the step-down
transformer in excess of normal, but the condition of
flashover at the spark-gaps can produce.the most severe
increase, e.g. as high as 3 times normal. This increase,
added to possible effects due to remanence. may cause
the transformer to work in the non-linear region of its
magnetic circuit. Such conditions can give rise to trans-
ient or even sustained ferro-resonance between the
capacitance and the transformer shunt reactance, with
FAULT APPLIED
BY CLOSING S Xs Rl
;Y;--~---Iv\!#--'CIOOCI'-------'
L-
~~I~VS
~oI__~oI__
-+-_ .
95
consequent overvoltages, distortion of output voltage,
and perhaps sustained flashover on the protective gap.
Record (j) show the results of this effect which has been
deliberately exaggerated in an experimental trans-
former.
The avoidance of the above conditions is essential and
practical designs of capacitor voltage-transformers are
arranged to have low working flux-densities in both the
reactor and the transformer. Since it is necessary to
maintain as high a degree of damping in the circuit as
possible, the maximum permissible resistive burden
should be used.
WOUND
V.l.
C.V.1.
(h)
Summarising, there are far more possibilities for dis-
tortion of the secondary wave-form to occur in capacitor
voltage-transformers than in conventional wound-type
voltage-transformers. Care in design and loading can
reduce these, but the natural ringing of the circuit under
transient conditions is to be expected. The effects of such
ringing are not usually very great in practice, their dura-
tion not being very long. Where relays are used, they are
generally operated by currents derived from the secon-
dary voltages and the high-frequency transients at least
will be considerably reduced in terms of the current
produced in the reactive circuits of relays. The many
advantages of the capacitor voltage-transformer at
higher voltages, both for economy and safety reasons,
make its use desirable even when its transient charac-
teristics are somewhat inferior to that of a wound
voltage-transformer.
Xl
---J
 E.M.O. RECORDS

SWITCH ON COLLAPSE RESTORATION SWITCH OFF

FULL RESISTIVE BURDEN

ZERO BURDEN

FIG. 9. CAPACITOR VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER TRANSIENT RESPONSE.

96
Transient Response of Current-transformers
The most important transient condition 10 be consi-
dered in the operation of current-transformers is the d.c.
exponential current which generally occurs with a prim-
ary fault. In order to simplify the problem of under"tand-
ing the behaviour of current-transformers under such
conditions, it is necessary to look at (he current-
transformer in terms of its simplified equivalent circuit.
Fig. 10 shows the basic circuit of a curren [-transformer
through various stages of simplification. The final simple
circuit is possible because, in most cases, toroidal-wound
ring cores are used and the leakage reactance may be
neglected. The complete subject of current-transformer
transient performance including saturation, non-
linearities, balanced working, and the effects of various
types of burden is too large to be dealt with here, but the
basic phenomena may be brought out by considering the
secondary currents and exciting currents of a current-
transformer when working with. a simple resistive load.

SY~TEM VOLT AGE

lp ~ SYS EM IMPEDANCE

~2 is very small with respect to system impedance

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REFERRED TO SEC. LEVEL

rp x, r,

Rj

For ring-core type, further simplification gives:

r,

Rj

Fo,- transient investigation of magnetising current:

Ip/N

where R includes
winding resistance,
l R
iron loss, and burden.

Xm Shunt magnetising reactance.

Wi Iron loss resistance.
rs Secondary winding resistance.
ZL External burden.

FIG. 10. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR CURRENT-TRANSFORMERS.

97
 ~W"" (",( CAS~ PRIMARY TRANSIENT

~
1 ~ I cos Nt-Ie -xt

rt. ~ Primary time constant. ~ Secondary time-constant

dim. -(;d
dt + ~ 1m ~ I~ (COS Nt- e ),
With reasonable approximations the solution is:
im ~ I. ~-. sin Nt - I ( _~) (e -~t -e -rt.t)
Q
N rt.-i"
I I
V V
Steady-state term Transient term

(CX~1l ) I
""
"
,--
-(-~)I
OC-i!

\
,, J , \ , h, VT\ -/_/,/_1_-_,->,,,""\--/ -------------.-
. / He~dy·Slate 1m

-' I - '-'
/ \ /
\. / \ /

!.l.c. n. [~] I..c

FIG. 11. TRANSIENT MAGNETISING CURRENT (NO SATURATION).

98
Basic form of magnetizing-current
The general problem of a transient primary-input cur-
rent to the equivalent circuit is shown in fig. 11. The
primary current contains two terms, the d.c. transient
current and the a.c. steady-state current. The magnitude
and polarity of the d.c. transient will depend on the
instant of time at which the fault occurs. In the interests
of simplicity, the condition of maximum primary trans-
ient is taken. The time-constant, and thus the duration of
this transient, will depend on the effective X/R ratio of
the primary circuit. This is assumed to be fairly large, i.e.
10 or more, as is often the case in practice.
The expression for the magnetising current may be
solved and takes the form shown. The total
magnetising-current has two terms, the steady-state
term and the transient term. Some simplification and
approximations are made in order to bring out basic
principles.
The transient magnetising-current is in the form of the
difference of two exponential terms, having the same
initial value, but having different time-constants. One
has a time-constant equal to that of the primary circuit
and the other equal to that of the secondary-circuit
resistance and shunt inductance. In most cases, the latter
is long compared with the former. From this point arises
one important fact, that the transient conditions in the
current-transormer core may persist after the d.c. prim-
ary transient has disappeared. The general form of the
secondary magnetising-current, including both transient
and steady-state components, is shown in fig. 11. It will
be noticed from this that the rise of transient exciting
current is largely dependent on the primary time-
constant whereas it decays largely in accordance with the
secondary time-constant. In the simple idealised case
where the shunt inductance is linear, the flux in the
current-transformer core would be of exactly the same
form.
The form of the magnetising current and flux transient
gives the key to the transient performance of current-
transformers. If the expression is solved for the max-
imum value, it can be shown, with suitable approxima-
tions, that this value is related to the steady-state value
by the expression:
~(Iac).
Rp
As the value of Xp/Rp may be quite large, i.e. 5-30
according to system conditions, it can be seen that the
peak transient flux-density may be very much larger
than the steady-state value, and that the effective prim-
ary time-constant determines this value.
Bearing in mind the fact that the steady-state value lac
may be many times (up to 100) that which occurs under
normal load conditions, the transient condition imposes
a very high flux-density in the iron circuit of the current-
transformer, and transient saturation will be experi-
enced in many cases. The consequence of such satura-
tion will be further referred to later.
99
Basic form of the secondary current
The form of the secondary current can be obtained
readily as the difference between primary current refer-
red to the secondary level and magnetising current. This
is also in the form of a transient component and steady-
state component. The transient is again the difference
between two exponentials, one having the primary
time-constant and the other the secondary time-
constant. The initial values, however, are unequal, giv-
ing the initial transient secondary current equal to that of
the referred primary current. The general form of this
transient is shown in fig. 12. It can be seen to be gener-
ally similar to the primary current, but reduced by the
value of the magnetising current, and is of changing
polarity. The point at which the secondary transient
crosses zero corresponds to the point at which the mag-
netising current is equal to the referred primary trans-
ient current, i.e. all primary transient is expended on
exciting the core. This also corresponds to the point at
which maximum transient excitation takes place and in a
linear system, the point at which maximum transient
flux-density occurs.
The effect of inductive burden
The case of an inductive burden often occurs in prac-
tice. It can be shown that, for most practical cases, the
maximum value of transient flux-density is dependent
only on the resistive component of the secondary bur-
den. The steady-state component of flux is, of course,
dependent on the total secondary impedance. The con-
siderations given to the resistive burden are therefore
applicable. Capacitive burdens are considerably more
complex and are difficult to analyse. In most cases,
capacitive burdens are avoided because of the difficulty
of preventing ferro-resonance and they are thus not of
great practical significance.
Effect of iron saturation
As already mentioned, the high d.c. flux densities
produced under transient conditions frequently lead to
saturation of the magnetic circuit. Such saturation
causes non-linearities in the shunt inductance, which
lead to drastic modification to the linear case previously
considered.
Quantitative analysis is difficult as with most non-
linear systems, but, with certain simplifications, an
understanding of the effects may be obtained. The
greatest simplification is to assume that the shunt impe-
dance is a two-stage inductance with the characteristic
shown in fig. 13(a). This is further simplified if the
second-stage inductance is taken as zero, as in fig. 13(b).
This characteristic is approached in such materials as
mu-metal and greatly facilitates the study of transient
effects.
Fig. 14 shows, for a resistive burden, the magnetising
current and prospective fluxes under transient condi-
tions for the linear case, i.e. with no saturation, only the
 GENERAL fORM Of SECONOARY CURRENT

COSt' + I [S -~, l
fL
- I 0:- ~ e t 0:- 13 e-ex ]
ex

Steady State Transient Term

Term

1/13

TRANSIENT SEC. CURRENT

FIG. 12. FORM OF CURRENT-TRANSFORMER SECONDARY TRANSIENT OUTPUT.

d.c. component being considered. This condition WIll
exist until the magnetising current reaches the value
corresponding to saturation. At this instant the induc-
tance becomes zero and the total primary current
becomes expended on exciting the core, the secondary
output disappearing. This condition will last until the
primary transient current has reduced to the value cor-
responding to the saturation point. From this point
onwards, the core comes out of saturation and the core-
flux decays in a transient largely decided by the secon-
dary time-constant. The secondary transient in this reg-
ion is of negative polarity.
The most important aspect of the region ot saturation
of the core can only be appreciated when both the d.c.
transient component and the a.c. steady-state compo-
nent are considered together. This is shown in fig. 15, the
prospective values without saturation being shown
dotted.
The combined a.c. and .d.c. flux curve will enter the
saturation region at some point, and again all the prim-
ary input is by-passed through the saturated shunt induc-
tance. However, due to the cyclic variation in the prim-
ary input, the core will come out of saturation for some
period of each cycle. This can be appreciated by the fact

100
v v

(.) (b)

", " Ip
,
m
, , , , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ / PROSPECTIVE '

~I~.::.':...~-=-~;-------
""'"
- -------__ -----.. -....... -

FIG. 14. D.C. TRANSIENT ONLY-EFFECT OF SATURATION.

101
 Primary and Secondary currents are approximately equal

t
1
except for unshaded areas occurring when the core uturates. , 's

'p
&
's
>1'"
I
I
I~,'r\,/, I
~_ I '1/ \'--~
I I II' rI L'I
" / Prospective

Total Flux
Prospective
~ Transient Flux

I /,'
,,-~~- -j
I ~
I,' I Saturation Level

I
FLUX
Steady-

,-, ,"'-, -
,, ,, ,
/ Sute Flux

,, ,, , ,, ,
,, ,
\
, , I

---',,
I ,
:
- ,... '
---.l.
- --/ --"
,
,
I
,
-
, ,
:,
" ,
I
, I '
,
' ... _....
I
\ ' \. I ,I

'_ ... ' "'-' '- '

FIG. 15. CURRENT-TRANSFORMER TRANSIENT RESPONSE WITH SATURATION-RESISTIVE BURDEN.

that the negative loops of primary current require a Remanence

negative flux change, i.e. reducing flux. The flux will From the preceding considerations, it can be seen that
reduce from saturation for the duration of the negative transient saturation is difficult to avoid under practical
loop and again start to increase as the positive loop working conditions and that the errors and transient
commences. It is easily seen that there will be a period of distortion produced can be considerable. This is so even
non-saturation on the positive loops as shown in fig. 15, when the full range of core flux is available. The pres-
such that the area on the positive side is equal to that of ence of remanent flux in current-transformer cores can
the negative loop. The secondary output wave-form will considerably increase these problems. Ring-core
thus be distorted by loss of the output on the positive current-transformers have low reluctance cores with no
loops during the period of saturation. As the primary air-gaps and the loop characteristics are such that
transient decays, the wave-form becomes more symmet- remanant flux densities of from 6000 gauss (Stalloy-type
rical and less of the positive output is lost until eventually materials) to 8000-9000 gauss (cold-rolled grain-
the core fails to saturate. Note that it is the trailing edge oriented steel) are easily obtained. Such conditions can
of the positive loops which is lost during saturation. This occur, for instance, after a transient has been experi-
is shown also in oscillogram record (k). enced. Instead of the transient flux decaying to zero, it
With a reactive burden it can be shown, in a similar will decay to the remanent flux-density. This can remain
way, that the top part of the wave-form is lost during the in the core because the fault is cleared fairly quickly and,
saturated period. This condition is shown in oscillogram in most cases, the a.C. component of fault-current or
record (l). load-current will generate such a small minor BH loop

102
 (k)
that the remanence is not destroyed. Remanence can
exist in a core under load conditions almost indefinitely.
It will give rise to small steady-state-&rors which may be
significant to high-accuracy metering. The most impor-
tant effect, however, is in connection with a further
transient of the same polarity. The transient flux now
rises from the remanent value of flux and the effective
flux change before saturation will be much less. Satura-
tion will take place earlier and the effects will be more
pronounced. A transient of opposite polarity will, of
course, benefit from remanence and the saturation
effects be reduced.
Effects of high-frequency transients
High-frequency current transients can occur on the
primary of a current-transformer due to sudden switch-
ing, restriking, etc., where the primary system can oscil-
late between inductive and capacitive members. The
conditions are particularly pronounced in some cable-
systems. This current transient can be reproduced in the
secondary circuits and, because of the initial magnitude
of the current and the high frequency involved (e.g. 30
kc/s), high voltages may be set up in the secondary
103
circuits when reactive burdens are used. Such voltages
are of short duration due to the rapid decay of the
transient but flashovers have been experienced in the
secondary circuit, which is normally adequate for 2-kV
test. The iron-losses in the core at these frequencies are
effective in reducing the voltages somewhat but the vol-
tage may still be high compared with 2-kV.
CONCLUSIONS
From the limited considerations of transients given in
this article, it can be seen that they are of considerable
importance in relation to high-speed devices such as
relays and instantaneous measuring devices such as
oscilloscopes. The functioning of relays under transient
conditions is a problem for protective-gear engineers,
but the correct interpretation of oscillograph records
may be of wider interest. In this latter case, it is often
useful to be able to distinguish between the actual condi-
tions existing in the primary system and those effects
which may be introduced by the instrument transfor-
mers. It is hoped that this brief survey will help in both
cases.
CHAPTER 6 Transformer protection
By B. DAKERS
INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for power on distribution and
transmission systems throughout the world has resulted
in transformers of very large capacity. Whilst this has
certain economic advantages in maintenance as well as
installation and running costs, it creates the very real
danger that a transformer fault will cause a large inter-
ruption to power supplies.
In general, transformer breakdowns are relatively
few, but repair and replacement of large transformer
units means considerable expenditure and time, and
further, if faulted units are not cleared quickly and selec-
tively can cause serious damage and power system stabil-
ity problems.
Protective schemes applied to transformers thus play
a vital role in the economics and operation of a power
system. The percentage cost of protection compared
with the capital cost of the transformer being protected
is extremely small making it totally uneconomic to apply
anything less than a complete scheme of protection, to
large transformer units.
This of course is not true of smaller transformer units
where their loss may not be so important to system
operation. For these units the protection applied must
be a balance against economic considerations.
The following notes give some guidance on the protec-
tion schemes manufactured by Reyrolle Protection
Limited for application to transformers. It will be con-
cluded from these notes and published literature that
Reyrolle Protection Limited manufacture a complete
range of relays to protect transformer units.
Types of Fault and Effects
To design a protective scheme it is necessary to have an
intimate knowledge of the faults that have to be
detected.
With regard to transformers fig. 1 shows the types of
fault that can be experienced.
1. Earth fault on H.V. external connections.
2. Phase to phase fault on H.V. external connections.
3. Internal earth fault on H.V. windings.
4. Internal phase to phase fault on H.V. windings.
5. Short circuit between turns H.V. windings.
6. Earth fault on L.V. external connections.
7. Phase to phase fault on L.V. external connections.
8. Internal earth fault on L.V. windings.
9. Internal phase to phase fault on L.V. windings.
10. Short circuit between turns L.V. windings.
11. Earth fault on tertiary winding.
12. Short circuit between turns tertiary winding.
13. Auxiliary transformer internal fault.
14. Earth or phase to phase fault on L.V. connection of
auxiliary transformer.
15. Sustained system earth-fault.
16. Sustained system phase to phase fault.
Earth Faults
The following conditions must exist for earth fault
current to flow:-
A path exists for current to flow into and out of the
windings i.e. zero-sequence path.

....'1. L~. ""NOI..u;

r----------------------
WINO,...,.
------,
T&ATlAIt'{ W1N0I*,

H>I. I
I 5 12. ~O II L.V.
ell
c.ao- ~A~~l&IA1lIrl (WlSmrirJy~c..~--___1P_---(5"70l---,....-
~l 1
,- d.
~TO----.~---......!~rlRJilIIllIAlir\ 1I 0I-
lI 1
1
I
I

I
I
t.lo---...;l~_-1
IL
riti\fi~
~
I

MAlIi TIlAl\6"'O~MEIt I I
,.1tAN!a.

~
I I AuXlUAfN
I_ JI

I~

AUlCIUAIl'{ 5UfA.,~

FIG. 1. TRANSFORMER FAULTS

104
 100

NlI1TltIIL
fIlA1MIII" I
..£ItS"'" :
/
;",_,,1 D4
o ()ol 00& 0" 1-0
K.

FIG. 2b. VARIATIONOFFAULTCURRENTON DELTA AND

STAR SIDES OF TRANSFORMER FOR FAULT ON STAR
WINDING.

I.
,I.

tI

~ FIG. 2c. FAULT CURRENT MAGNITUDE AND

~
DISTRIBUTION FOR EARTH FAULT ON DELTA WINDING.

~
lU Star Connection - Resistance Earthing
.r
5:> t The fault current in this case is primarily determined
~ by the earthing resistance. The value of earth fault cur-
~ Eo
rent is directly proportional to the position of the fault in
the winding the curve being as shown in fig. 2b.
.
I-

~ 4-
~
Delta Connection - Earthing Transformer
0
t. Fault current in this case is determined by the impe-
dance of the earthing transformer windings. The dis-
tribution is as shown in fig. 2c.
0 0·2 0·4 0·" 0·8
K- The above earth fault currents, particularly in the case
of solid earthing, flow through the transformer coils
FIG. 2a. FAULT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION & MAGNITUDE causing them to try to assume a circular shape and thus
FOR EARTH FAULT NEAR STAR POINT OF A produce very high mechanical stresses which are propor-
33KV 50MVA TRANSFORMER. tional to the square of the current. In resistance earthing
the fault current is much reduced but consideration must
be given to the possibility of flashover particularly if the
That ampere turns balance is maintained between resistor is of the liquid type.
the windings.
Phase Faults
The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on the
method of earthing, i.e. solid, resistance or transformer, Phase faults have a similar effect to that of an earth
and transformer connection, i.e. star or delta. fault on a solidly earthed transformer since current is
only limited by transformcr winding impedance.
Star Connection - Solid Earthing
The distribution of fault current for this configuration Transformer Connections and Fault Current Flow
is shown in fig. 2a. It is only dependent on transformer Under fault conditions, currents are distributed in dif-
winding impedance and thus is not directly proportional ferent ways according to the winding connections. An
to the position of fault. The reactance decreases very understanding of the various fault current distribution is
quickly so that fault current is actually highest for a fault essential for the design of balanced differential protec-
near the neutral point. tion, the performance of directional relays and setting of

105
 o
3I

31

SUPPLY
-l'
o
3I

Jr

FIG. 3a. FLOW OF FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS.

overcurrent and earth fault relays. Figures 3a and 3b applying the rule that the ampere turns produced by the
show some typical examples. The current values shown fault currents flowing in the transformers secondary
are for transformers with equal phase voltages on prim- windings are balanced by equivalent ampere turns in the
ary and secondary side. The currents are devised by primary windings.

106
 r---------------I
I I I I
1-
--~I""_~OCIO
- o

SOURc.E.
o

r-- - - - ----- - - - ---I

I I
o I I 0
-....;:;;----1-"l'OCl '--+-....::.---

SoU~<:..£
I

FIG. 3b. FLOW OF FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSFORMER WINDINGS.

Having a knowledge of the various connections and
characteristics of transformers in terms of type of fault
and current expected on internal fault to give operation
and external faults to define stability limit, we can pro-
ceed to the methods employed to detect faults and the
Reyrolle Protection range of relays for this purpose.
Current Balance Principle
The differential protective schemes applied to transfor-
mers are generally based on the current balance princi-
ple of magnitude comparison of currents flowing into
and out of the transformer.
This principle can be used to protect the transformer
windings separately or as an overall unit. However, in
the latter case as we shall see later, certain refinements
are necessary.
To explain the basic principle consider a single phase
arrangement as shown in fig. 4. It will be seen that under

107
quiescent conditions, magnetizing conditions, normal
load and through fault conditions that current circulates
between the two current transformers which results in
no current flowing in realys Rl and R2. This is a stability
condition.
If we now consider an earth fault at 'X' shown in fig.
4d it is seen that the balance is disturbed and current
flows in relays Rl and R2. As fault 'X' approaches 'Z'
the transformer acts as an auto-transformer so that 12
increases and 11 decreases. The resultant current is suffi-
cient to operate the relay for all positions of 'X', and
therefore the whole of the windings can be protected
using this principle.
When the system is resistance earthed (fig. 4e) 12
decreases as 'X' approaches 'Z'. As a result the amount
of winding protected depends upon the relay sensitivity,
i.e. fault setting.
Three-phase
Extending the foregoing principle to three-phase
transformers the connections will be as shown in fig. 5.
Since both of these schemes only protect the transformer
on earth faults within the zone covered by the C.T. 's; this
scheme of protection is known as "RESTRICTED
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION". The Reyrolle Pro-
tection relay designed for this application is the type
'4B3'.
The main problem experienced in designing a current
balance scheme is ensuring stability on through faults
which cause unequal saturation of the C.T.'s during the
first few cycles after the fault initiation. This is overcome
by using a relay of high impedance, as our type 4B3,
which has a high value stabilising resistor connected in
the relay circuit.
This scheme has now been in use for many years, the
simplicity in application being that the performance of
the protection on both fault setting and stability can be
calculated with certainty. This is shown in fig. 6.
Stability
For a given through fault current (I) the maximum
voltage that can occur across the relay circuit is given by:
VR = _I_(R + X)
N
Where R = Maximum lead resistance
X = CT secondary resistance
This is based on the assumption of a worst condition
when one current transformer completely saturates and
ceases to transform any part of the primary fault current,
whilst the other CT continues to transform accurately.
If the setting voltage of the relay is made equal to or
greater than this voltage the protection will be stable for
currents up to the through fault current level used in the

PI Sl PI
.....
lIm.
PI - - 51
LOAD
P2. 52 P2. P2. S2.

RI

g.. b. c.
.
PI -
1.1

A
Y
~II
PI - LI
Y

X
l~1
P2. -
i2- t11
Z
~
....
•
'1
tzh
~
iJ...iJ.
RI
- ------ ------~

d. e

FIG. 4. PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATE WINDING CURRENT BALANCE SCHEMES.

108
calculation. The knee point voltage of the C.T.'s is This may be necessary when the CT excitation cur-
designed to be at least twice this value in order to ensure rents and relay current give a primary setting too low in
high speed operation of the relay. relation to CT steady state errors.

LINE
en I - - PRoTEafD------J
AII ZANe '6
I

0..
IyN ltyN

LvN ~
~L
(,1'
b. lb

FIG. 5a. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION -

STAR CONNECTED WINDING.

Fault Setting c..

This is given by:-
IFS = N (IR + IA + IB)
Where FIG. 6. PRINCIPLE OF MERZ-PRICE CIRCULATING-
IR = Relay circuit current at setting voltage CURRENT (OR CURRENT-BALANCE) PROTECTIVE
lA, IB = CT excitation currents at relay setting vol- SYSTEM:- USING HIGH IMPEDENCE RELAYS.
tage
N = CT ratio.
The primary fault setting can be adjusted to the level Type 483 Relay
required by adjustment of the relay circuit current using The circuitry of our type 4B3 relay is shown in fig. 7.
resistors connected across the relay circuit. The operating element is a type B61 d.c. attracted arma-
ture relay energised from a full wave rectifier. The
capacitor, in conjunction with the resistors, forms a low
pass filter circuit. The function of this is to increase the
TMlaFDN1£R. setting in relation to harmonic frequencies thus retaining
stability under high frequency currents which can be
produced in certain installations during switching. The
variable resistor R2 to R6 enables the voltage setting to
be adjusted and the non-linear resistor Ml limits the

AElAV.

-----
oP£IIIlnNC.
E1LMlJlT
TVPE-OUol ~-R------O
FIG. 5b. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION -
DELTA CONNECTED WINDING. FIG. 7. 4B3 RELAY CIRCUIT. ----..0_--
109
peak voltage output from the C.T.'s during internal fault
and so protect the secondary wiring which otherwise
may flash over and short circuit the relay resulting in
failure to trip.
Summarising: separate winding current balance
schemes are:-
(a) Unaffected by load current, external fault or
magnetizing inrush currents.
(b) Unaffected by the ratio of transformer
(c) Complete winding can be protected with solidly
earthed neutral but not when resistance earthed.
(d) Will not detect phase faults (three-phase protec-
tion) shorted turns or open circuits.
Overall Differential Protection
The current balance principle can also be applied in an
overall unit protection to cover both primary and secon-
dary windings. Fig.8 illustrates the principle in terms of
single phase. This shows that an overall scheme is
effected by magnetizing current and internal fault cur-
rent and remains balanced under normal load or through
fault current providing c.T. ratios are matched. How-
PI SI PI
P2 52 P1.
R
Q.
FIG. 8. PRINCIPLE OF OVERALL CURRENT BALANCE SCHEMES.
110
ever, any mismatch in C.T.'s will result in unbalance
current which will flow in the relay circuit. Since most
transformers are equipped with tap changing the design
of an overall scheme for three phase transformers must
take account of this mismatch under through fault condi-
tions.
Therefore, the application of an overall differential
scheme to three phase transformers requires a biased
relay to maintain stability during:-
(a) Tap Changing
(b) Magnetizing inrush conditons, when switching
transformer on or when subjected to sudden loss
of load.
In both of these cases the out of balance current
tending to flow through the relay circuit may be several
times the basic fault setting. The method employed to
ensure that the relay remains stable under the above
conditions is by means of bias windings. The application
of a biased relay is shown in fig. 9, where it will be seen
that the bias is arranged to give an operating setting
which is always greater by a suitable margin than the
expected maximum spill current. Usual practice is to
arrange the bias characteristic as a slope of at least twice
~
51 PI SI
P2 S2
b. Co.
------Q51
---+tMH---aS2
the slope of the spill current characteristic.
During internal faults the whole of the available sec-
ondary current will pass through the relay operating
circuit. Usually the secondary current will pass through
part of the bias winding so that it will produce what is
sometimes referred to as "self bias" and causes an
increase in setting. If for example the current required to
operate will be as indicated by curve 4. Relay operation
occurs at the point where curve 3 crosses curve 4.
The points to be considered in setting a biased relay
are therefore:-
(a) The graph of current required to operate under
external fault conditions must be well above the
graph of anticipated spill current. (Fig. 9b)
(b) The available operating current under internal
fault conditions must be well above the graph of
current required to operate. (Fig. 9d)
Harmonic Restraint
The second reason, already mentioned, for using a
biased relay for overall transformer protection is that
operating current may flow during a magnetizing surge.
This current is known to contain a high percentage of
second and higher harmonics. It has been found conve-
nient to use these harmonics and connect them into bias
current, thereby preventing the relay from operating
during magnetizing conditions.
One thing to be considered with "harmonic bias" is
that harmonics are also present during internal faults
due to C.T. saturation. To ensure that the relay will
operate under all internal fault conditions the harmonic
bias unit should preferably be designed to use only sec-
ond harmonic which predominates in a magnetizing
surge.
Both of the above factors have been very carefully
optimised in the design of Reyrolle Protection type
4C21 'Duo-bias' relays.
Type '4C21' Overall Biased Protection Relay
Figure 10 shows a single phase diagram of the '4C21'
relay. Under load or through fault conditions, the C.T.
secondary currents circulate through the primary wind-
ing of the bias transformer. The rectified output of this
transformer is applied to the bias winding on a transduc-
tor via a shunt resistor. Out of balance current flows
from the centre tap of the primary winding of the bias
transformer energising the transductor input winding
and the harmonic-bias unit.
The input winding and output winding of the trans-
ducter are inductively linked, but there is no inductive

..,. : PoWU-T~fo/trtfR
(c.)
& ~ Ra.Ay SIA~- tlfZc.ulT
o -= ~·Of!«Art.lftlll'"

FIG. 9. ApPLICATION OF RESTRAINT BIAS TO POWER·TRANSFORMER PROTECTION.

111
 CT~'
----j~~~--~PoIN£R TllA~PoRMfR ~---4=iA+--
TflAf6OlX:rDfl lNPur W'NO~.
OvrPuT W1N0I...
FIG. 10. DUO-BIAS RELAY -
linking between these and the bias-windings. So long as
the protected transformer is sound the transductor
bias-winding is energised by full-wave rectified current
which is proportional to the load or through-fault cur-
rent, and this bias-current saturates the transductor.
Out-of-balance currents in the transductor input-
winding, produced by power-transformer tap-changing
or by current-transformer mis-match, superimpose an
alternating m.m.f. upon the d.c. bias m.m.f., as shown in
fig. 11, but the resulting change in working flux-density
112
CT'.'
SINGLE PHASE.
is small and consequently the output to the relay is
negigible.
If the power-transformer develops a fault, the
operating-m.m.f. produced by the secondary fault-
current in the transductor input-winding exceeds the
bias-m.m.f. resutling in a large change in working flux-
density. This allows transformer coupling to be effective
between the input and output windings and thus opera-
tion of the relay.
Relay-operation cannot occur unless the operating-
 Earth Fault Sensitivity
Fwl-e.tMU
___--~.-F~~-- .! OU£ TD --.,.AI.. M.H.f.
When a power-transformer is resistance-earthed, the
current available on an internal earth-fault for operation
of a differential protection may be relatively low and the
At.. OI1f-OF· percentage of the winding protected against earth-faults
MLAHCf Mit£. may be inadequate. This is a fundamental point and
applies to all differential protections. In these circums-
tances it may be necessary to add some separate form of
earth-fault protection.
Consider the delta/star-connected transformer shown
in fig. 13 in which the star-connected winding may be
connected to earth through a resistor. Suppose that a
fault occurs at a point F, p% from the neutral end of the
winding, and that the neutral-earthing resistor is rated
to pass the full-load current of the star-connected wind-
FIG. 11. FLUXES DUE TO OPERATING ing with a terminal fault. If the fault is fed from the delta
AND BIASING AMPERE-TURNS. side of the transformer then the current in the primary
winding of the faulty phase is:-
Ip _P_ x T 2 x _1_ x _p_ x
m.mJ. exceeds the bias-m.m.f.; and as the bias-m.mJ. is 100 Tj 100
proportional to the load or through-fault current, the Full-load
required operating-m.m.f. - and hence the required secondary current
operating current - is also proportional to the load or Since
through-fault current. Fig. 12 shows the operating
Full-load T1 1
__
characteristics of the relay with the 20%, 30% and 40% _~x X
Secondary current
percentage-bias slopes corresponding to the 20%, 30% T2 Y3
and 40% shunt-resistor tappings. Full-load
The harmonic-bias unit is a tuned-circuit which
primary current
responds to the second-harmonic component of the
magnetizing current. When magnetizing inrush-current Full-load
flows through the relay-operating circuit the rectified
x __ x primary current
output of the harmonic-bias unit is injected into the
transductor bias-winding and restrains the relay. Y3
10

..."..,.
".....
.J'~
/ .....
~ .---
V ,..- ~

V ~

~~
IP..,.~.......
~~ V £11:~l....-""
6~~
~§!!-?
fli,11"IMQ ...
'JtJe. ~~~;::...-
-
~ \:::::::: t:::--
V
~
V V V

l - -l--
--
I-- ~
-~
~
--- ~

~ ~ ~

~ """'
o0 2. 3 ... 5 #) 7 • q 10 II 11 II J4. ~ •• .7 II •• 2D
8IAS.-CU~Af1'lr IN H&JLTIPLe Of fWJr( - tbrrlNG

FIG. 12. BIAS CHARACTERISTICS OF DUO-BIAS RELAY.

113
 On the other hand a restricted-earth-fault relay on the
star-winding would be energised by the fault-current
passing through the earthing resistor via a neutral
current-transformer, that is by
p Full-load
x secondary current
100
Using the given expressions, the amount of winding
protected can be plotted graphically against the fault-
setting, as shown in fig. 13. This demonstrates that a
restricted-earth-fault relay is a much more efficient
device for the detection of winding earth-faults than a
differential relay; and, in addition, to cover a reasonable
percentage of the winding, the latter would need to be
extremely sensitive. This, however, is impracticable
because of the limitations imposed by out-of-balance
current, due to tap-changing, current-transformer mis-
matching, and power-transformer magnetization.
Although tests on Duo-bias protection have shown
that separate high-set overcurrent relays are not
required to ensure tripping under heavy internal fault
conditions, some customers still demand them. Care
must be taken in setting high set relays because their
speed of operation may cause them to have significant
transient overreach.
Some care must also be exercised in choosing the
current transformer ratios and connections. The current
transformer ratio must compensate for the difference in
primary and secondary currents of the Transformer and
their connections must compensate for the phase differ-
ence. Fig. 14 has illustrated a typical example.
The restricted earth fault relay can be operated from a
completely separate set of line current transformers or it
PIbf1AllY SftDHONN.
T2.
$lMJ:I.
3 I" 1
FIG. 13. PROTECTION AGAINST EARTH-FAULTS.
114
can be combined with the overall protection as illus-
trated in fig. 14. A current transformer is required, of
course, on the neutral-to-earth connection. The advan-
tage of the restricted earth fault relay is that it is ener-
gized from a current transformer which "sees" the whole
of the fault current and not just the primary side equival-
ent of the fault current. Where the system is solidly
earthed an overall transformer protection with a setting
of about 30% would give complete phase-to-earth fault
protection of the delta winding and about 80% of the star
winding. In that case additional restricted earth fault
protection is not required for the delta winding, but if it
is fitted to the star winding it may detect faults much
nearer to the neutral end of the winding. On star wind-
ings at 132kV and above, it is usual practice to fit
restricted earth fault protection.
In addition to overall protection it is usual practice to
protect all but the smallest transformers against inter-
turn faults using a Buchholz relay. Severe faults are
detected from the resultant surge in oil and low current
faults by the measurement of accumulation of gas pro-
duced.
Back-up protection is normally provided by IDMTL
overcurrent relays, although in recent years this has
taken the form of a two-stage scheme. This comprises
one IDMTL relay energised from the C.T.'s on the H.V.
side, the source of infeed. Operation of this relay trips
the L.V. breaker and starts a time-delay relay. The set-
ting of this time-delay relay is such that it does not
operate before the L. V. breaker trips. If the fault persists
the time-delay relay trips the H.V. breaker. Since
IDMTL relays have a relatively long reset time an
instantaneous overcurrent relay with a fast reset is con-
nected in series so that the time lag is de-energised as
soon as the fault is cleared.
'0
OSlO '5 20 25
FAuLT se.rrrc ~M.f OF FtJu..l..J)AO.
 In the case of banked transformers separate overcur-
rent back-up protection is usually preferred.
The most usual questions asked on the application of
protection to transformers are:-
1. What advantage does an overall scheme have over a
scheme of separate over-current and earth fault.
2. What is the minimum size of transformer to which
an overall scheme should be applied.
Considering question 1, overall protection gives
instantaneous clearance of phase faults, has a high
through fault stability whilst retaining a low fault setting
and is inherently discriminative. Against this the degree
of protection afforded by IDMTL overcurrent relays is
very limited since the relay must be set above emergency
loading conditions which often means a setting of 200%
rating. In addition the time setting may have to be high in
order to grade with other overcurrent relays on the
system.
Clearly, therefore, the application of an overall
scheme must be considered in relation to the risk of
phase to phase faults.
Considering question 2, this is entirely a matter for the
user to decide in relation to loss of supply and conse-
quently loss of revenue. In the experience of Reyrolle
Protection overall schemes are usually applied to all
transformers of 1OMVA and above.
Auto-Transformer Protection
Fig. 15a indicates the scheme used to protect auto-
transformers. Each phase winding forms a three-ended
primary zone and is protected, therefore, by three
C.T.'s, one at each end, connected to form a circulating
current system. Three such systems share a common
neutral lead and form a complete phase and earth-fault
protection of the transformer.

PoWER fRJW&FORMff
4OM\R 132/11k'l Hoi iAP.S:t: IS~ .,-,

'NTUP06I~
C&JllRENT-
TltAN!FDlttrfsr----. ltol'
tATIOI/o·m

A,8,tt-OUO etA5 DIffERENTIAL tfLAYS

FIG. 14. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION WITH

SUPPLEMENTARY EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION.

115
 13Z/2.751(i. '10~A

ALL C.T. RATIOs. 60011

T 2.751<'1.
X

(b)

FIG. 15. ApPLICATION OF SIMPLE (UNBIASED)

OVERALL DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
TO 275/132 kY. AUTO·TRANSFORMERS.

116
 It should be noted that all the C.T.'s are of the same
ratio and that there is no magnetizing inrush problem
since the inrush appears as a through-fault as far as the
protection is concerned. Fig. 15b shows the arrangement
of the auto-transformer protection when, as is com-
monly the case, the transformers are arranged in pairs
banked on the H.V. side to a single 275kV switch. Five
sets of C.T.'s now form the complete circulating current
system, a single set of three relays (one per phase) being
provided for the pair of transformers. The isolator aux-
iliary switches shown in the C.T. secondary circuits
ensure that the isolation of either transformer discon-
nects its C.T.'s from the remaining C.T.'s and relay, so
avoiding any possible interference with the latter when
work is carried out on the isolated transformer.
It will be evident that since both transformers are
protected by the one scheme, discrimination between
the transformers is impossible. This is sometimes over-
come for earth-faults within the transformer by the pro-
vision on each transformer of a simple frame leakage
"tank earth" indication relay, Type 'Bl' or "CF1'
depending on setting required.
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Directional overcurrent relays are usually employed to
provide discrimination on phase faults for two parallel
transformers where there is no source on the L.V. side.
An analysis of the various fault conditions has shown
that a 90° connection 4SO maximum torque relay is the
best arrangement.
Buchholz Relay
This device is illustrated in Fig. 16. It consists of two
-
TO
~ ~~=tJ~~~ -r-r,..,,_1-1
(A).SECnOlllN.. VIE.W of
OOU8L.f. fLDAf RfL6."(
FIG. 16. USE OF BUCHHOLZ GAS & OIL ACTUATED RELAY.
117
pivoted floats carrying mercury switches contained in a
chamber. This chamber is connected in the pipe which
connects the top of the transformer tank to the oil con-
servator. Under normal conditions the Buchholz relay is
full of oil, the floats are fully raised and the mercury
switches open.
This device relies upon the fact that an electrical fault
inside the transformer tank will be accompanied by the
generation of gas and, if the fault current is high enough,
by a surge of oil from the tank to the conservator.
Gas bubbles due to a core fault will be generated
slowly and collect in the top of the relay. As they collect,
the oil level will drop in the relay and the upper float will
turn on its pivot until the mercury switch closes. This is
used to give an alarm.
Similarly, incipient winding insulation faults and
interturn faults which produce gas by decomposition of
insulation material and oil may be detected. Such faults
are of very low current magnitude and the Buchholz
relay is the only satisfactory method of detection.
Serious electrical faults, such as flashover between
connections inside the main tank generate gas rapidly
and produce a surge of oil. This causes the lower float to
be forced over about its pivot, causing the lower mercury
switch to close. This is arranged to trip both the H.V. and
L.V. circuit-breakers.
In addition to the above, serious oil leakage will be
detected initially by the upper float which will give an
alarm and finally by the lower float, with will disconnect
the transformer before dangerous electrical faults result.
The Buchholz relay is thus a versatile protective
device and for certain types of faults the only protection
available. However, the time of operation of the surge
(b\ IIrfW OF ffLA,'( MoVNTED
IN POSITION
.5fcoNOAfN W,AIHC--
To TYl,p & ALA~t1 ClIlCU,1!l
float for a fault well down the winding may be appreci-
able (of the order of 0·5 second). For severe electrical
faults on large transformers, the Buchholz relay there-
fore serves as a back-up to other faster forms of pro-
tection.
Intertripping Schemes
In order to ensure operation of both the H.V. and L.V.
circuit-breakers for faults within the transformer and
feeder, it is necessary to operate both circuit-breakers
from protection normally associated with only one. The
technique for obtaining this facility is known as inter-
tripping. The necessity for intertripping arises from cer-
tain types of faults producing insufficient fault current to
operate the protection associated with one of the
circuit-breakers. These faults are:-
Incipient faults in transformer tank, which, as we
have seen, operate the Buchholz relay associated
with the L.V. breaker but fail to operate the
protection associated with the H.V. breaker.
Earth-faults on the L.V. winding of transformers
which have resistance earthing.
Several methods of intertripping are available, but we
will only consider those generally used.
Fault Throwing
If pilot cables are not available or considered too
expensive to be used for intertripping purposes, then
intertripping can be achieved by means of fault throwing
switches. This scheme is restricted to cases where the
fault level is below certain limits.
The transformer protective relays first trip the L.V.
circuit-breaker. This immediately operates a fault
throwing switch which is a spring-operated switch (gen-
erally single-phase) which applies single-phase to earth
fault to the associated H. V. feeder. Feeder protection at
the remote end then operates to trip the associated
circuit-breaker.
Post Office Pilot Intertripping
Hired Post Office pilots are normally used to transmit a
coded intertripping signal initiated by the transformer
protective relays and arranged to trip the remote
circuit-breaker. A complete Post Office pilot intertrip-

H. V. R. ElF
RELAY

6f)()/ I
132/33 kV Yd. I

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RA1Jo
0.57& :0.98:0. 578:0. 578~J
-! r::--,
t...=: .J
~f5.

L. V. t. OF RELAY
FIG. 17. TYPICAL GRID·TRANSFORMER PROTECTIVE SCHEME USING
OVERALL DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SHOWING EFFECT OF EARTH FAULT
ON STAR WINDING SIDE.

118
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FIG. 18. TYPICAL PROTECTION ARRANGEMENTS FOR

GENERATOR-TRANSFORMER UNIT AND ASSOCIATED UNIT
AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER.

119
ping scheme can provide coded intertripping in both
directions for duplicate feeders, using a single pair of Type of Type of Relay
pilots. Transformer Protection

Other Forms of Protection 1. Distribution IDMTL On TJMIO

Depending upon the transformer connections and cir- Rating) 5MVA O/C each 4B3
cuit configuration other forms of protection such as the REF. Winding
type 'B37' neutral displacement relay and type Bl or
CF3 or TJM60 relay for standby earth fault protection 2. Distribution Overall Differential 4C21
may also be required. Rating ( 5MVA REF. each Winding 4B3
Each circuit must be considered as a unit and the
protection assessed accordingly. 3. Two-Winding Overall Differential 4C21
Transmission REF. each Winding 4B3
General IDMTL O/C TJMIO
SBEF CF3 or
The degree of protection provided for any particular TJM60
arrangement depends to a great extent upon the size and
functional importance of the unit. A further important 4. Gen/Transformer Overall Differential 4C21
factor is economics.
REF. each Winding 4B3
The following table gives a guide to the protection H.V. IDMTL O/C TJMIO
applied to the various forms of transformers usually L.V. IDMTL O/C TJMlO
associated with power system installations: SBEF CF3 or
TJM60
Reyrolle Protection have had many years of experience
in the design and application of relay schemes for the 5. Auto Transformer Overall Circulating 4B3
protection of transformers and any advice required for a Current
particular installation will readily be given.

120
CHAPTER 7 Proving Test of Duo-bias Transformer
Protection

INTRODUCTION
The use of unit systems of protection is now almost
standard practice in all important electrical power sys-
tems. Most unit systems are of the balanced class and
are based on the assumption that under through-fault
conditions the currents entering and leaving the pro-
tected zone are equal to one another, or bear some fixed
relationship to one another. In applying unit protection
to power-transformers two special problems arise, nam-
ely, the unbalancing effect of tappings on the trans- 2ND-HARMONIC F
FILTER
former windings which cause the relationship between
the magnitudes of the input and output currents to vary,
and the magnetizing inrush current which occurs when
switching on a transformer with its output side open-
circuited or very lightly loaded. The first problem is
usually dealt with by employing bias or restraint on the
relays so that the current required to operate the protec-
tion increases roughly in proportion to the straight-
through fault-current. The second problem presents
much greater difficulty. It can be dealt with by introduc-
ing time lags, as in conventional systems such as that
using our type-TJG relay, or by methods which in some
way or other differentiate between normal internal-fault
currents and magnetizing inrush currents in such a way RELAY

that the protection operates for the former but not for
the latter. One difference between these two currents,
which may be used for the purpose mentioned, lies in
their wave-forms, fault-currents being nearly sinusoidal,
whereas magnetizing currents contain appreciable sec-
ond harmonic. The duo-bias system of transformer pro-
tection derives its "magnetizing" stability by taking this
into account.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DUO-BIAS
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
The principles of duo-bias protection are now fairly well
known. It is a Merz-Price system with biasing to take
care of tap-changing, and harmonic restraint to coun-
teract the effect of magnetizing inrush currents. A
schematic diagram for one phase of a three-phase trans-
former is shown in fig. 1. It differs from most other
differential systems of transformer protection in that the
relay is fed from the secondary winding of a transductor,
the primary winding of which is connected across the
pilots in the usual way. Biasing is obtained by d.c. excita-
tion of the transductor via a separate d.c. control-
winding which is fed from an auxiliary transformer in
series with the pilots. On internal faults the transductor
acts more or less as a transformer but on external faults
the saturation of the transductor core by the d.c.
control-winding prevents the unbalance current present
in the pilots from being transferred to the relay. With
magnetizing inrush currents the harmonic-restraint cir-
cuit has appreciable second-harmonic output. This is
FIG. 1. DUO-BIAS DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
WITH TRANSDUCTOR RELAY.
rectified and fed into the d.c. control-winding on the
transductor thus biasing the protection in the same way
as does straight-through fault-current.
Fig. 2 shows the interconnections between the relays
in the protection of a three-phase transformer. It should
be noted that the outputs of the three filter-units are
paralleled and fed through the transductor bias-
windings of all three phases connected in series, thus
ensuring adequate restraint in all relays under condi-
tions of magnetizing inrush.
TESTS ON DUO-BIAS PROTECTION
Research and exhaustive testing are continually finding
new ways of improving the performance of protective
systems generally. The Reyrolle Research and Certifica-
tion Laboratories are very fully equipped for work of
this kind and the majority of system conditions can
readily be simulated. For transformer protection, how-
ever, a fundamental difficulty exists in connection with
the production of magnetizing inrush currents which
represent service conditions sufficiently accurately. It is
therefore desirable to supplement laboratory tests on
transformer differential-protection with tests on site. It
is not often that facilities for site tests are available but
through the courtesy of the Central Electricity Author-

121
 CURRENT- TRANSFORMERS POWER· TRANSfORMER
ON PRIMARY
-X·~~-Jimru
-.·-X~JR----~rrrm
-X---I-t-AJ!t--..-J-wlrrn-U
BIAS WINDING
OPERATING WINDING
SMOOTHING WINDING
FIG. 2. PROTECTION OF A 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER
ity, Eastern Division, it was possible to test the duo-bias
system thoroughly at their Rayleigh Transforming Sta-
tion recently and these tests, together with comprehen-
sive laboratory tests, have fully proved the performance
of the system. Before dealing with the site tests we give a
brief outline of the laboratory tests.
Secondary-injection Tests
A large number of tests were made using secondary-
injection circuits, and these provided data on the trans-
ductor and filter characteristics, and the ratings of com-
ponents.
A detailed investigation of the percentage-bias
characteristic showed that the overall relay performance
was almost unaffected by phase variations between the
bias and the operating inputs to the transductor, and that
the settings were similar irrespective of whether the
inputs were switched or slowly increased. Further tests
were made to determine the effects of harmonic content
and frequency variations.
The operating-time of the protection at three times
the setting of the relays was shown to be approximately
60ms. with no through-load current, and 85ms. with
full-load current. Furthermore, it was proved that the
asymmetry of the fault-current made little difference to
the operating-time, the actual times varying by only 5ms.
between fully symmetrical and fully asymmetrical condi-
tions.
The detailed data obtained by means of low-current
testing techniques were confirmed by tests using primary
122
CURRENT. TRANSFORMERS
ON SECON DAR Y
INTERPOSING
TRANSFORMERS
TRANSDUCTORS RElA '(
SECOND-HARMONIC
FIL TERS
injection as described below.
Primary-injection Tests
In order to simulate site conditions as closely as poss-
ible, a number of laboratory tests were made using cir-
cuits incorporating 500-kVA and 2500-kVA power-
transformers.
For the majority of the tests the transformer had a
3-phase rating of 500-kVA, 660/48 volts, with delta/star
windings. On the H.V. (delta) side three 25/1 current-
transformers (i.e. 200/1 using 8 primary turns) were
connected in star, and on the L.V. (star) side three 600/1
(i.e. 347/0· 58) current-transformers were connected in
delta. With these ratios the steady-state unbalance cur-
rent was negligible. To simulate power-transformer
ratio-changes (due to tap-changing) of plus and minus
12!%, the number of primary turns used on the H.V.
current-transformers was altered from 8 to 9 and 7
respectively.
Fig. 4 shows the magnetization curves of the current-
transformers used in these tests, but other current-
transformer designs have also been tested.
Fault-settings without through-load were measured in
terms of the H.V. current, and were less than 36% for all
phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth faults, the variation
in the settings obtained for the six fault-conditions being
less than 5%. These figures applied for faults on both the
H.V. side and on the L.V. side of the power-transformer.
The effect on the fault-settings of 100% three-phase
load (using the circuit shown in fig. 3) is shown in fig. 5,
 PHASE·SHIFTER

VARIAC

CURRENT-
H.V TRANSFORMERS

CURRENT-
REACTORS TRANSFORMERS

RELAYS

FIG. 3. TEST-CIRCUIT LOAD AND FAULT CONDITIONS.

from which it is apparent that the phase-angle between of the protection is shown in fig. 6.
fault and load is unimportant in deciding the sensitivity. The stability of the protection under through-fault
Tests also proved correct operation with high values of conditions, the fault being applied on the secondary
fault-current and current-transformer burden (such that (L.V.) side after the transformer had been energized,
the current-transformers saturated). The operating-time was proved under normal and maximum tap-change
conditions with H.V. current-transformer burdens of up
to 8 ohms. Fig. 7 shows a typical record of the relay-
operating current and L. V. primary current, the latter
corresponding to approximately 15 times the current-
300
transformer rated-current. The record shows the safety
~
- - - RATIO 347/0-58
I
D.C RESISTANCE 1-04Bn margin at an extreme tap-change position, and illus-

/
/ trates clearly that the relay output, resulting from the
magnetizing current of the power-transformer prior to
closure onto the fault on the L.V. side, is low relative to
the relay operating-level. Tests were also made to
demonstrate the stability when the H.V. side was ener-

D
/ "" -
RATIO 25, I
gized with an external fault already applied on the L.V.
side, and to prove that repeated fault-current asymmetry

I(
D.c. RESISTANCE Oan
did not prejudice the stability of the protection.
Tests to prove the performance under conditions of
magnetizing inrush current were made in the laboratory
on the 500-kVA transformer and also on the 2,500-kVA
1/ 6'6-kV 3-phase transformer. For the former, the ratio of
~
o> the H.V. current-transformers was 200/1, and peak cur-

100
I rents of up to 6·1 times the current-transformer rating
were obtained, the time-constant of the magnetizing
inrush current-decrement being 35ms (X/R = 11).
These tests were made with repeated point-on-wave

I switching, and the protection remained stable through-

v
out, oscillograph records showing that the value of the
transient relay-operating current never exceeded half
that required for operation. A further test was made
using current-transformers of ratio 25/1, when the pro-
tection remained stable with a peak magnetizing-current
100 200 300 ~oo '00 equivalent to approximately 30 times the current-
cuRRENT rnA (1'1 TIMES AVERAGE)
transformer rating.
FIG. 4. MAGNETIZATION CURVES OF THE CURRENT- Similar tests were made on the 2,500-kVA trans-
TRANSFORMERS USED IN PRIMARY-INJECTION TESTS. former using 100/1 and 200/1 current-transformers of

123
 90"

NO-LOAD
FAULT-SETTING

PHASE-ANGLE BETWEEN
180 1--+--+-+~-+----3~:---+';--.--t,;-----iI+;;;-;-+---i 0' ~:~8~~R~~~ i~:g)

270"

FIG_ 5. RED-PHASE-TO-EARTH FAULT-SETTING WITH 100 PER CENT 3-PHASE LOAD.

differing designs. Peak surges of up to 14 times the
current-transformer rating, and time-constants of
105ms. were obtained on these tests.
Site Tests
The characteristics of duo-bias protection concerned
with fault-settings and stability under through-fault con-
ditions are independent of source-impedance and trans-
former size. Stability under conditions of magnetizing
inrush current is, however, dependent upon both the
magnitude and the time-constant of the inrush current.
The laboratory tests demonstrated the stability of the
protection with heavy inrush currents, but the time-
constants of these inrush currents were much shorter

120

100

0
\

0
\ '-

10
OPERATING·CURRENT IN TERMS OF MULTIPLES OF FAULT-SETTING

FIG. 6. OPERATING-TIME OF DUO-BIAS PROTECTION.

124
 I.V· SIDE.

FIG. 7. RELAY-OPERATING CURRENT AND PRIMARY CURRENT UNDER THROUGH-FAULT CONDITIONS.

than those usually associated with large power-
transformers. The site tests at Rayleigh were made,
therefore, to prove stability with an inrush current of
long time-constant.
The tests were made on 30-MVA and 60-MVA
132/22-kV transformers (see Table 1 opposite) using
the current-transformers available on site. The
magnetization-curves of these current-transformers are
shown in fig. 9. It should be noted that these current-
transformers have a much higher knee-point than those
which would normally be supplied for duo-bias protec-
tion. The use of these current-transformers does not,
however, ease the test-condition, since here we are con-
cerned with the output of a particular current-
transformer (which will be higher the 'better' the
current-transformer) and not with the balancing of the
outputs of current-transformers.
Across the output of each power-transformer was
permanently connected a 150-kVA auxiliary trans-
former, the secondary winding of which was open-
circuited. The magnetizing-current of this transformer
would produce very little bias, and did not therefore
affect the validity of the tests.
Throughout the tests Dudell oscillograph records
were taken of the primary-current and relay-current in
each phase, and the harmonic-bias current was recorded

FIG. 8. CURRENTS DURING MAGNETIZING SURGE.

125
 Table I-Data of Rayleigh Transformers

Reference T3 T2B
Rating 30 MVA: 60 MVA:
ON/OFB-cooled ON/OFB-cooled
(15 MVA (30 MVA
ON-rating) ON-rating)
Connection Star-Delta Star-Delta
Voltage 132/33 kV 132/33 kV
Impedance 10·3% 12·4%
Ratio of
associated
H.V. current-
transformers 150/0·5 250/0·5

on a moving-film cathode-ray oscillograph. Fig. 8 is a

typical record and shows that the relay-current is well J_
./~
within the operating-level of the relay.
Whereas the laboratory tests were made with control 1100 C.T. RATIO 150/0-5
D.C. RESISTANCE S'O In
of asymmetry, thus permitting testing always under the V
most severe conditions of primary-currents, such control
was not possible on site, and a large number of switching
operations were necessary. A total of 69 switching oper-
ations were made during these tests.
V
In many tests the harmonic bias was deliberately
reduced below its normal level by altering the primary
turns on the harmonic-bias reactor, the bias produced
being in direct ratio to the number of primary turns.
1000
/
Although the harmonic bias was reduced to ! of its
normal value protection still remained stable.
Some of the more significant results are given overleaf
1/
)v
in Tables 3 and 4. REF.T2B
CT. RATIO 250,.'0'5
Examination of the results given above (and of the D.C. RESISTANCE 3-5n.

oscillograms taken) show that:

(a) The greater the inrush current the greater the
harmonic bias produced. 00

(b) The greater the harmonic bias the less the relay I
current for corresponding inrush currents.
(c) The continuation of the asymmetrical wave due
to the longer time-constant did not produce any
'J
I
adverse effect on the stability of the protection.

CONCLUSION
200. '00 600 '00 1000
From the laboratory and site tests described it can be
CURRENT mA (I-I TIMES AVERAGE)
concluded that:
(1) Duo-bias protection is stable with through-fault FIG. 9. MAGNETIZATION-CURVES OF THE CURRENT-
currents of at least fifteen times the rated current TRANSFORMERS USED IN SITE-TESTS.
of the current-transformers with magnetizing
inrush surges having maximum peak values
exceeding any likely to be found in practice, and no through-load, and less than 60 per cent of the
also that it is stable with magnetizing surges hav- current-transformer rating with 100 per cent
ing time-constants of at least 6 seconds. three-phase through-load. The phase-angle bet-
(2) The fault-settings of the protection are less than ween the load-currents and the fault-currents is
40 per cent of the current-transformer rating with unimportant.

126
 Table 2-Site-testing Data
Transformer No:- T3 T2B
Steady-state Magnetization-current 3·4 A (approx.) Red and blue phases-II A (approx.)
Yellow phase 6 A (approx.)
Time-constant 6 sees (approx.) 2 sees (approx.)
Normal lead-burden 6 ohms/phase 4·6 ohms/phase
Current-transformers-
Ratio 150/75/0·5 (used as 150/0·5) 250/0·5
Secondary turns 295 of 19 s.w.g. 495 of 19 s.w.g.
D.C. resistance 5 ohms 3·5 ohms
Excitation curve Fig. 9 Fig. 8

Table 3---Results of Tests on Transformer T3

Peak primary Relay-current Harmonic-

Nominal turns on Lead- current (% of operating- bias
harmonic-bias burden (A) current) current
reactor (per cent) (ohms/phase) (rnA)
Red Yellow Blue Red Yellow Blue

100 8 340 195 115 38 30 39 12

100 6 15 15 15 Negligible 9 10 Very small

57 8 100 190 125 45 46 38 8

57 8 30 30 50 6 14 8 Very small

33 8 120 50 125 20 26 24 2

Table 4-Results of Tests on Transformer T2B

Peak primary Relay-current Harmonic-

Nominal turns on Lead- current (% of operating- bias
harmonic-bias burden (A) current) current
reactor (per cent) (ohms/phase) (rnA)
Red Yellow Blue Red Yellow Blue

100 4·6 490 330 220 25 30 18 35

100 4·6 230 320 140 21 18 34 28

57 4·6 570 410 230 31 38 32 29

57 6·6 340 180 160 30 25 28 9

33 6·6 570 320 220 36 56 No record 8

33 6·6 110 120 170 29 33 27 Very small

(3) The operating-time of the protection is less than
100 milliseconds at 3 times the setting under all
conditions of load and fault-current asymmetry,
and is less than 65 milliseconds at 3 times the
setting for internal faults with no through-load.
(4) The correct performance of the system is unaf-
fected by the presence of harmonics higher than
the second, and by departures from the nominal
frequency greatly exceeding anything likely to
occur in practice.
These additional tests and appreciable operating
experience with duo-bias protection have provided val-
uable confirmation that this system of transformer pro-
tection is basically sound in principle, and that it can be
applied with confidence to the largest and most impor-
tant transformers in service.

127
CHAPTER 8 The Requirements for Directional Earth
Fault Relays
By F. L. HAMILTON AND N. S. ELLIS.

SUMMARY Impedance Values

This report deals with the conditions under which Generator/Transformers.
directional earth fault relays may be required to
Zj = Zz = 23%.
operate in conjunction with distance protection
relays. Variations in system conditions which might Zo = 10%.
occur in practice are related to the current settings,
relay characteristics and forms of polarising. The Primary values. (Total impedance of generator/
results are plotted graphically in order to assist in the transformer portion of busbar MVA rating).
application of this type of relay. 1500 MVA Busbars
Z, = Zz = 18·15 ohms, Zo = 8·05 ohms
2500 MVA Busbars
GENERAL Z, = Zz = 11·1 ohms, Zo = 4·8 ohms
The investigations on which this report is based were 3500 MVA Busbars
made in connection with Distance Protective Schemes Z, = Zz = 7·93 ohms, Zo = 3·43 ohms
using a single directional earth-fault relay to control
the operation of plain impedance relays for earth Secondary values. (On basis of 500/1 CT and 132
faults. The results, however, are of general interest in kV/ll0 VT).
respect to the application of Directional Earth Fault 1500 MVA Busbars
relays to solidly earthed systems where the polarising Zj = Zz = 7·7 ohms Zo = 3·33 ohms
winding is energised from a residual voltage trans- 2500 MVA Busbars
former, provided the appropriate range of system Z, = Zz = 4·62 ohms Zo = 2·0 ohms
conditions and characteristics is taken into account. 3500 MVA Busbars
This report deals with the particular case of a typical
Z, = Zz = 3·3 ohms Zo = 1·43 ohms
132 kV system.
Grid-Infeed.
This is taken as overhead line impedance where Z,
SYSTEM IMPEDANCES Zz and Zo = 2·5 Zl·
In the typical 132 kV system chosen, the relaying
point is associated with busbars having 3,500, 2,500, Primary values. (Total impedance of grid infeed
or 1,500 MVA rating, the voltage transformer ratio portion of busbar MVA rating).
being 132-kV-II0-volts and the current transformer 1500 MVA Busbars
ratio being 500/1. The station is assumed to have a Zj = Zz = 29·3 ohms Zo = 72·5 ohms
local generating capacity and a proportional grid in-
2500 MVA Busbars
feed. For example, in the case of 2,500 MVA break-
Z, = Zz = 17·4 ohms Zo = 43·5 ohms
ing capacity, the generators have a load capacity of
360 MVA and the grid in-feed a short-circuit capacity 3500 MVA Busbars
of 1,000 MVA. Z, = Zz = 12·4 ohms Zo = 31·0 ohms
The lines are assumed to have Z, =Zz = 0·7 ohm/
mile and Zo = 2·5 Zj. Secondary values (On basis of 500/1 CT and 132
For convenience, the calculations are made on the kV/ll0 VT).
basis of equivalent secondary voltages, currents and 1500 MVA Busbars
impedances. The impedances obtained from the max- Z, = Zz = 12·1 ohms Zo = 30·2 ohms
imum fault MVA will represent the minimum source 2500 MVA Busbars
impedances. In practice, the actual source impedances Zj = Zz = 7·25 ohms Zo = 18·2 ohms
will vary over a range of values, the maximum of
which will correspond to the minimum plant condi- 3500 MVA Busbars
tion. Z, = Zz = 5·18 ohms Zo = 12·9 ohms
The impedance encountered between the relaying
point and the fault will be directly proportional to the BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR OPERATION
distance from the fault to the relaying point, provided Taking an earth fault relay, the current circuits of
there are no in-feeds of fault current between these which are energised by the residual current of the
two points. This condition has been assumed in this line C.T.'s and the voltage circuits of which are ener-
analysis. gised from the open delta voltage of the V.T.'s, the

128
 - - - GRIO-IN-F=£to

/32 K.V.

~
63·5'1.

FIG. leA) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT.

To
~
63·5v
fbt.-ARISINC, VOLfAG-£
ON !<E1JJ,Y ~ Vp = 3ID Zso

FIG. 1(B) SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR EARTH FAULTS.

129
two quantities on the relay are:-
Voltage = V p = 3IoZ so
Current = IE! = 31 0
The circuit conditions being investigated are rep-
resented in equivalent form in figs. l(a) and l(b), the
parameters which are varied being the impedances
Zu, Zu, ZLO and ZSl' ZS2 and Zso. The boundary
conditions may be explored by:-
(a) First considering terminal earth faults, i.e. Zu,
Zu, ZLO = 0, and varying ZSb ZS2, Zso down
to their minimum value, i.e. maximum MV A.
(b) Secondly, keeping ZSb ZS2, Zso at their
minimum value and varying Zu, Zu, ZLO up
to the maximum value to be considered.
(c) Lastly, keeping Zu, Zu, ZLO constant at the
maximum value to be considered and varying
ZSb ZS2, Zso up to the maximum value to be
considered, i.e. minimum plant conditions.
(a) Terminal Earth Faults
Whilst terminal earth faults at the relaying position do
not produce low polarising voltages in the relay, they
form one boundary line enclosing the zone of operation
of the earth-fault relay.
For terminal faults Zu = ZL2 = ZLO = 0, the variation
in relay voltage and current will depend entirely on the
source impedance. Referring to fig. 2 showing the rela-
tion between relay volts and current in log/log form, the
points A, B, C, give the relay voltages and current for the
three maximum MVA's. For the condition of a terminal
earth fault with increasing source impedance, the boun-
dary here will be A, B, or C towards Q. It should be
noted that at small currents on this boundary, conditions
are such that the predominating impedance is that of
overhead line, where Zo = 2·5 Zj, i.e. no generators in,
and the residual voltage will rise above 63·5 volts. These
boundary lines are typical, but will vary slightly accord-
ing to the proportionality of line impedance to machine
impedance.
The boundary lines thus formed represent the upper
limit of the voltage/current zone experienced by the
relay.
(b) Earth Faults beyond the Relaying Point with
Minimum Source Impedance (Maximum MVA)
In this case, the effect on the relay voltage and current
of moving the fault away from the relaying point is
shown. It should be noted that the condition of minimum
source impedance is taken. The boundary line for this
will obviously go through the Point A, B or C according
to the appropriate maximum MV A.
The relationship for relay volts and current is
V p = 3IoZ so = IEFZ SO,
and as Zso is constant (at its minimum value) this bound-
ary line will be a straight line through A, B or C at 45° to
the axis.
The lower limit of this boundary line will depend on
the maximum distance of the fault for which operation of
130
the relay is required. This will normally be decided by
the maximum stage 3 setting, which may be of the order
of 100-200 miles. The lower limits of these boundary
lines are marked off corresponding to various line
lengths for the stage 3 setting.
(c) Distant Faults with Increasing Source Impedance
The voltages corresponding to the lower limit of the
boundary lines in (b) above are the lowest at which the
relays are called upon to operate. It is of interest to note
that these low voltages also correspond to small cur-
rents, i.e. the relay is not called upon to operate at low
voltages and heavy currents.
The currents at this lower limit are not, however, the
minimum at which the relay should operate. These will
be obtained by keeping the fault at the maximum chosen
distance from the relaying point and following the
appropriate curve to the line MQ, or a line parallel to
this if the maximum source impedance is less than that
corresponding to 250 miles of line. Whilst the current
will reduce during this process, the voltage will rise again
because of the increasing zero sequence impedance of
the source. The current corresponding to a fault at the
limit of reach and with maximum source impedance will
give the minimum pick-up current of the relay. It will be
noted that this minimum current value of the relay
occurs with reasonable voltage, i.e. tends towards the
minimum operating current with full volts. The bound-
ary lines for 200 mile and 100 mile reach are shown in
fig. 2 scaled against equivalent line lengths of source
impedance. The maximum length of 250 miles corres-
ponds to a range of about 30 referred to a minimum
stage 1 setting of 8 miles.
The curves shown through 'm' and 'n' are typical and
presume a proportional reduction of generating plant
and grid infeed down to about 20% power, and then
further reduction of input with no local generation.
Other conditions will not produce much deviation from
these curves.
RELAY CHARACTERISTICS
The voltage/current characteristics for particular phase
angles may be superimposed on the boundary diagram
of residual voltage and current shown in fig. 2. The
characteristics of two such relays are shown.
Type USE Relay
As used in XZA protection, having a nominal max-
imum torque angle of 30° and which consumes 3 VA in
the voltage circuit at 63·5 volts. The characteristics for
this relay are shown with 30°, 60° and 90° between
polarising voltage and current. The basic equation for
volts and current are of the general form VI = const, so
that on log/log scales, the characteristic is a straight line
at 45° to the axes.
Comparator Relay
Such as obtained with the use of a rectifier bridge
polarised relay arrangement. The maximum torque
angle for the relay is 60°, and the VA for the voltage
/00 ~---_-.:Q~:;o=======::;;::::===:;Z:====:;;;;;:~--=::::=-----------

60
c
~

.30 ~
~
2D u
~
V)

.J
~
~
10
~ 0
~ ~. 'vP ~
r ~ ~\O
(j"l ~ (J'/'
~O~ -t-Q
5'0
4-'0
~ Q't-q,.~~ \9
cJ>~ .i'
,3-0

/"'0

-\0> - CDMP R.ELAY '66° -

UNCOMPE.N:jATE 0

·5 ~---=---:-----:-----:-----A-::----;:;-~""';"""7---:-~--""'7-:-----r:---.",..-.--
.2. -3 -4 -6 /-0 2-0 3-0 ,"'0 S-o 10 () 30
/(ESIOUAL Sf{. wttENr

/32 KV - 50L-(0 EARTHEO SYSTE.M - cr.: 500/1

LINE Z, :::Z1. = Q-7.o.../mile Zo:: 2:5"z., VT = 132KV/llo

FIG. 2 DIRECTIONAL ElF RELA YS FOR DISTANCE PROTECTION.

131
circuit corresponding to the characteristic shown would
be 30. The theoretical characteristic for such relays is
formed by two straight lines parallel to the axes. In
practice, the corner so formed is rounded off, as shown
in the characteristics. The characteristic may be com-
pensated to give the increased voltage at higher currents
by the unbalancing of the current inputs in favour of the
restraint side of the comparator.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
In order that the relay should operate satisfactorily
under all practical system conditions, its voltage/current
characteristic should lie between the axes and the area
enclosed by the boundary lines appropriate to the par-
ticular application. It should be appreciated that the
phase angle between polarising voltage and current will
vary between 90° and 50° for the various system condi-
tions. For example it is nearly 90° when the source is
predominantly machine and transformer impedance
(i.e. along lines aA, bB, cC of fig. 2) and nearly 50° when
the source is predominantly line impedance (i.e. along
the other boundary lines).
CONCLUSIONS
From a consideration of the relay characteristics and
boundary conditions, the following conclusions may be
drawn.
(a) The directional earth fault relay is not called
upon to operate with low voltage and heavy cur-
rent.
(b) With the hyperbolic characteristic such as is
obtained with Beam relays, it is difficult to cover
a range of system conditions at low voltage and
low current.
(c) Although the USE characteristic might be low-
ered, this would require considerable VA on the
voltage circuit. For example, to give a coverage
comparable with that of the comparator relay
would require
3VA x [ 15 Y = 300 VA.
\ 1.5)
Generally, it can be considered that the hyper-
bolic characteristic is basically not particularly
suited to this type of application.
132
(d) The comparator type of characteristic is more
amenable to application and can give reasonable
coverage with reasonable VA in the voltage cir-
cuits.
(e) The particular property of the hyperbolic relay
characteristic which gives operation at very low
currents at high voltages, and at very low voltages
for very high currents may be a definite disadvan-
tage in relation to possible spurious operation.
The possibility of such operation would be
increased considerably if the characteristic were
lowered by consuming more VA in the voltage
circuit, and it must be borne in mind that the
voltage can increase to about 105 volts. The pres-
ent relay characteristic gives operation at 105
volts and 0·1 ampere.
(1) Current polarising from neutral current trans-
formers would overcome some of the weaknesses
of the hyperbolic relay characteristic. The
required degree of current polarisation may be
obtained from the curves in fig. 2. For example,
to obtain complete operation for the whole
boundaries given by A, a, m, the required
minimum operation is 2 volts, 0·7 amperes, but
actual operation is 13 volts, 0·7 amperes. The
additional polarising effect from 0·7 amperes
must be eqivalent to 11 volts (assuming the fault
current and polarising current to be equal). If no
allowance is made for increasing VA on the
polarising circuit due to the requirement of two
polarising windings, the VA in the current
polarising circuit would be
3 [11
\63.5
)'x _1_= approximately
0·72
0·2 VA at 1 ampere,
which is a reasonably low figure. Current polaris-
ing is not, however, always practical as it requires
a neutral point to be available and in use near to
the relaying point. The use of current polarising
will require some care in relation to the choice of
phase angle for the relay as the residual capacity
currents will cause phase shifts between the
residual C.T. current and the neutral C.T. cur-
rent.
CHAPTER 9 The Performance of Distance-Relays
By F. L. HAMILTON and N. S. ELLIS.
INTRODUCTION x
x

~,
A variety of relays are used in protective systems of the
distance-measuring class, typical forms being plain
impedance, mho, ohm, reactance, and directional relays.
All these come under the general description of
distance-relays and are characterised by having two
input-quantities respectively proportional to the voltage
and current at a particular point in the power-system,
referred to as the relaying point. The ideal forms of such l(a) PLAIN IMPEDANCE
relays have characteristics which are independent of the
actual values of voltage and current and depend only on
the ratio of voltage to current and the phase angle bet-

~"
ween them. The ideal characteristics are thus completely

specified by the complex impedance Z=V/I. The impe-
dance Z can be shown on a complex diagram having
principal axes of resistance and reactance. The form of
this function for the commoner types of characteristics is
illustrated in fig. 1. Operation of the relay occurs in the
shaded areas and no operation takes place in the
unshaded areas. The boundary curve represents margi-
nal conditions and is referred to as the "cut-off impe-
dance".
Practical distance-relays depart from the ideal and
have characteristics which depend on the actual values of
the input voltage and current. An approximation to the
ideal is obtained only over a specific range of input
quantities. Inside this range the relay will have errors
which are acceptable, and outside the range it will have
excessive errors and may not even operate. The
operating-time of the relay will be variable and depen-
dent on the individual magnitudes of the input quan-
tities, being, for example, long for small inputs near the
cut-off impedance and short for large inputs well within
the cut-off impedance. The complete performance
specification of a practical relay should thus include
information on these aspects in addition to the ideal
polar-characteristic such as is illustrated in fig. 1.
In the past, various methods of specifying perfor-
mance have been adopted to meet these difficulties.
None of these, however, en'lbles the performance of the
relay to be related easily to the requirements of the
power-system and most do not facilitate comparison of
different relays. It is the purpose of this article to outline
methods which have recently been developed to over-
come these difficulties and to outline the principal fac-
tors affecting the performance. The testing of distance
protection is also considered and test-procedures out-
lined which are directly related to the new methods of
specifying performance.
."
l(e) REACTANCE I (d) DIRECTIONAL
FIG. 1. IDEAL POLAR CHARACTERISTICS OF
DlSTANCE- RELAYS.
the simplified diagram of fig. 2. Zs represents the source
impedance from the relaying point P back to the
generators and ZF the fault impedance of the power-
system from the relaying point to the fault. Both are
supplied from the open-circuit system-voltage E. The
current and voltage at the junction of the two impe-
dances are proportional to those applied to the relay via
the current and voltage transformers at the relaying
point. The source impedance Zs depends on the amount
of generating plant available behind the relaying point
and is directly related to the short-circuit MVA available
at the relaying poing. This will vary according to system
conditions but it will normally be possible to assign an
upper and lower limit to the short-circuit MVA and
hence to Zs.
The fault impedance ZF is proportional to the distance
of the fault from the relaying point. The ratio of the
voltage and current applied to the relay is always equal
to ZF, but the actual values are determined by both Zs
and ZF.
Consider a fault at the nominal cut-off impedance of

P.- -Relaying point. E.-- Normal system voltage.

Performance Requirements as Dictated by Zt-.- - Fault impedance. l.--Current at relaying point.
the Power-system ZS.--Source impedance. Y.-Voltage at relaying point.

The requirements for a particular distance-relay can be FIG. 2. BASIC CIRCUIT OF POWER-SYSTEM UNDER
assessed in relation to the power-system by reference to FAULT- CONDITIONS.

133
the relay. The impedance ZF is thus fixed and will nor- I
mally correspond to 80 per cent of the line protected.
The voltage at the relaying point is then determined only tv=:j DISTANCEt:
RELAY

by Zs. For a very large MVA source, i.e. small Zs, this
voltage will approach the normal system-voltage. For a 4>.\DIRECT CONNECTION
small MVA source, i.e. large Zs, the voltage will only be
a fraction of the normal voltage and will be determined
by the ratio Zs/ZF' A practical relay is required to work
correctly between these limits of voltage. Since the top
limit is normally fixed by the system-voltage it is usually
necessary only to specify that the relay will work down to I: N I
some minimum voltage Vm'
Apart from the magnitude of the impedances Zs and
ZF it is necessary to consider their phase angle. This
C
determines the time constant of the primary transients
(b) TRANSFORMER CONNECTION
which will occur in the voltage and current waveforms
when a sudden fault is applied. With high-speed relays
this factor becomes of great importance as the relay is FIG. 3. RELATION BETWEEN VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER
required to measure correctly during the transient BURDEN AND PERFORMANCE.
period.
Since relays are generally connected to a three-phase
system the problem is more complicated than that shown setting and hence the minimum voltage-setting is prop-
in fig. 2, as different types of faults can occur. The ortional to ~, all other parameters being constant.
problem can, however, always be reduced to the simple The general expression relating the voltage range, the
case for a particular fault though it may be necessary to voltage-transformer burden, and the basic relay-setting
use different values for the source impedance according is thus of the form
to whether the fault is to earth or between phases.
a:. v~
w.
Factors affecting Relay Performance Compensation of relays
Voltage-transformer Burden and Relay Sensitivity A simple distance-relay element which has linear
The optimum performance that can be obtained from a characteristics will have a curve relating applied voltage
given relay is directly related to factors such as the and current oftheform shown in curve (a) of fig. 4. With
burden on the voltage-transformers at nomal system- zero applied-voltage a certain minimum current known
voltage and the minimum operating-current of the basic as the pick-up current is required to cause operation.
relay-element. The relation between performance and With increasing voltage the operating-current increases
voltage-transformer burden is illustrated in fig. 3. A
relay is represented in fig. 3a which has a voltage-
transformer burden Wand operates correctly from the
normal system-voltage down to a minimum voltage V m •
If transformers of ratio N: 1 are inserted in the input
circuit as shown in fig. 3b the normal setting of the relay
is unaltered because the ratio VII is unaltered. The
minimum voltage is reduced to VmiN but the voltage-
transformer burden is increased to W.N". If the useful
performance-range of the relay is expressed as the ratio
of normal system-voltage to minimum voltage for cor-
rect operation, this is related to the voltage-transformer
burden by
E
Vm
a:. vw.
The burden of the current input circuit is related in a
similar manner to the voltage range of the relay. Nor-
mally this is not so important as the voltage-circuit bur-
den, the main difference being that the voltage circuit is Ip 1m
energised continuously whereas the current circuit is CURRENT
only energised to any extent during fault-conditions.
Jp.-Minimum pick-up current. Im.-Minimum current for correct
The voltage range of the relay is also closely bound up operation.
with the setting in milliwatts (w) of the basic relay-
element. For a particular relay the minimum current- FiG. 4. SIMPLE RELAY CHARACTERISTIC.

134
linearly. If the nominal impedance-setting is as shown by
the dashed curve (b), the cut-off impedance will always
be less than the nominal impedance, the percentage
error becoming progressively smaller as the inputs are
increased. If limits of permissible error are assigned as
indicated by the dotted curves (c) and (d), then the relay
characteristic must lie in the shaded area to be of practi-
cal use. It can be seen that for the example illustrated the
minimum current at which the relay can be used is
appreciably larger than the minimum pick-up current.
voltages and currents. The extra voltage range has only
been obtained, however, at the expense of using the
relay in a very delicate state below the nominal
minimum setting. This introduces problems of variation
of setting with friction, of long operating-times, and of
general mechanical instability. Voltage compensation is
therefore to be preferred to current compensation.

Presentation of Accuracy
General
In the previous section the errors in a relay have been
assessed in relation to a graph of voltage against current
plotted on linear scales (figs 4, 5, and 6). Such a graph
does not enable the errors to be determined directly and
..,w
<{
also has limitations in that the lower end of the scales is
f- very cramped. Alternative methods are briefly reviewed
-' in this section and indication given of merits and
o
> demerits of each form.
/
/

Existing Methods
CURRENT
FIG. 5. VOLTAGE-COMPENSATED RELAY The first modification to the basic graph of voltage
CHARACTERISTICS. aginst amperes on linear scales is to replace the linear
scales by log. scales. Constant ordinates on the graph
now represent constant percentage-errors and difficul-
In order that the relay may be utilised to full advan- ties associated with the cramping of scales at the lower
tage, compensation can be added to produced a curve of value are removed. In order that the errors may be
the form shown in fig. 5. This compensation may take measured directly it is preferable to plot the per-unit
the form of a non-linear impedance in the voltage circuit impedance as a function of current or voltage. Per-unit
of the relay to prevent the voltage-input being effective impedance is the ratio of cut-off impedance to the nomi-
until a value is reached which corresponds to the product nal impedance setting of the relay, i.e. per-unit impe-
of the minimum pick-up current and the nominal impe- dance of 1 is fully accurate. In this case the per-unit
dance setting. impedance can be plotted on a linear scale and the
current or voltage on a log scale. A comparison of the
different methods is given in figs 7 and 8. The most
useful of these two final methods is that using current, as
the minimum pick-up current can easily be obtained. By
using current x nominal impedance in place of current
as the independent variable, the curves are made more
general. The maximum point now corresponds to the
..,w normal system voltage. Such graphs provide the most
<{
f-
-'
o
>

CURRENT

FIG. 6. RELAY CHARACTERISTICS WITH CURRENT f-

Z
COMPENSATION. ::>
a:
w
Cl.

Compensation can also be obtained by introducing a 2 5 10 20 50 10C

step in the current-input to the relay. The resulting curve CURRENT-AMPS
is then of the form shown in fig. 6. At first sight this is
attractive and enables the relay to operate down to lower FIG. 7. ACCURACY OF CURRENT GRAPH.

135
 It is again convenient to plot y on log. scales and x on
linear scales as shown in fig. 10.
'"
U
ZI'O ---- -----------
«
8a.
~
!:
Z
J
a:
'"a. f-
Z
J
2 5 10 20 50 100
VOLTS
a:

FIG. 8. ACCURACY OF VOLTAGE GRAPH.

'"
a.
H

'5 1·0 2'0 5 10 20 50

convenient method for plotting the results of steady
RANGE-y
state tests and enable characteristics of relays to be
compared and assessed quickly. FIG. 10. ACCURACY OF RANGE GRAPH.

Per-Unit Impedance versus Range Presentation

Polar Characteristics
The per-unit impedance versus current x nominal-
impedance method, while enabling relays to be assessed The accuracy-range curves referred to previously can
as individual items, is not readily applicable to assessing be plotted for various values of phase angle between
the requirement or perfomance of a relay in relation to a voltage and current. Normally only the curve at the
power-system. On a power-system, conditions are nor- nominal angle and either side of this angle is required. A
mally such that at a particular time, the source MY A and general idea of the relay performance outside this region
the length of protected line are known, the variable is best given by a series of polar characteristics taken for
factor being the position of fault. At other times the fixed values of current. It would be theoretically possible
source MY A may have different values. Information on to take such curves at fixed values of range (y) but in
the performance of the relay is required in terms of the practice such elaboration is unjustified.
length of line at which cut-off takes place as a function of
source MY A. Ideally this length is constant. These two
variables may be generalised in terms of per-unit fault
position (x) and "impedance range factor" 0') where Operating Time of Relays
x= ~ andy = ~ The variation of cut-off impedance with system condi-
Zrv Zrv tions is not in itself adequate for applying distance-
protection. It is necessary to know the operating-time of
and the symbols have the significance shown in fig. 9. the relays as a function of both fault-position and
The impedance range factor is conveniently referred to system-source conditions. In the simplified theory of
a~ range. distance-protection, a constant low operating-time of
say 60 ms is assumed for the zone-l relays which extend
to 80 per cent of the protected line. A further constant
time of say 300 ms is assumed for the zone-2 relays up to
ISO per cent of the first feeder. In practice the
operating-time of a relay may become very long for
fault-positions near the cut-off impedance. If the effect is
very marked the zone-2 relay may operate before the
zone-I relay. thus reducing the effective zone-l cut-off
FIG. 9. BASIS FOR IMPEDANCE-RANGE FACTOR impedance. It is therefore important to present informa-
tion as regards operating-time which can be readily
The variables x and yare related to the voltage and applied to the evaluation of such effects.
current applied to the relay by Conventional methods of presenting operating-time
are considered below.
E One common method is to plot operating-time as a
v x . E function of current for specified values of voltage. a
x +y Z, x +y series of curves being obtained as in fig. I I. This is
difficult to relate to system-conditions.
x - V An improved form is shown in fig. 12. Operating-time
or y
IZrv is here plotted as a function of fault-position. curves

136
 The per-unit impedance/range curves (see fig. 10)
.
E
400 already described are a particular contour curve in which
the operating-time is infinite, i.e. operation of the relay is
w 300 marginal. Similar curves can be plotted for a given
~
t- operating-time and will be of similar shape. By plotting a
~ 200 series of curves in this manner a contour graph is
i= obtained as shown in fig. 13. The outside curve repres-
c(
a: ents the boundary between operation and non-
:t 100 operation and thus shows the cut-off impedance. Succes-
o sive curves approaching the origin give decreasing
operating-times as the inputs to the relay are increased.
o 2 3 4 The time of operation for a particular set of system-
CURRENT conditions is obtained directly from the graphs by find-
FIG. 11. TIME v. CURRENT GRAPH. ing the fault position (x) and the range (y) corresponding
to the available source MVA and interpolating between
contours.
being given for various values of current. The fault- The curves can be extended to cover reset-
position is expressed on a per-unit basis, a value of 1 impedances and reset-times as shown in fig. 14, without
corresponding to the nominal cut-off impedance. It is any difficulty.
necessary to use great care in evaluating such curves
since a judicious choice of current values can give the
impression of good performance as regards operating-
time. Closer examination may show that curves are con- 1·0
centrated in the region corresponding to large inputs to 200ms
the relay.
)(
By replacing the constant current by constant range a I

set of curves corresponding to a given set of system- Z

Q
conditions is obtained. These are more easily applied. t-
The general form is very much as for the constant- lI)
oQ.
current curves of fig. 12.
t-
..J
~

it
'1 . 2'5 3 5 10 20 50 100
RANGE-y
w FIG. 13. CONTOUR TIMING CURVES.
~
t-
(,')
Z

~
a:
w lOOms
Q.
o 200ms

21·0 ~:::::::::::;;:;:::;::;;::-=~=:;=:-::
~
1·0 lI) r----_-'200ms
PER UNIT FAULT POSITION oQ.
t-
FIG. 12. TIME v. FAULT-POSITION GRAPH. ...J
~
c(
II.

RANGE-y
Contour Presentation
FIG. 14. EXTENSION OF CONTOUR METHOD TO RESET
With the methods of presenting operating-time so far
CURVES.
described it is necessary to provide a separate curve to
show the per-unit impedance range characteristics. It is
thus necessary to have two separate sets of curves
describing the performance of a relay. With the contour
method described below only one set of curves is used to System Application Contours
give complete information on both accuracy and The contour method of presentation can be extended to
operating-time. cover a complete scheme of distance-protection com-

137
prising a number of relays with different nominal-
impedance settings and extra time-lag relays. In this case
CUT-OFF IMPEDANCE
the nominal impedance used in the assessment of range
and cut-off point is taken as that corresponding to the l'OI====~=========::::::::::".....-
complete length of the protected line. All relay-
r-----__-"COOms
characteristics are then plotted on this basis. Overall
timing contours are assessed from the individual con-
tours for each relay and only composite curves need to
be drawn as shown in fig. 15.
Since the performance of the overall protection may
be quite different for different types of fault it will nor-
mally be necessary to have a series of diagrams covering
the principal types of fault such as phase-to-earth,
phase-to-phase, and three-phase.
The three-phase-fault condition is of particular
interest as in most forms of distance protection the direc- RANGE-y
FIG. 16. THREE-PHASE CONTOUR CURVES.

2' 0 f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Test Methods
ZONE 2 CUT-OFF
A method of testing distance-protection has been
:t developed in parallel with the method of presentation
~ r----_-J.1~200 m.
Cl , described which tests the protection under conditions
...
Z
..J ,
closely approaching actual conditions. In essence the
...
~
method consists of providing a mimic three-phase sys-
..J
tem with source impedances in which relays can be con-
~ I· 0 ~===='=='-="='==':::~"'"""I~.,___\_-_';_--- nected to the junction of source and line impedances.
z Contour curves are thus obtained directly in terms of
::>
a: calibrated impedances without recourse to measure-
...
Q.
ments of voltage and current, thus eliminating one
source of errors immediately. The phase angle of the
source impedances can be altered, thus enabling desired
transient conditions to be set up.
The test-bench which enables such tests to be made is
described in the following article.
RANG£-y

COMPOSITE TIMING
ZONE I RELAY TIMING
ZONE 2 RELAY TIMING
Typical Characteristics
FIG. 15. SYSTEM APPLICATION CHART. Typical curves for a medium distance relay using the
methods outlined are given in fig. 17. These were taken
tional feature fails for faults at or near the relaying point. on a polarised mho zone-l earth-fault relay used in our
The forms of characteristic obtained is indicated in fig. type- H distance-protection. The two sets of curves relate
16. It will be noted that the fraction of the line which is to conditions of minimum and maximum transient. It is
unprotected for particular source conditions on the of interest to note the effect of the transient on the
power-system is obtained directly from the curves. This timing contours and also that with this particular relay
information is very difficult to obtain from the existing the boundary curves are identical. The latter feature
methods of specifying performance. indicates that transient over-reach effects are negligible.

138
 1·1 f-. I· 1
I ISO
- -- ,
1·0
- .:::: ~'~I 0
1-0

9tc - -
--
- t-- r;.-- r---..
'..-- p\1 0
l'(

z
1
·9
.&
-7
- --- t---..
1-1_ -..........
,
,
1"-,;t"
\; \ __6D
8

)(

I
-& f--;

7~- -
- _.
~-,._,_.
I
~ ~ ~ ~ ,-\ lOp
,\ 1'\ \ \ &P
2,6
"'",4 I' \
\-.- \ Z
o· 6
I
1\ \ 1\ \
\..\-~ [4 \ 0
!:
~ '5
\ P ....
iii '5
35 \
\
Q.
'4
I'vi \
,
o
Q.·4
....J
I _.
, , I
V
1\ 1 0
'J:=J 3S .....V I
\
<
-3
I'
V
\
\ , :=J- 3
< \
,
\ I

lJ..·
2 Y lJ..
2
\
, ,
/

V
/ I

I
I I \I
I
I
\ I

I I \ IY o / I....
....
\ I'
2 3 .. 5 7 10 20 30405060 I 2 3 .. 5 7 10 20 30 405060
RANGE - Y ZJ
RANGE-y_r"

(a) (b)
(Numbers on curves refer (0 operating-time in milliseconds ..lnd include 10 ms. for follower-relay),

FIG. 17. CONTOUR CURVES TAKEN ON PROTOTYPE MHO RELAY AS USED IN TYPE-H DISTANCE-PROTECTION. (a) NO
CURRENT TRANSIENT AND (b) MAXIMUM CURRENT TRANSIENT.

139
CHAPTER 10 Developments in Bench Testing Facilities
for Protective Gear
By F. L. HAMILTON, AND N. S. ELLIS.
INTRODUCTION
The testing of protective-gear systems and their con-
stituent components calls for test-equipment of a rather
specialised nature. The requirements of modern
protective-gear systems have increased the complexity
and cost of such equipment and the amount of testing to
be done has necessitated a speeding up in the procedure
of tests.
The tests which may be necessary on protective-gear
equipment are somewhat varied but, in general, will fall
into one or more of the following categories.
Investigatory
These include those tests which may be essential on
circuits and components during development projects.
The scope of these test may be large, as they often
explore a variety of effects, design factors, parameter
changes, etc. Tests of this type may also include investig-
ations into more fundamental problems, such as the
transient response of current-transformers and the
effect of this on various protective-systems.
The information obtained from such investigations is
often used to check the soundness of new ideas and
provide practical design-data upon which new experi-
mental equipment may be based or by which existing
designs may be modified to improve their performance.
Performance Testing
The overall performance of protective-systems,
relays, and the like is an important aspect of protective-
gear testing. Tests of this type may be concerned with
experimental and production prototypes or with the cer-
tificiation and type-testing of new protective-gear
equipment or relays.
In the past, a large amount of the testing referred to
above has required heavy-current rigs, which are costly
and limited in flexibility. Such heavy-current rigs require
extensive machine supplies, the demands upon which
are so great that they often form a considerable limita-
tion to the number of investigations which may be
undertaken.
The protective-gear test-bench described in this arti-
cle was developed in order to replace the conventional
heavy-current and secondary-injection equipment in
many types of testing particularly those concerned with
investigatory work on experimental projects and pro-
totypes. The main requirements borne in mind in the
design of the equipment are as follows:
(a) Extreme flexibility of test circuit and conditions.
(b) Rapid setting up of equipment.
(c) Use of a.c. mains as the source of power.
140
(d) Provision of facilities for close control of the
test-conditions and parameters.
(e) Rapid rate of testing.
General-purpose Test-bench for Protective-gear
General
An overall view of the test-bench is shown in fig. 1.
The main primary circuits for the test bench are supplied
from the 440-volt 3-phase mains, with alternative
arrangements for taking this supply from a three-phase
variable-frequency machine when necessary. The max-
imum current which is taken by the primary circuits is of
the order of 120 amperes but, as tests at these currents
are of a limited time-duration, the supply need not be
rated continuously at this current. When the primary
currents are of the order of 10 amperes these may be
used on a continuous basis.
The main primary circuits are shown diagrammati-
cally in fig. 2, from which it can be seen that the three-
phase supply is applied, by a "fault-making" switch, to
two sets of variable impedances per phase, one of which
represents a generating source impedance and the other
the impedance of a line. The current-transformers, of
which there may be up to four per phase, can be con-
nected in various combinations according to the particu-
lar fault distribution which it is required to reproduce.
The primary circuit has two main functions:
(a) To provide primary currents in various combina-
tions of current-transformers, with control of
overall time constant, the point of wave at which
the fault is applied, the type of fault, and the
duration of fault. This function is required when
the bench is used for tests where only current is of
significance.
(b) To provide variable current and voltage condi-
tions at a relaying point with control of time
constant, duration of fault, point-of-wave, and
type of fault. This function is required when the
bench is used for the dynamic testing of relays
and protective-systems which require both cur-
rent and voltage, e.g. distance protection.
The equipment required for the above basic functions
lends itself to many other test applications which require
controlled current and/or voltage conditions. The vari-
ous units which make up the complete test-bench are
described in more detail overleaf.
Source and Line Impedances
One of the main requirements of test-equipment of
this type is to obtain current and voltage transients of the
 FIG. 1. VIEW OF TEST-BENCH.

MASTER CONTROLLED
r - TIMING - - SWITCHING - .....,

,---1-
01
I

>I: I
SE~UENCE UNIT

r - - - .,. - - - - - - 1-

I
I
I
1'- - - -,- - - 1--'
I _ I ~.uJ:.! ~ I. I
1 I I ~Vr-vrT ~
I
I
oI
*I

I
I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I
"I _I ~ AA.,(i -'=
I
I
I
~.....,---- ~ -'r': ._....:.,--0/'\..0-....;........1

I I I I I I I
01 >l: ~~----+-O-,\'<--"-I
I I I
I I I
0:
I
Ii'
I
VARIABLE
II CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS"
I
•
I
VARIABLE
~I
I
I
MAIN SOURCE I MAKE I FAULT IPRIMARY
IcONTACTORIIMPE DANCE tRIMARY-VARIABLE ISWITCH I IMpLE';AENCE ISELECTORSISHUNTS I
L L c.EC~1 ~M~ ~5~MP:..L _ _ 1 ..1 1_ _ .J
FIG. 2. SCHEMATI ARRANGEMENT OF PRIMARY CIRCUITS.

141
order of those which may occur in practice. The source practice. The line impedances are designed with a max-
impedances are designed with maximum X/R values of imum X/R of about 10 which corresponds to that of a
the order of 30 and these produce current-transients typical 275-kV line. Resistance can be inserted to
which are large enough to be comparable to those reduced this X/R value to about 2·6 which corresponds
obtained with generator and transformer impedances in to that of a typical 132-kV line.
The reactors in both source and line impedances are
CONNECTION REACTANCi AT 50 cIS air-cored so that they are completely linear.
UNIT '8 Two source-reactors are provided for each phase,
each having four sections. These two units are provided
3·0 ',0 with switches so that their sections can be connected in a
number of ways and the resulting impedances connected
singly, in series, or in parallel to give a total source-
impedance per phase, variable in relatively close steps
12·0 24'0 between 2 ohms and 144 ohms. This arrangement is
shown in fig. 3. The X/R values can be made constant
over this range of source-impedance. An earlier version
of the bench uses the simpler method of a tapped reactor
49·0 96·0
with manual plug-selection but this has the disadvantage
X/R (0) FOR ALL CONNECT IONS. 35
of a varying value of X/R over the range of impedances.
Source-impedance is not normally included in the
(a)
neutral connection, but where tests require a higher
value of zero-sequence impedance in the source, the

~
source-impedance of one phase may be connected in the

UNIT '9'
~
{} 0 Z neutral connection. This is permissible, since such tests
will invariably be concerned with single or double
phase-to-earth faults where one phase is not in use. A
0---0 0 3'0 12'0 49·0 neutral link is provided so that resistance may be con-
nected to simulate systems which have a resistance-
earthed neutral.
§ 6'0 9·0 190 54·0
Three line reactors are provided in each phase and in
the neutral. These represent, when all are in series, a line
of approximately 3·5 ohms, the sections being 0,5,1·0,

0 24·0 27·0 36·0 72·0

and 2·0 ohms respectively (at 275 kV). By shorting out
various sections, the impedance between the relaying
point and the fault can be varied from 0-3·5 ohms in

Z 96'0 99·0 109·0 144·0

steps of O· 5 ohm.
The neutral line impedances are half the value of the
phase line impedances, giving a typical value of Zo/Z\ =
(h) 2· 5 for the line. The arrangement of the line reactors are
shown in fig. 4.

~
UNIT '8'
0--0
§ 0 Z
5, 52
0---0

S3
<>--0 0 0 0 0
Imped •.mce of line units:
Phase 0 to 3 -5 ohms in 0-5 ohm steps "'itll phase-angles of
70 to 85 .

§ 0 2·0 4·0 5·34

Neutral

FIG. 4.
0 to 1·75 ohms in 0-25 ohm steps with phase-angles
of 60 or 70
ARRANGEMENT OF LINE IMPEDANCES.

0 0 2'56 9·0 16'0

"Make" Switch and Main Contactor
The function of the main contactor is to connect the

Z 0 2'9 10·6 32·0

(c)
FIG. 3. SOURCE REACTORS, SHOWING (a) CONNECTIONS,
(b) RANGE OF SOURCE IMPEDANCE WITH UNITS IN SERIES,
AND (c) RANGE OF SOURCE IMPEDANCE WITH UNITS IN
PARALLEL.
voltage-supply to the test-bench a short time (about i
sec.) before application of the fault and to interrupt the
fault-current after the required duration of the fault.
With this arrangement, the main primary circuit is nor-
mally dead and is only made alive for the minimum
required time. The main contactor is of the heavy indus-
trial type and is capable of interrupting repeatedly the
maximum currents at very low power-factors.

142
 The "make" switch is required to apply the fault at a
particular "point-on-wave", so that high speed and con-
sistency of operation are essential. Experience has
shown that telephone-type relays with heavy-duty con-
tacts can perform this duty with comparative ease. The
arrangement adopted is shown in fig. 5. One telephone-
type relay with two parallel heavy-duy contacts is used
per phase, and two auxiliary relays, energised in parallel
with these, provide synchronised contacts for timing,
interlocking, etc. The standard contacts have been mod-
ified by the addition of a momentum transfer-device
with practically eliminates contact-bounce. Very consis-
tent operation is thus obtained and wear on these con-
tacts is negligible. The relays are energised from the
master control-unit as will be described later.
Current-transformers
Up to twelve current-transformers can be energised
from the primary circuit in various combinations. They
are of typical bar-primary design having normal 300/1
and 300/5 secondaries. Four primary windings are pro-
vided to enable the overall transformation-ratio (and
thus secondary current level) to be varied over a wide
range in close steps. These windings are in the propor-
tion 1 : 3 : 9 : 27 giving primary turns by addition or
subtraction of 2-80 in steps of two. Selection of the
primary turns is by means of a manual plug board which
FIG. 5. "MAKE" SWITCH ASSEMBLY.
143
also provides the facilities for interlinking the primary
circuits of the current-transformers to form the various
arrangements required. A tapped section of 10 per cent
of the secondary turns enables the ratio of some of the
current-transformers to be controlled by ± 10 per cent in
steps of 2 per cent. The arrangement permits tests up to a
current which is equivalent to 30 times the current-
transformer rating at fairly high values of X/R. The
amount of influence which the secondary burdening
exerts on both the magnitude and time constant of the
primary current is relatively small with modern low-VA
protection and the arrangement is a fairly close approx-
imation to a current source over the whole range of
currents.
Typical arrangements of the current-transformer cir-
cuits are shown in figs 6a, 6b, and 6c.
It should be noted that the reversing-switch in the
primary circuits of some current-transformers enables
rapid change-over between a single-end-fed internal
fault, a double-end-fed internal fault, and a through-
fault, when balanced-current systems of protection are
being tested.
The provision of both I-ampere and 5-ampere secon-
daries on the current-transformers enables relays and
protection for either rating to be tested. Alternatively,
one secondary can be used as a search coil while the
other is in use, or can be used for the injection of d.c. or
a.c. ampere-turns into the current-transformer to simu-
late certain conditions.
Voltage-transformers
These are provided so that the voltage windings of
relays may be connected to the relaying point, i.e. bet-
ween the source and line impedances. They are of nor-
mal accuracy, suitable for burdens up to 75 VA, and are
of ratio 440/110 volts, open-delta windings being pro-
vided for relays requiring residual voltage connection.
The primary windings of these voltage-transformers
may be connected via a selector-switch to a number of
positions as follows:
(1) Continuous 440-volt supply. This is of use during
those tests and adjustments where a continuous
voltage-supply is necessary.
(2) The source side of the "make" switch, so that the
relays are energised at normal voltage prior to the appli-
cation of the fault-current. This represents the condi-
tion, in practice, of a fault occurring on a line which is in
service.
(3) The line side of the "make" switch, so that the relays
are energised by the fault-voltage simultaneously with
application of the fault-current. This represents the con-
dition, in practice, of a faulted line being switched into
service.
The general arrangements of the voltage-transformer
connections is shown in fig. 7. It can be seen from this
that the current taken by the voltage-transformers is fed
through the current-transformers. This is not completely
desirable, but with the normal voltage-transformer bur-
dens used in practice the reflected impedance of the
 voltage-circuits is so large compared with the line impe-
dance that the resulting errors are negligible. This con-
nection is preferable to that in which the current-
PLUG CONNECTIONS transformers are on the line side of the voltage-
transformers, since in this case the small voltage-drop

r across the current-transformers is imposed on the

voltage-circuits. This voltage-drop becomes significant
when testing with terminal faults close to the relaying
point with heavy currents.

REVERSING I AMP
SWITCH MAIN 'MAKE'
CONTACTOR SWITCH
(a) "-. \
LX /

FIG. 7. SELECTION OF VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER

CONNECTION.

Master Control-unit
The master control-unit provides the following fea-
I AMP tures:
(I) A safety time-lag of about! second between closing
(b)
of the main contactor and operation of the "make"
switch. Interlocking contacts on the contactor and
"make" switch ensure that the circuit is always broken
by the contactor.
(2) 360° control through a "selsyn" and thyratron cir-
cuit for selecting the point-on-wave at which the "make"
switch closes its contacts. This is accurate and consistent
within about 1° or 2°.
(3) A timing circuit which controls the duration of the
fault-current. Extreme accuracy of interruption of the
circuit is not possible but the duration of fault may be
adjusted from short faults of the order of 3 loops up to
long faults of the order of seconds.
(4) A variable pulse which can be used for triggering an
oscilloscope at any point in the fault-sequence. This
means that the whole of the fault may be observed on a
slow time base or that any part of the fault or associated
phenomena may be recorded in an expanded form by
using a fast time base. This feature is extremely valuable,
espeically when used with an oscilloscope equipped with
a long persistence tube. Full advantage may be taken of
the rapid testing-rate as photographic records may be
kept down to a minimum.
The general arrangement of the lastest type of
control-unit which has been developed is shown in block
form in fig. 8. The unit is shown withdrawn from the
panel in fig. 9 which also shows the unit construction of
the Dekatron counter stages. These are made withdraw-
able so that units can be easily replaced or interchanged.
(c) The selsyn unit provides a variable-phase supply to an
FiG. 6. CURRENT-TRANSFORMERS SHOWING (a) ARRANGE- electronic squaring circuit from which a pulse-forming
MENT OF TYPE-A UNIT, (b) ARRANGEMENT OF TYPE-B UNIT, circuit is energised. The 51-cycle oscillator may be used
AND (c) A VIEW OF TYPE A AND B UNIT. as an alternative to the phase-shifter and this provides

144
 MAIN PHASE - 200 V0~----o<o----r---------,--------.
SUPPLY SH IF TER r-----., r---.L----,

SQUARING PULSE 10 mS 100 ms 1000ms

CIRCUIT FORMER COUNTER COUNTER COUNTER

--
-LC

C-MAIN
CONTACTOR
D-MAKE
D

TRIGGER
SELECTOR
INTERNAL
STOP
SELECTOR
SWITCH

n
BASIC PRIMARY CIRCUIT

A
+ FIRING FIRING

SOV
I ~ LOCAL:
PUSH 4:gV
) C
UNIT UNIT

DC
MAKE'
FIRING RE LAY
SWITCH
UNIT • E'
'D'

AUX 11iARY CIRCU ITS

CRO. TRIGGER

FIG. 8. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONTROL-UNIT.

the facilities for random point-on-wave switching which the main contactor. The duration of fault may therefore
is sometimes required. The pulse-forming circuit be controlled in IO-millisecond steps from about 2-3
develops a train of pulses at 10 ms intervals which, when loops up to 9t seconds. Facilities are also provided for
taken from the phase-shifter, are locked to a selected stopping the sequence, i.e. tripping the main contactor,
point-on-wave of the main supply-voltage. The pulse from a protection relay under test.
train actuates a 3-decade "dekatron" counter unit which The whole test-sequence is automatically controlled
gives a maximum overall time of 10 seconds. The from one push-button, the equipment automatically
counter system is arranged to start always on a pulse resetting when this button is released.
corresponding to the negative going half-cycle of voltage
out of the phase-shifter. Thus the firing unit for the make
switch, which is selected to a fixed SOO-millisecond point
on the second decade, always fires at the correct point-
on-wave which is indicated by the phase-shifter. The
firing unit of the make switch contains a thyratron which
is triggered at the correct point, discharging a condenser
through the "make" switch coil. Fast consistent opera-
tion of the "make" switch is thus obtained.
The trigger control for the oscilloscope can be selected
to any point in the pulse train thus enabling it to be up to
t second in advance or 9t seconds later than the firing
point of the make switch. This enables the beginning of
the fault to be observed or any point after to be
expanded on a fast time base. For complete convenience
in this respect, a variable 10-20 milliseconds delay is
fitted to the trigger circuit to enable triggering to be
effected at points between the pulses of the main pulse
train.
The internal stop selector is also capable of being
selected to any pulsc in the train and this is used to trip Fie;. 9. VIEW OF CONTROl.-UNIT.

145
Ancillary Equipment B

Apart from the facilities offered by the main primary

circuit, current-transformers, voltage-transformers,
control-unit etc., certain auxiliary equipment has been
included in the bench in order to extend its use and
provide greater flexibility. The main items are described
below:

Phase-shifters
A variable-phase supply is a frequent necessity in both
protective-systems and relay-testing and this facility has
440V MAINS
been incorporated in the test-bench. The normal rotary INPUT
phase-shifters have limitations which make them unsuit-
ta)
able for such use and a special static phase-shifting trans-
former has been built. The arrangement is as shown in
fig. lOa and is basically a tapped three-phase trans-
former energised from the same power-supply as the
main primary circuits. The taps are so arranged that the
manual plug-selection of the output circuits on the
phase-shifter panel provides a 240-volt supply adjust-
able in 100 steps through 3600. The plug-selection pro-
vides a visual indication of the phase-angle selected. The
turns on the various secondary taps are so arranged that
output-voltage remains constant independent of its
phase-angle. Variac transformers can be inserted in the
output to give control of the output-voltage. Two plug-
250 V
selector systems are provided so that two variable-phase OUTPUT
supplies may be obtained. The phase-shifter is capable (b)
of delivering currents of the order of 10 amperes without FIG. 10. PHASE-SHIFTING TRANSFORMER, SHOWING (a)
significant phase-shift so that there is no zero-correction ARRANGEMENT FOR 100 STEPS, AND (b) THE ATTACHMENT
necessary and the selected phase-angle may be referred FOR I ° STEPS.
to the main supply-voltage. Practice has shown that con-
trol in 100 steps is adequate for most tests. Where closer
control of phase-angle is necessary an external auto- Auxiliary A.C. and D.C. Supplies
transformer unit has been designed, as shown in fig. lab,
In view of the large number of electronic instruments
which gives control between the 100 positions in steps of
0 in use which require mains supplies, a number of mains
1 •
sockets are provided on the bench. These can also be
used for auxiliary voltage supplies of fixed phase-angle.
Voltage Simulators A II a-volt d.c. supply which can be used for repeat-
It is sometimes advantageous to use the main current contactors is provided on the bench. A repeat-contactor
circuits of the bench to energise the current circuits of a with seal-in contacts and lamp-indication is a built-in
relay, but to use voltages which change in a predeter- feature for relays with no repeat-contactor incorpo-
mined way (independent of the bench circuits) on appli- rated.
cation of the fault-current. A voltage-simulator unit has
been designed for this purpose. Potentiometers in each
phase-to-neutral voltage enable the voltages on each Timing
phase to be adjusted to a particular value to which they A portable electronic timer is normally used in con-
will fall from normal voltage when the current is applied. junction with the bench. The provision of contacts sync-
hronised with those on the "make" switch ensure easy
measurement of overall operating-times of relays and
Primary Shunts and Meters protection. Auxiliary contacts on the main contactor
The primary circuits are provided with current-shunts provide similar facilities for measuring the release times
so that the primary current-transient may be observed of relays on de-energisation.
by oscilloscope. A multi-range ammeter is provided
together with current-transformers so that the steady-
state current in any phase or the neutral may be meas- Oscillographic Work
ured. The facilities for triggering oscilloscopes on single-
An operations-counter is provided so that the number stroke operation enable transient phenomena to be
of operations may be logged. This is useful both from the readily investigated on the bench. The ability to repeat
test and maintenance aspects. shots under controlled test-conditions in conjunction

146
with long persistence tubes reduces photography to a
minimum. It is usually only necessary to photograph
traces when permanent records of a particular trace are
required.
Typical Application
Some of the applications for which the test-bench has
been used are described below.
Differential Protection
Most of the protective-systems based on current-
balance of current-transformers can be explored.
Protective-systems with up to four terminals can be
tested on a three-phase basis, and those with up to
twelve terminals on a single-phase basis. The steady-
state and transient balance of current-transformers are
readily checked by the equipment. The examples of
oscillograms shown in fig. 11 illustrate how clearly the
problems of transient balance of current-transformers
may be demonstrated. These records also show the con-
siderable time constants obtainable and the consistency
of point-on-wave switching.
Distance Protection
Individual distance-relays or complete distance-
protection schemes may be tested in a very realistic
manner with extreme rapidity. The provision of line and
source impedances affords a realistic relaying point for
distance-protection, the source-impedance being varied
to simulate the system plant conditions and the line
impedance varied to simulate the fault-position. Fine
control of the impedance relay setting is effected by
means of primary and secondary adjustments on the
current-transformers, thus enabling the accuracy of the
relays to be determined under switched conditions in
addition to ordinary static bench-test. The effects of the
primary transients on accuracy is important with high-
speed systems and this may be readily explored. Also,
147
the overall time of operation for faults within the zone
may be determined for various source conditions and for
varying degrees of transients.
With suitable interconnections it has been possible to
explore the effect of reversal of current-flow when a
switch opens under fault. The effect of the zero-
sequence impedance of transformers and the efficacy of
earth-fault compensation has also been investigated.
Relays
Tests on individual types of relays may be made with
or without the effects of current-transformers. Some
examples are as follows:
(a) The dynamic characteristics of instantaneous-
relays with off-set current-inputs.
(b) Timing characteristics of overcurrent relays and
overshoot measurements. The effect of current-
transformer saturation on time of operation of
overcurrent-relays.
(c) Dynamic tests on directional-relays.
CONCLUSION
The illustrations in this article apply to a new design of
test-bench just nearing completion. A previous pro-
totype design has been in use for three years and has
proved invaluable. It is of interest to note that nore than
100,000 operations have been done on the earlier test-
bench with practically no maintenance.
The principles developed in these test-benches have
been applied to the testing of production-equipment,
and a bench of similar type is being supplied to the
C.E.A. It is also of interest to note that the equipment
developed and the methods used are finding application
to University research. For example, a bench of this type
is being constructed at Manchester College of Technol-
ogy for use in post-graduate research and as demonstra-
tion equipment, the major items being supplied by
Reyrolle.
TISl I. Primary current <ldding to remanence
L

Maximum unbalance curren\.

lp

TISI 2. Primary current transient reversed. L

Unbalance current practically zem. Ip

TIS I J. Repeat of Test 2.

L
Small unbalance current as remanence
builds up. Ip

T~s I 4. Repeat of Test 2.

Maxinlunl unhalance current Lstah-

lished. Ip

Tics I 5. Primary current transient reversed.

i.
Unbalance current practically zero. Ip

FIG. 11. ZERO-SEQUENCE TESTS ON BALANCED EARTH-

FAULT PROTECTION WITH LOW-IMPEDANCE RELAY.

148
CHAPTER 11 Distance Protection of Feeders
By N. S. ELLIS.

INTRODUCTION
A variety of relays are used in modern schemes of dis-
x
tance protection as produced by different manufactur-
ers. These can be classified according to the theoretical
polar characteristics and the type of comparator used in LOCUS OF FAULTS
ON FEEDER
the basic relay element. There are only a limited number
of characteristics in general use. These are normally
referred to by the terms, plain impedance, ohm, reac-
tance, directional, mho, and polarised mho characteris-
tics. Any type of comparator can be used to produce any
type of characteristic. Thus while there appear to be an
exceptionally large number of relays in use, all with
---f--.l--------- R
individual characteristics, in fact the number of types is
restricted.
All distance relays are characterised by having two
input quantities respectively proportional to the voltage
and current at a particular point in the power system, 'X = Phase-angle of Feeder Impedance.
referred to as the relaying point. The ideal forms of such
relays have characteristics which are not dependent on FIG. 1. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM FOR SYSTEM FAULTS.
the actual values of voltage and current but only on their
ratio and the phase angle between them. These ideal
characteristics which define the conditions for marginal
operation are thus completely specified by the complex
impedance Z where Z = VII. The impedance Z can be x
shown on a complex diagram having principal axes of
(I
resistance and reactance. The modulus ZI) of Z when OPERATION OCCURS
plotted as a function of the phase angle (8) of Z com- INSIDE SHADED AREA
pletely defines the relay characteristics.
The locus of the impedances presented to the relay by
the power system can be superimposed on this same
diagram. Thus the locus of faults is a straight line
through the origin inclined at the angle of the line of
impedance to the resistance axis. This is illustrated in fig.
1. Other system conditions such as load currents and
power swings can also be represented and are consi-
dered later.

BASIC POLAR CHARACTERISTICS

Plain Impedance
The plain impedance characteristic shown in fig. 2 is the
simplest in use and consists of a circle with centre at the
origin. Operation occurs in the shaded area inside the
circle. The significance of this is that the relay operates
below a certain impedance level, which is independent
of the phase angle between voltage and current.
Mho and Offset Mho
A class of relays is used in which the characteristic is
again circular but is not now centred on the origin. The
term "mho" is given to the particular case where the
circumference of the circle passes through the origin as
shown in fig. 3. This term was originally derived from the
fact that the mho characteristic when plotted on an
FIG. 2. PLAIN IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC.
admittance instead of impedance diagram, gives a
straight line. The more general case where the circular
characteristic of the plain impedance case is offset by
varying amounts is known as the "offset mho" charac-
teristic. Different degrees of offset mho characteristics
are shown in fig. 4. Offset mho relays used in practice are
intermediate in characteristic between a plain impe-
dance and a mho characteristic and do not normally take
the completely offset form of fig. 4b.

149
 x The polarised mho characteristic is identical to the
mho characteristic. There are, however, important prac-
tical differences between relays with the two types of
characteristics. It should also be noted that the term
'polarised mho' is not in general use and has been intro-
duced in order that the two types may be distinguished.
In most of the literature, the term 'mho' is used indis-
criminately and a close study is necessary to determine
which type of relay is used.

Directional
The characteristic is a straight line passing through the
origin as shown in fig. 5. Operation takes place on one
side of the line as indicated by the shading.
X
FIG. 3. MHO CHARACTERISTIC.

x
----~---r'---7''_7'_7'_7'_7'-----R

FIG. 5. DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC.

Ohm and Reactance

The characteristics of this group are also straight lines
FIG. 4a. OFFSET MHO CHARACTERISTIC. but they do not pass through the origin. One of the most
commonly used forms is the reactance relay shown in fig.
6a in which the characteristic is parallel to the resistance
axis. Operation occurs for reactances less than this
value. Another is the ohm blocking relay in which the
characteristic lies parallel with the locus of the feeder
x impedance as shown in fig.6b.

BASIC COMPARATOR DEVICES

General
Comparators are conveniently divided into two groups
according to whether a comparison is made of the amp-
litude of the two input quantities or of the phase-angle
between them. In practice the two types may be made to
give exactly similar results and the arrangements of cir-
cuits may be similar. It is important to recognise the
distinction however as similar circuits used with the two
types of comparators will in general give different relay
---j-----------R characteristics. Thus, for example, as will be shown later,
the circuit used to produce a directional characteristic
with an amplitude comparator is identical to that used to
produce a plain impedance characteristic with a phase
FIG. 4b. ALTERNATIVE OFFSET MHO CHARACTERISTIC. angle comparator.

150
 x OUTPUT

(S,) Sr(S

R
/ FIG. 7. REPRESENTATION OF IDEAL AMPLITUDE
(OR PHASE-ANGLE) COMPARATOR.

finite amount for an output to be obtained. The equation

FIG. 6a. REACTANCE CHARACTERISTIC. is then modified to:
1f(So)1 > K + f(Sr)1I (2)
The function (f) is the same for both inputs and for
most devices is either a linear or square function i.e. the
signal is either of the form S or S'.
LOCUS OF Over the working range of the relay it is always neces-
FEEDER IMPEDANCE
sary for the constant K to be negligible so that the
simplified equation (1) may be used. This may be
x achieved in practice either by making the input quan-
tities very large or by modifying one of the inputs so that
a further constant which is equal and opposite to K is
effectively added to the equation. It will be noted that
the above expressions are independent of the angle bet-
ween the complex inputs.

------'-,-O""""-',-+-'',,---,f-------- R
FIG. 6b. OHM CHARACTERISTIC.
Amplitude Comparators
The general case may be conveniently represented as
in fig. 7 by a 'black box' with two pairs of input terminal
and an output which may take the form of an electrical or
mechanical signal. The two alternating input quantities
may be either voltage or current according to the par-
ticular device in question. If the two inputs are denoted
by an operating signal (So) and a restraint signal (Sr),
then the conditions necessary to obtain an output can be
expressed as:
I soe.1 sri (1)
With all practical comparators it is necessary for the
operating signal to be in excess of the restraint signal by a
Phase-angle Comparator
The general case may again be conveniently rep-
resented by the 'black box' of fig. 7, the two inputs
signals now being designated by Sl and S2' The condi-
tions for operation in the ideal case may now be written
as:
- ~ < Y <~ (3)
2 - 2
where y is the angle by which Sl leads S2'
In this case, the operation is independent of the mag-
nitude of the two input quantities.
With practical comparators, it is necessary for the
inputs to exceed a finite value before operation can be
obtained and the expression becomes:
f(1 SII,1 S2/' cos y) > K.
In the simplest case, this function merely involves the
product of the three quantities, i.e.
Isdls21 cos y > K.
Practical Amplitude Comparators
Beam Relay
One of the earliest comparators used, which is being
gradually superseded, is the balanced beam relay. In this
relay, two magnetic circuits are arranged to act at oppo-
site ends of a beam as illustrated in fig. 8. Assuming that

151
the turns are equal on the two coil systems and that the
magnetic circuits are similar, operation is obtained when
11 2>11,12
01 +K (5)
It is necessary to ensure that the operating and
restraining forces are adequately smoothed as otherwise
there is a tendency for the beam to follow the pulsating
forces and violent chattering may be set up. This is
CJ
RESTRAINT OPERATE
FIG. 8. BALANCED-BEAM AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR.
particularly the case when the two inputs are 90° out of
phase. It is difficult to design this comparator to work
safisfactorily over a large range of input quantities due to
the rapid increase of force with input-currents. The
beam must be designed to withstand the large forces
corresponding to maximum input and yet must also be
sufficiently light to enable a small control force K to be
used. The comparator is also very susceptible to posi-
tional errors as the operating force increases rapidly with
change in position of the beam.
The main application of this type nowadays lies in the
provision of cheap starting elements with limited range
and accuracy requirements.
Induction Disc
By providing two entirely separate driving mechan-
isms on an induction disc as shown in fig. 9, an amplitude
comparator is obtained. This unit suffers from most of
the disadvantages of the beam relay with regard to range
of operation but has not the positional errors, as the
forces are independent of the actual position of the disc.
It is much less efficient however and is slow in operation.
There is also interference between the two magnetic
circuits, which produces errors dependent on the phase
RESTRAINT OPERATE
FIG. 9. INDUCTION-DISC AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR.
152
angle between inputs. So far as is known, it is not used in
any modern scheme of distance protection.
This type of comparator should not be confused with
the induction disc or cup phase-angle comparators
described later. In the former the driving torque is the
sum of two separately derived torques, whereas in the
latter the two compared quantities combine in the pro-
duction of a single torque.
Moving-Coil Relay'3
A moving-coil relay (see fig. 10) with two operating
coils, the general construction of which is similar to that
OPERATE AND
RESTRAINT
COILS
FIG. 10. MOVING-COIL AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR.
of a loudspeaker movement, is currently used by one
manufacturer. With this unit, operating and restraining
forces are proportional to the input currents. This,
together with the high basic sensitivity of the moving-
coil relay, enables a reasonable range to be obtained
before thermal overloading limits the maximum values
of input currents. As the forces are independent of the
position of the coil the unit does not suffer from posi-
tional errors and also has a reset value equal to the
operating value. An alternative form of relay similar in
principle to an ordinary ammeter movment can also be
used. In practice this form is currently used only in
conjunction with the rectifier comparator. .
Rectifier Comparator'·
A comparator circuit consisting of two bridge recti-
fiers and a sensitive output relay is shown in fig. 11. A
moving-coil relay is normally used as the sensitive ele-
ment, both axial and rotary types being currently used.
The unit is capable of operating over a large range as the
sensitive relay never obtains large restraint or operating
inputs, these being limited by the action of the rectifiers
to a value in the region of 3 to 5 times the relay-setting.
Transductor 12
The transductor can be used as shown in fig. 12. The
output winding of the transductor is directly coupled to
an input winding to which is applied the operating-
current input. The restraint input is rectified and applied
to the bias winding of the transductor. The unit is inher-
 ~ LEAF SPRING

RESTRAINT OPeRATE
INPUT INPUT
FIG. 11. RECTIFIER-BRIDGE AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR.

ently sensitive but has certain disadvantages associated

with the transient response. It is not currently used by
any manufacturer.
Polarised Moving Iron"
FIG. 13. POLARISED MOVING-IRON COMPARATOR.

A large number of relays are in use which employ a

magnetic circuit and an attracted armature. These are of
two types, one of which is not sensitive to the direction of
the d.c. flux in the magnetic core and is not suitable as a
comparator. The other type has a permanent magnet
somewhere in the magnetic circuit and will only operate
for a given sense of the d.c. input to the coil system.
direction, the armature releases under the action of a
mechanical spring. The relay must be reset by hand or by
an auxiliary set of relays which complicates the overall
scheme of protection.

Practical Phase-Angle Comparators

Induction Disc
A torque is obtained by the interaction of the fluxes
OPERATE from the two magnet circuits which act in close proximity
INPUT
on the copper disc as illustrated in fig. 14. The unit has a
very low sensitivity and suffers from interaction between
the two magnetic circuits. It is also difficult io balance
and there is a tendency for spurious torques where only
one input is applied. It is currently used in directional
elements where high performance is not required.

RESTRAINT
INPUT

FIG. 12. TRANSDUCTOR AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR.

Relays of this type can be used as comparators by having

double coils, one being used for the restraint input and
the other for the operating input. Since the coils are on a
common magnetic circuit, there is a certain amount of
mutual coupling between the two inputs, which must be
considered in the design of a relay with such a com-
parator. One type which is in use is illustrated schemati-
cally in fig. 13. An armature is held in an operated
position in a loop magnetic circuit due to remanent flux.
When the flux in the magnetic circuit is in the correct FIG. 14. INDUCTION-DISC PHASE-ANGLE COMPARATOR.

153
Induction Cup' x
The induction-cup comparator is illustrated in fig. 15.
It is an improved version of the induction disc phase-
angle comparator just described. It is more efficient, can
work over a larger range of input quantities, and has very
little interaction. The forces are proportional to the pro-
duct of the input quantities. In order to limit the torque
produced at high inputs, a clutch mechanism is some-
times inserted between the contacts and the cup.

FIG. 16. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM FOR I z I< 1.

INPUT 2
If now the sum and difference of two input quantities
SI and S2 are fed to the comparator such that
So=SI + S2 and Sr=S]-S2,
the equation for operation becomes:
Is] + S21 > IS]-S21·
INPUT I If ~I = w where w is complex quantity with
FIG. 15. INDUCTION-CUP PHASE-ANGLE COMPARATOR. S2
angle y, this equation can be written as
Iw 1/
+ >1w-ll.
This can be seen to represent a straight line on the
Electronic Relays
imaginary axis through the origin as shown by the
Experimental comparators have been produced using graphical construction of fig. 17. This however, is the
valve circuits 1" 15. Many of these have been very crude characteristic of the ideal phase-angle comparator and
and lacking in accuracy, while others, though accurate, can be expressed alternatively as
have been exceptionally complicated. None of them has
found practical application as yet apart from experimen-
tal insallations. Present indications are that the transis-
tor 18. 19. 20 offers a lot more promise here and may well
be applied in the not far distant future in applications
where exceptional range is required and for very high
speeds.
It will be noted that electronic comparators have been
described under the heading of phase-angle com-
parators. This is deliberate as they lend themselves far
more readily to this than to the amplitude comparator.

DERIVATION OF IDEAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Relation between amplitude and phase-angle
comparators
The expression for marginal operation of the ideal amp-
litude comparator has been given previously as:
ISol>lsrl
FIG. 17. IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM OF I w + 1I> I w - 1I
This can be written as:
The combination of an amplitude comparator and
1..-
Iz~ 1where z = -Sr'- ideal transformers is thus exactly equivalent to a phase-
So angle comparator and is illustrated in fig. 18. It can be
The characteristic of z on a polar graph is a circle as shown that the converse, as illustrated in fig. 19, is also
indicated in fig. 16. true.

154
 AMPLITUDE PHASE·ANGLE
COMPARATOR COMPARATOR

I
I

FIG. 18. EQUIVALENCE OF PHASE-ANGLE COMPARATOR TO AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR PLUS IDEAL

TRANSFORMERS.

In general, therefore, any characteristic which can be Plain Impedance Characteristics

produced by one comparator can also be produced by From what has already been done, it is fairly easily
the other comparator with a different combination of the seen that a plain impedance characteristic can be pro-
input quantities. The required relations are given below: duced by applying a quantity proportional to the system
or So=Sj + Sz and Sr=Sj-SZ, voltage as the restraint input, and a quantity propor-
tional to the system current as the operating input in an
or Sj So + Sr and Sz= So Sr' amplitude comparator. The system voltage and current
2 2 considered are those associated with the faulty phase or
Derivation of Characteristics phases.
General
Having shown the equivalent of the two types of com-
parators it is convenient to take each characteristic in
Thus I
11l2: ~I
Zr
where So = I and Sr = ~,
Zr
turn and consider first in each case that comparator
which most simply produces the desired results.
or I:£
Zr
I <1 where Z = .~I

AMPLITUDE
PHASE·ANGLE
COMPARATOR COMPARATOR

1 (VOLTAGE)
V\J'\JI.I ~-,

FIG. 19. EQUIVALENCE OF AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR TO PHASE·ANGLE COMPARATOR PLUS IDEAL

TRANSFORMERS.

155
 The phase-angle of the impedance Z has no effect on The overall equation becomes:
the ideal characteristics. In practice, however, it may be
significant where non-ideal comparators are used in
which the characteristic is not an exact circle.
I~ -nI I</11,
which reduces to:
Directional Characteristic I
Z-nZrLSI Zrl·
From the previous analysis, it is again easy to see that a This can be seen to represent a circle by the graphical
directional characteristic is obtained directly from a construction of fig. 21. The difference between the com-
phase-angle comparator by making one input propor- plex impedances Z, represented by the line OA, and nZr
tional to the system current and the other to the system represented by the line OC, is constant and equal to IZrl
voltage. if the locus of A is a circle with centre at C and radius
Thus - ~< (8 - ,8)-:s~where Sj = I, IZrl·
2- -2
v
Z;;-'
A
the angle of Zp is ,8, and
the angle of Z is 8.
The phase-angle of Zp determines the angle of the
perpendicular to the characteristic as indicated in fig. 20. IZ, I
The magnitude of Zp has no effect on the characteristics
in this case.

FIG. 21. CHARACTERISTIC TO IZ - nZ r I = I Z,I·

For the particular case in which n = 1, the circumfer-

ence of the circle passes through the origin. It should be
noted that this does not give a true directional action for
very small impedances which are obtained for faults near
FIG. 20. DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC. the relaying point.
The corresponding inputs in the case of the phase-
The corresponding inputs to the amplitude com- angle comparator are obtained as:
parator become: S 1- (1-n)1+ V/Zr and S2= (1+n)I - V/Zr
2 2
So = I + ~and S, = I - ~,
Zp Zp
Ohm Characteristic
and the overall equation for the amplitude comparator
is: The ohm characteristic is obtained with the amplitude
comparator by feeding the voltage signal into each side
of the comparator and the current into the operating
side. The inputs are given by
Offset Mho Characteristic V
So=I +--.
An offset mho characteristic is obtained with an amp- Z,
litude comparator by taking a plain impedance relay as _ V
described and feeding a fraction of the operating current S,---.
into the restraint input. Thus the two inputs are now Z,
given by: The overall equation thus becomes
So = I, and S, = -v- - nl.
Z, I ~ I < 'I + iI and Izi <I z, + ZI·
156
 This represents a straight line as illustrated in fig. 22.
The perpendicular to this line from the origin is equal to
Z,/2. The phase-angle (ex) of Z, controls the angle at
which the characteristic is inclined to the axis.
x valent to assuming that the polarising and restraint cur-
to multiply both inputs by the same terms and consider
the phase relation between the following two modified
inputs
S'J= ~ '!:Lz, and S'2=Zr-Z,
V r Zp
The simplest case is where the input S' Jcan be taken as
a scalar quantity times the impedance Z. (This is equi-
rents are in phase.) This can be seen to represent a circle
by the graphical construction of fig. 23. The major
diameter of this circle is the impedance Z,. The condi-
tion that the angle between (Z) and (Z,-Z) is a right-
angle is that the locus of (Z) is a circle centred on (Z,) as
a diameter.

---+-----~~-- R

FIG. 22. CHARACTERISTIC OF I Z I < I Zr + ZI·

The more general case in which the voltage signal

injected into the operate side of the comparator is not
equal to the restraint signal results in an offset mho
characteristic. This form of offset mho relay has practical FIG. 23. POLARISED MHO CHARACTERISTIC.
limitations and is not in general use.
The corresponding inputs for the phase-angle com-
parator are:
_ I V I In the more general case where the polarising and
SJ--+--. and S2= -
2 Zr 2 restraint currents are displaced by an angle (y) the
characteristic is still a circle but of the form shown in fig.
24. The angle between (Z) and (Z,-Z) is now (90 _y) 0

on one side of the impedance Z, and (90°+ y) on the

Polarised-Mho Characteristics
other side.
This characterisitic is most easily obtained using the
phase-angle comparator. One input is taken from a suit-
able reference voltage which will be termed the polaris-
ing voltage (Vp ). The other is taken as the difference Z-Zr
between voltage and current. The two inputs can thus be
written down in the form.
Sl=~' So=I-~.
Zp - Zt
Generally, the polarising voltage can be related to the
restraint voltage by an angle (~such that
~=IC~
Vr
The ratio C can have any value.

To analyse the behaviour of this relay it is necessary to

determine the conditions for there to be a ::+::90° shift
between the two input-signals SI and S2. It is convenient FIG. 24. GENERAL CASE OF POLARISED MHO.

157
 In practice it is usual to work with the particular case
of polarising and restraint currents in phase, though
small angular shifts are used to some extent to swing the
characteristic round. The performance of a practical
relay deteriorates as the angular shift is increased.
The corresponding inputs in the case of the amplitude
comparator become
So =~ + 1 - -V-r , andS=~ -1+ ~
Zp Zr r Zp Zr

MODIFIED CHARACTERISTICS
E =30"
General
Modified polar characteristics can be obtained in a E =15'
number of ways. In general, these have found very little E =0°
application up to the present. A brief survey of the
various methods is given in this section.
FiG. 26. MODIFIED IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS.

Modified Two-input
Phase-angle Comparator
A phase-angie comparator can often be arranged so
that the cut-off angles are some angle less than 90°. The
equation can thus be rewritten as

This results in modified forms of the various characteris-

'---;---t- E ~ 30°
tics. These are shown in figs 25-27 for the directional,
plain impedance, and polarised-mho relays. The offset E = 15°
mho and ohm characteristics are of identical shape to the /
plain impedance and directional relays respectively but
with offset axes.

x
FIG, 27. MODIFIED POLARISED MHO.

\
\

The flattened form of polarised mho and offset-mho

characteristics are used by one manufacturer, the flat-
tening being at right anles to the locus of the system
fault.

Three-input Amplitude Comparator

-------:~::__------ R An amplitude comparator can be be made with three
inputs·. This can be represented by an equation
Isrli ± Isr21 < I Sol .
Elliptical characteristics are obtained by making the
inputs as follows:
SrI=V-ZA I
Sr2=V-ZB I
E =0° So=Zc I,
FIG. 25. MODIFIED DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTIC. and using the additive arrangement.

158
Thus Iv - ZAI/ + I ZBII < v- I Zcll, PERFORMANCE OF PRACTICAL
which can be rewritten as IMPEDANCE-MEASURING RELAYS
IZ-ZAI + I Z-ZBI < Zcl I General
The characteristics are shown in fig. 28 and can be The ideal polar characteristics so far described are inde-
deduced from the property of the ellipse that the sum of pendent of the actual values of current and voltage
the distance from the two foci to a point on the curve is applied to a distance measuring relay and depend only
constant. on the ratio of the input quantities. Practical distance
relays depart from the ideal and have characteristics
which depend on the actual values of voltage and cur-
rent. An approximation to the ideal is obtained only
over a limited range of input quantities. Inside this range
x the relay will have errors which are acceptable, and
outside this range it will have excessive errors and may
not operate. The operating time of the relay will be
variable depending on the individual magnitudes of the
input quantities, being for example long for small inputs
near the cut-off impedance and short for large inputs
/ well within the cut-off impedance. The complete rep-
/
/
resentation of a practical relay has thus to include infor-
Z-ZA j / mation on these aspects in addition to the ideal polar
/
/ /
characteristics.
/ /
I
I
/ Performance requirements of Power System
The requirements for a particular distance relay can be
assessed in relation to the power system by reference to
the simplified diagram of fig. 30. Z, represents the
------f-------R

Zs
I P
FIG. 28. ELLIPTICAL CHARACTERISTIC.

Using the subtractive arrangement and similar inputs

a hyperbolic characteristic is obtained as shown in fig.
29. Relays have been constructed using these com-
parators but have not found any application as yet.

FIG. 30.
r
BASIC CIRCUIT OF POWER-SYSTEM UNDER
FAULT CONDITIONS.

•,
I source impedance from the relaying point (P) back to
•, the generators and Zj the fault impedance of the power
I system from the relaying point to the fault. Both are
,
I
supplied from the open-circuit system voltage (E). The

. ..
Z-ZA, " ) Za current and voltage applied to the relay via the
, ,, , current and voltage transformers at the junction of the
.-
,,
two impedances are proportional to those at the relaying
Z-Za
, point. The source impedance (Z,) depends on the
,, amount of generating plant available behind the relaying
point and is directly related to the short-circuit MVA at
,"
J-- --- ------ the relaying point. This will vary according to the system
conditions but it will normally be possible to assign
ZA
upper and lower limits to the short-circuit MVA and
FIG. 29. HYPERBOLIC CHARACTERISTIC. hence to Z,.

159
 10
The fault impedance (Zf) is proportional to the dis-
tance of the fault from the relaying point. The ratio of
the voltage and current applied to the relay is always
equal to Zr, but the actual values are determined by both
....-
V
~
.. Zr
A
--
.. Ir AMPLITUDE
COMPARATOR
(CURRENT)
I
1">

Zs and Zf.
Consider a fault at the nominal cut-off impedance of
the relay. The impedance Zf is thus fixed and will nor- FIG. 31. PLAIN IMPEDANCE RELAY.
mall correspond to 80% of the line protected. The vol-
tage at the relaying point is then determined only by Zs.
For a very large MVA source, i.e. small Z" this voltage
will approach the normal system voltage. For a small
MVA source, i.e. large Z" the voltage will only be a
fraction of the normal voltage and will be determined by Compensation of Characteristics
the ratio Zs/Zf' A practical relay is required to work It will be noted in the above example that the
correctly between these limits of voltage. Since the top minimum current at which the relay can be used is
limit is normally fixed by the system voltage, it is usually appreciably greater than the minimum pick-up current.
necssary only to specify that the relay will work down to In order that the relay may be utilised to full advantage,
some minimum voltage V m' compensation can be added to produce a curve of the
Apart from the magnitudes of the impedances Zs and form shown in fig. 33. This compensation may take the
Zf it is necessary to consider their phase-angle. This form of a non-linear impedance in the voltage circuit of
determines the time constant of the primary transients the relay to prevent the voltage input being effective
which will occur in the voltage and current waveforms until a value is reached which corresponds to the product
when a sudden fault is applied. With high speed relays of the minimum pick-up current and the nominal impe-
this factor beomes of great importance as the relay is dance setting.
required to measure correctly during the transient
period.
As relays are generally connected to a three-phase
system, the problem is more complicated than that
shown in fig. 30 as different types of fault can occur. The
problem can always be reduced to the simple case for a
particular fault though it may be necessary to use differ-
ent values for the source impedance according to
whether the fault is to earth or between phases.

E
Factors affecting Relay Performance
Characteristics of Simple Relay
The various factors affecting the performance of a (b)
relay are most easily explained by taking a simple exam-
ple such as the plain impedance relay based on the V
amplitude comparator. Considering a linear comparator
comparing current signals, a circuit of the form shown in
fig. 31 could be used. The relevant equation for opera-
tion is Vm

These characteristics are shown in fig. 32 (curve a).

With zero applied voltage a certain minimum current
known as the minimum pick-up current (ip) is required
to cause operation. With increasing voltage the current
required increases linearly. At large inputs the impe-
dance setting of the relay approaches Zr which is taken
as the nominal setting of the relay. If limits of permiss-
ible accuracy are assigned as indicated by the line (b) and
(d), the relay characteristic must lie within the shaded
area to be of practical use. The useful working range of
the relay thus lies between the minimum voltage V m and
the normal system voltage (E).
FIG. 32. CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMPLE RELAY.
Compensation may also be obtained by introducing a
step in the current input to the relay. The resulting curve
is then of the form shown in fig. 34. At first sight this is
attractive and enables the relay to operate down to lower
voltages and currents. The extra voltage range can only
be obtained, however, at the expense of using the relay

160
 A relay is represented in fig. 35a which has a voltage
transformer burden Wand operates correctly from the
normal system voltage down to a minimum voltage Vm'
If transformers of ratio N: 1 are inserted in the input
circuits as shown in fig. 35b, the normal impedance
setting of the relay is unaltered because the ratio VI is
unaltered. The minimum voltage is reduced to VmN but
v the voltage transformer burden is increased to WN'. If
the useful performance range of the relay is expressed as
the ratio of normal system voltage to minimum voltage
for correct operation, this is related to the voltage trans-
former burden by:
a: VW.
Vm ---

W
FIG. 33. VOLTAGE COMPENSATED.
DISTANCE-
RELAY

in a very delicate state below the normal minimum set-

ting. This introduces problems of variation of setting (a)
with friction, of long operating times, and of general
mechanical instability. Voltage compensation is there-
fore to be preferred to current compensation.
2
WN
I: N . - - - - - - - - - , NI I: N

]IIINV DISTANCE-
RELAY
IIC
(b)
(a)Direct Connection.
(b) Transformer Connection.
v FIG. 35. RELATION BETWEEN VOLTAGE-TRANSFORMER
BURDEN AND PERFORMANCE.

The burden of the current input is related in a similar

FIG. 34. CURRENT COMPENSATED.
V.T. Burden and Relay Sensitivity
The optimum performance that can be obtained from
a given relay is directly related to factors such as the
burden on the voltage transformers at normal system
voltage and the minimum operating current of the basic
relay element. The relationship between performance
and voltage transformer burden is illustrated in fig. 35.
manner to the voltage range of the relay. Normally this is
not so important as the voltage circuit burden, the main
difference being that the voltage circuit is energised
continuously whereas the current circuit is only ener-
gised to any extent during fault conditions.
The voltage range of the relay is also closely bound up
with the sensitivity of the basic relay element. For a
particular relay the minimum current setting and hence
the minimum voltage setting is proportional to ~,
when w is the sensitivity expressed in milliwatts, all other
parameters being constant. The general expression
relating the voltage transformer burden and the basic
relay setting is thus of the form
E a: jlW
VOl \ W

161
Thermal, Mechanical and Saturation Limitations
The maximum voltage that can be applied to a given
relay is often limited by thermal effects. The designs may
thus be chosen so that the voltage corresponds to the
normal system voltage. This can be achieved by the use
of voltage-matching transformers or in most cases by the
suitable choice of turns level on the relay coils. With a
given sensitivity of relay element, this places a funda-
mental restriction on the maximum obtainable range.
Exactly similar limitations occur due to mechanical
forces and saturation of magnet circuits.
Distortion, Operating Time and Transients
Distortion of Characteristics
!he operating torque of a relay is in general of a pulsat-
Ing n~t~re due to the alternating nature of the input
quantItIes. When the operating and restraint inputs are
in phase in an amplitude comparator, this is not normally
of great consequence as the restraint and operating tor-
ques pulsate together and there is only a small residual
pulsating torque on the relay element. If the operating
and re.straint inputs are not in phase, however, very large
pulsatIng torques are set up. These may cause distortion
of the characteristics. For example, with a balanced
beam relay, violent chattering commences and the set-
ting becomes indeterminate. The effects may be minim-
ised by electrical or mechanical 'smoothing', but this
tends to increase the operating time of the relay.
Because of this, it is normal to arrange that measure-
ment ~s made w~en the inputs are approximately in
phase In any partIcular design of relay. Apart from the
fact that greater accuracy and consistency is obtained the
operating time is in general smallest along this axis.
Operating-time
The operating-time of a distance relay is dependent on
a number of factors and cannot be simply assessed. The
factors involved are: magnitude of individual inputs,
ratio of inputs, phase angle between inputs, and trans-
ient components of each input. In order that fast
operating-times can be obtained it is necessary to use
light movements with low mechanical inertia. This con-
flicts with the requirements for 'smoothing' and some
compromise is always necessary.
Transients
When a fault occurs on a power system a transient d.c.
component exists in both current and voltage inputs to
the relay. These transient components may cause 'over-
reach' of the impedance measuring elements, i.e. trans-
ient operation for impedance in excess of the steady
state setting. The transient components may alterna-
tively cause an increase in operating-time. By correct
162
design of the impedance element it is possible to minim-
ise the effects of the transients and still maintain a fast
operating time. Theoretically a relay can be made free
from transient effects by the correct use of a 'replica
impedance'. In essence the principle is to ensure that the
transient inputs are identical on both sides of the com-
parator. This is achieved by deriving a restraint current
from the voltage through an impedance which is equi-
valent to the impedance of the faulted line. The transient
components of operating and restraint currents are then
identical.
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION
OF IMPEDANCE MEASURING RELAYS
Cut off Impedance
Review of Methods of Presentation
Under the heading 'Factors Affecting Relay Perfor-
mance' the errors in a relay were assessed in relation to a
graph of voltage against current plotted on linear scales
(figs 32, 33, and 34). Such a graph does not enable the
errors to be determined directly and also has limitations
in that the lower ends of the scales are very cramped.
Alternative methods are reviewed briefly in this section
and indication given of the merits and demerits of each
form.
The first modification to the basic graph of volts
against amperes is to replace the linear scales by log
scales. Constant distances on the graph now represent
constant percentage errors and difficulties associated
with the cramping of scales at lower values are removed.
In order that errors may be measured directly, it is
preferable to plot the per-unit impedance as a function
of current or voltage. Per-unit impedance is the ratio of
cut-off impedance to the nominal impedance setting of
the relay, i.e. per-unit impedance of I is fully accurate. In
this case, the per-unit impedance can be plotted on a
linear scale and the current or voltage on a log. scale. A
comparison of the different methods is given in figs. 36
and 37. The most useful of the two final methods consi-
dered is that using current, as the minimum pick-up
'"0f------7'""""'========
I.>J
U
Z
«
a
I.>J
0-
f
'Z=
::J
d:
LlJ
O-l-r---L.,-----;--r--r---,--...;--
2 5 10 20 50 100
CURRENT (AMPERES)
FIG. 36. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE/CURRENT GRAPH.
 Ls

1'0
w
U
Z
-<
0
w
~
L
I-
Z
:::> FIG. 38. BASIS OF RANGE FACTOR.
d::.
""
<l..

2 5 10 20 50 100
VOLTS
w
FIG. 37. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE/VOLTAGE GRAPH. U
~ 1·0 I:===:=:========:::::~--
ow
1I-
current can easily be obtained. By using current times ~
nominal-impedance in place of current as the indepen- ....
dent variable, the curves are made more general. The Z
maximum point now corresponds to the normal system :>
~
voltage. Such graphs provide the most convenient w
1I-
method for plotting the results of steady-state tests and
enable characteristics of relays to be compared and '1 ·2 '5 "02"0 5 10 20 50
assessed quickly. RANGE 7j
FIG. 39. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCE/RANGE GRAPH.
Per-unit Impedance versus Range Presentation 17
The per-unit impedance versus current times
nominal-impedance method, while enabling relays to be
assessed as individual items, is not readily applicable to
assessing the requirements or performance of a relay in Polar Characteristics
relation to a power system. On a power sytem, condi- The accuracy range curves referred to previously can
tions are normally such that at a particular time, the be plotted for various values of phase-angle between
source MVA and the length of the protected line are voltage and current. Normally only the curve at nominal
known, the variable factor being the position of the fault. angle and either side of this angle is required. A general
At other times, the source MVA may have different idea of the relay performance outside this region is best
values. Information on the performance of the relay is given by a series of polar characteristics taken for fixed
required in terms of the length of line at which cut-off values of current. It would be theoretically possible to
takes place as a function of source MVA. Ideally this take such curves at fixed values of range (y) but in
length is constant. These two variables may be general- practice such elaboration is unjustified.
ised in terms of per-unit fault position (x) and 'impe-
dance range factor' (y) where Operating-time of Relays
General
x = ZF and y = ~, The variation of cut-off impedance with system condi-
ZN ZN tions is not in itself adequate for applying distance pro-
and the symbols have the si~I).ificance ~hown in fig. 38. tection. It is necessary to know the operating-time of the
The 'impedance range factor IS convemently referred to relays as a function of both fault position and system
as 'range' and this sliortened form will be used from now source conditions. In the simplified theory of distance
on. The variables (x) and (y) are related to the voltage protection, a constant low operating-time of say 60 mS is
and current applied to the relay by assumed for the zone-1 relay which extends to 80% of

v = (~: y) E
the protected line. A further constant time of say 300 mS
is assumed for the zone-2 relays up to 150% of the first
feeder. In practice the operating time of a relay may
become long for fault positions near the cut-off impe-
V dance. If the effect is very marked the zone-2 relay may
orx = - -
IZN operate before the zone-1 relay thus reducing the effec-
tive zone-1 cut-off impedance. It is thus important to
It is again convenient to pilot y on log scales and x on present information as regards operating time which can
linear scales as shown in fig. 39. be readily applied to the evaluation of such effects.

163
Review of Methods
Various methods of presenting operating-time
characteristics are in current use by various manufactur-
ers.
One common method is to plot operating-time as a w
I:
function of current for specified values of voltage, a i=;
series of curves being obtained as in fig. 40. This is o
difficult to relate to system conditions. z
~
An improved form is shown in fig. 41. Operating time «c<:
is here plotted as a function of fault position, curves w
0..
being given for various values of current. The fault posi- o
tion is expressed on a per-unit basis, a value of 1 corres-
ponding to the nominal cut-off impedance. It is neces-
sary to use care in the evaluation of such curves, it being
possible for all the curves to represent large inputs to the
relay. 1'0
By replacing the constant current by constant range, a PER·UNIT FAULT POSITION
set of curves corresponding to a given set of system
conditions is obtained. These are more easily applied FIG. 41. TIME/FAULT-POSITION GRAPH.
and assessed. The general form is very much the same as
the constant current curves of fig. 41.

The per-unit impedance versus range curve already

Contour Presentation
With methods of presenting operating time so far
described it is necessary to provide a separate curve to
show the per-unit impedance versus range characteris-
tics. It is thus necessary to have two separate sets of
curves describing the performance of a relay. With the
contour method described below, only one set of curves
is used to give complete information on both cut-off
impedance and operating time.
described is a particular contour curve in which the
operating-time is infinite, i.e. operation of the relay is
marginal. Similar curves can be plotted for a given
operating-time and will be of similar shape. By plotting a
series of curves in this manner, a contour graph is
obtained as shown in fig. 42. The outside curve repres-

H
z0 1'0
~
400 o 10
VI
o
0..
~
....J
~
u «
~ 300 LL

...J
...J
I:
LoU '1 '2 5 I 2 5 10 20 50 100
I: 200
~
RANGE Y
o
z FIG. 42. CONTOUR TIMING CURVES.
f=
~
u.J
100
0...
o
ents the boundary between operation and non-
operation and thus shows the cut-off impedance. Succes-
o 2 4 sive curves approaching the origin give decreasing
CURRENT operating-times as the inputs to the relay are increased.
FIG. 40. TIME/CURRENT GRAPH. The time of operation for a given set of system condtions

164
 Linear Comparator
The linear comparator has a characteristic as illus-
trated in fig. 44. It will be seen that the setting is constant
in terms of either input and that the curve has a discon-
tinuity at the point where the two setting lines cross.
Curves at different phase-angles between inputs are
parallel, the settings becoming higher as the phase-angle
difference is increased.

System Characteristics
Plain directional relays are normally only applied for
· I .2 ·5 I 3 5 10 20 50 100 earth-fault distance protection and are energised from
residual voltage and current at the relaying point.
RANGE !I Phase-fault directional relays are practically always
FIG. 43. EXTENSION OF CONTOUR METHOD TO RESET made in the form of crude polarised mho relay and can
CURVES. be treated by the methods developed for impedance
measuring relays. It is thus only necessary to determine
the relation between residual current and voltage at the
is thus obtained directly from the graphs by finding the relaying point for various source and line conditons to
fault position (x) and the range (y) corresponding to the obtain the requirements for practical earth-fault dirc-
available source MVA and then interpolating between tional relays.
contours if necessary. The general form of these requirements can be seen
The curves can be extended to cover reset impedances from a consideration of the simplified system of fig.
and reset times as shown in fig. 43 without any difficulty. 45(a) in which a single-phase-to-earth fault is consi-

PERFORMANCE OF PRACTICAL
DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
General
As directional relays have no impedance setting the
methods of specifying performance described for (a) \ (b)
impedance-measuring relays are not generally applic-
able. Only the contour timing curves are of any applica- 'i , \IiI
tion and these are normally considered in relation to an
overall scheme in which impedance and directional sonl-- !
relays are used in conjunction. This aspect is discussed
!'\I
later under the heading "System Application Charts".
So far as the directional relay is concerned, the main 20 1---+
i
!
I
- I
!
~.--t---t----t---t
,
I
information required is the relation between voltage and

IO~-i~'i
current for marginal operation of the relay. This must
then be related to the voltage and current available
under various system conditions. v
I
Voltage-Current Characteristics 5! I -"--r~~(C~)-
Square-Law Comparator
The characteristics of directional relays in use nowadays
can be divided into two groups, the square-law and 2 ·---1 . .-----+------+-~"",,.---t------+
i i , ...
linear comparator. These have appreciably different
characteristics. The square-law comparator has an equa-
! -! I
I L-....J __~_______' _ _______'__ ..l----:""_____'
tion of the form. I 2 5 10 20 50 100
lSI II I
Sz cos e > K
At a fixed value of the phase-angle between inputs this
(a) Square-law comparator.
is the equation of a rectangular hyperbola. Thus if the
(b) Modified square-law comparator.
characteristics are plotted on log.-log. scales the locus is
a straight line as illustrated in fig. 44. Curves taken at (e) Linear comparator.
other angles will also be straight lines parallel to the
original line. FIG. 44. SQUARE.LAW DIRECTIONAL RELAY.

165
 SOURCE LINE
IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
Zso Z/o
Z" Z/.

8-D------10~; D-----r-17
tva .J
SINGLE PHASE-TO-EARTH
FAULT

(a)

100

50 J----I------+---+_-r--I-----.'<---+~L-+__r_-+__r'_'---___+_r'_'_______'

J:-L---l.'<--~ 0 MI LES

20

10

5
In
to-
..J
0
>
..J 2
-<
:::>
0
V;
w
'"
'5
In In
In
W W W
..J ..J ..J

1: 1: ~ 1:
·2
0 0
0
0 ""
N
0
N ""
.I
.,
L---L-----.l

'5
.L--'------.l_---'--'-----.l_---'-'-_---'-_ _-'--_ _--'--_----'

I 2 5 10 20 50 100
RESIDUAL CURRENT (AMPERES)

Boundary curve shown for:

Source 100-2500 MY A. Line 100 miles.
(b)

FIG. 45. ApPLICATION OF DIRECTIONAL RELAYS.

166
 dered. For this system the following relations can be
shown to apply:
Residual current =31 0 =
ZSI(2+ Zso)+ Zf1 (2+~)
ZSI Zf1
Residual voltage=3V= -3Zso 10 ,
Considering the above expressions it can be seen that
low voltages and currents are obtained together with a
low source-impedance and a large line-impedance.
The boundary line within which the voltage and cur-
rent must lie can be plotted on a voltage/current diagram
as in fig. 45(b) if limits of source and line impedance are
known. In this diagram a particular type of system is
chosen by way of example in which the source has a
ZO/Zl ratio of 0·5 and the line has a Zo/Z ratio of 2·5.
Similar curves can be drawn for other examples. Consid-
ering a particular case of a 100 mile line and source
which can vary between 100 MVA and 2500 MVA the
area in which the directional relay must operate is indi-
cated in chain-dot.
From considerations of these curves and those given
in fig. 44 for the two types of comparators it can be seen
that the area covered by the square-law comparator is
far wider than is necessary. Under conditions of one
large and one small input to the relay the setting will
tend to be excessively sensitive. This introduces diffi-
culty with regard to spurious operation on small out-of
balance quantities under three-phase fault conditions. In
some practical relays using square-law comparators the
characterisitics have been modified slightly to the shape
indicated by curve (c) of fig. 44 to help overcome these
defects. The linear comparator is not affected to the
same extent by these effects.
Phase-Angle Characteristics
A general picture is best achieved by plotting phase-
angle characteristics on a polar diagram in similar fash-
ion to the ideal characteristics. Curves taken at constant
voltage and constant current are both useful to cover the
full field of the relay. A typical curve is shown in fig. 46.
FIG. 46. POLAR CHARACTERISTIC OF DIRECTIONAL RELAY.
167
POLARISING SUPPLIES
General
In the previous descriptions of impedance measuring
and directional relays, reference has been made to three
input quantities to the relay. These were operating cur-
rent, restraint voltage, and polarising input. The first two
determine the complex impedance (Z) measured by the
relay and are derived from the voltage and current
associated with the fault. The third quantity is essentially
a reference for determining the phase-sense of the
operating current and may be derived from a variety of
quantities. The requirements for the polarising input
may be summarised as follows:
(a) The phase-angle of the polarising input should be
fixed relative to the restraint voltage.
(b) The magnitude of the polarising input is unim-
portant so long as it is never zero, e.g. for terminal
faults, when the restraint voltage is zero the
polarising input must still exist.
In practice it is not possible to satisfy these two
requirements completely. The different methods in use
for polarising suffer from limitations and are discussed in
the following sections.
Faulty Phase Voltage
If the same voltage is used for polarising as is used for the
restraint voltage and the comparator input is derived
through similar impedance, the polarising signal disap-
pears when the fault impedance is low and thus this
method of polarising is not of practical use. It is worth
noting however that the phase-angle relation is always
satisfied. A combination of faulty phase voltage with
some other input is thus sometimes used to minimise
phase-angle errors.
Faulty Phase Voltage with Memory
If, instead of applying the faulty phase voltage through a
similar impedance to the restraint impedance to provide
a polarising input, an alternative impedance consisting
of a tuned circuit is used, it is possible to maintain a
polarising signal for a short time after a fault occurs.
Thus in the case of a terminal fault the polarising input
will be maintained sufficiently long for operation of the
relay to occur. This method, which is straightforward in
principle, is widely used in America by one manufac-
turer in this country. The two ideal requirements laid
down previously are not satisfied completely. From
application considerations, the most serious drawback is
that the arrangement is not effective when a line is
energised. The relay being initially de-energised the
'memory' is ineffective under this condition. The disad-
vantage can be overcome completely by using busbar
instead of line voltage-transformers.
The polarising current does not maintain a constant
phase relation to the faulty phase voltage. When the
fault occurs the phase-angle of the faulty phase voltage
alters whereas the memory circuit maintains a current at
the original phase-angle. The value of this shift is given
in Table 1 which summarises phase-angle shifts for all
the various methods of polarising. The amount of this
shift is not excessive and can be tolerated. It is men-
tioned mainly because the fact that it exists at all is not
always appreciated.
A further and more serious cause of phase-angle shifts
is due to variations in the supply frequency. The reson-
ant circuit always resonates at a fixed frequency whereas
the supply frequency may vary between certain limits. In
this country these limits are laid down as 47 to 51 cycles.
The error due to this cause is cumulative.The phase-
angle shift increasing with each cycle. To avoid trouble it
is essential that the 'memory' is restricted to about three
cycles at the most. This implies that the relay must be
very fast.
Healthy Phase Voltage
A polarising voltage can be obtained from one of the
healthy phases or between two phases. Numerous alter-
natives are possible depending upon whether the relay in
question is an earth or phase fault relay. The phase-angle
shifts associated with the principal methods in use are
given in Table 1.
The main disadvantage of this method is that in the
event of a three phase terminal fault the polarising vol-
tage disappears. This risk is normally accepted in this
country and no special measures are taken to cover this
condition apart from the back-up feature provided by
zone 3 of the protection. In a number of cases in
America it has been possible to use high-set overcurrent
relays which can protect for this type of fault.

Table 1
Phase.Angle between Polarising and Restraint Voltage.
The phase-angle by which the polarising voltage leads the restraint voltage is tabulated for various types of relay connections and
system connections. These cover the principal types of fault and limiting values of the source conditions. Under the column headed
"Source", the first letter indicates whether the source impedance is large with respect to the fault impedance, letter L-Large, or small,
letter S. The following figures give the phase-angle of the source impedance in degrees. The column headed K s gives the ratio of zero
sequence to positive sequence impedance of the source impedance. The corresponding value for the fault impedance is
taKen as 2· 5 in all cases. The phase-angle of the line is taken as 60 degrees.
In the main part of the table the firstletter denotes the magnitude of the polarising voltage, i.e. Large-L, small-S,
zero-a. The second figure is the angle by which the polansing voltage leads the restramt voltage.

Source Type of Fault

Relay
Connctions Value Ks R-N R-Y-N B-R-N Y-B-N Y-B R-Y-B
Restraint Vr S,- - L, 120 L, 120 L, 120 - - L, 120
L, 60 2·5 L, 134 L, 120 S,120 - - S, 120
Operating Ir L, 90 0·5 L, 139 L, 180 S,60 - - S, 120
Polarising Vb L,90 1·0 L, 150 L,169 S,82 - - S, 120

Restraint Vr S, 60 2·5 S, 0 S, 300 S, 60 - - 0,-

S, 90 t-l S, 30 S, 330 S,90 - - 0,-
Operating Ir L, 60 2·5 L, 0 L, 300 L, 60 - - 0,-
L, 90 0·5 L,30 L, 90 L,90 - - 0,-
Polarising-Vo L, 90 1·0 L,30 L, 19 L, 101 - - 0,-

Restraint Vy-B b S,- - - - - L, 90 L,90 L,90

L, 60 2·5 - - - L,90 L,90 S, 90
Operating Iy-Ib L, 90 0·5 - - - L, 120 L, 120 S, 90
Polarising Vr L, 90 1·0 - - - L, 120 L, 120 S,90

Restraint Vy-Vb S,- - - - - L, 120 L, 120 L, 120

L,60 2·5 - - - L,90 L,90 S, 120
Operating Iy-I b L,90 0·5 - - - L, 120 L, 120 S, 120
Polarising Vr-Vy L,90 1·0 - - - L, 120 L, 120 S,120

Restraint Vy-Vb S,- - - - - L, 240 L, 240 L, 240

L, 60 2·5 - - - L,270 L,270 S, 240
Operating 1y- I b L,90 0·5 - - - L, 300 L, 300 S, 240
Polarising Vb-Vr L, 90 1·0 - - - L,300 L, 300 S, 240

Restraint Vy-Vb S,- - - - - L,O L,O L,O

Operating I,-I b L,60 2·5 - - - L,O L,O L,O
Polarising Vy-Vb L, 90 0·5 - - - L,30 L,30 L,30
(Memory) L,90 1·0 - - - L,30 L,30 L,30

168
Residual Voltage
The residual voltage, i.e. zero sequence voltage, at the
relaying point can be used for polarising all the earth-
fault relays. The phase-angle is automatically correct for
an earth-fault on any phase for the appropriate relay. On
two-phase-to-earth faults, however, the shift in angle is
excessive for use with polarised mho relays. This limita-
tion does not exist with an earth-fault directional relay in
which the operating current is derived from the residual
current of the main system and this arrangement is
commonly used. The method suffers from the disadvan-
tage discussed earlier under "Healthy Phase Voltage"
above that no polarising is obtained for a three-phase
terminal fault. There is a further practical limitation in
that under conditions of long lines and low source-
impedances the residual voltages may become very
small. Relays can be designed to operate with this small
voltage but there is always the possibility of spurious
operation due to out-of-balance voltages appearing in
the residual voltage. This point has been discussed more
fully under "System Characteristics".
Residual Current
If a transformer neutral is available at the relaying point
a polarising current can be obtained from a current-
transformer connected to respond to neutral current.
The available current may be small if the neutral current
is shared by a number of transformers and may also vary
with system operating conditions. Normally the method
can be used and overcomes the limitations of very small
signals under conditions of long lines and low source-
impedances. The main practical drawback is that a trans-
former neutral may not be available for all system condi-
tions.
SCHEMES OF DISTANCE PROTECTION
Principle
Up to the present distance-relays have been considered
as individual units and their performances assessed in
terms of the single-phase voltage and current applied to
the relay terminals. In developing an overall scheme of
distance protection it is necessary to provide a number of
relays to obtain the required discrimination. The
method adopted in all medium and high performance
schemes today is known as the three-zone scheme. Con-
sidering this in relation to a single-phase system in which
only one type of fault can occur, the principle is illus-
trated in fig. 47. A number of distance relays are used in
association with timing relays so that the power system is
divided into a number of zones with varying tripping
times associated with each zone.
Thus the first zone extends from the relaying point to a
point just short of the far end of the protected line. The
first zone reach is normally set to between 80% and 90%
of the line, the margin being allowed to cover inac-
curacies in the relays and assessment of the system
169
impedances. In this first zone tripping is instantaneous.
The second zone reach is set to a point outside the end of
the protected line but short of the end of the next line in
the system. The second zone thus extends from the end
of the first zone to the second zone cut-off and covers the
remote line terminal. In this zone, tripping is delayed
sufficiently to co-ordinate with the operating-time of a
circuit-breaker on a zone-l fault. An external fault will
thus be cleared by the circuit-breaker of the adjacent
line section before a tripping impulse is received on the
protected line. The two zones described are sufficient to
establish a complete scheme of protection. It is custom-
ary however to provide a third zone as back-up protec-
tion. This is set to extend into the third line and has a
long time-delay of the order of 2 to 5 seconds. It is
important to realise that the operating times indicated
by the diagram of fig. 47 are ideal times and are not
obtained in practice. Near the cut-off points of the vari-
ous zones the times increase rapidly. Reference should
be made to the later section on "System Application
Charts" for practical timing curves.
Application to Three-phase System
In a three-phase system a wide variety of faults can
occur, i.e. phase-to-phase, phase-to-earth, two-phase-
to-earth, and three-phase. Some duplication of relays is
thus necessary in order to provide complete protection.
A number of methods can be adopted and are listed
below.
(i) Multiplicity of relays to cover all fault conditions.
Six sets of relays are required for the three poss-
ible phase-to-phase faults and the three possible
earth-faults. Other faults are covered by one or
more sets of relays. This method involves the
most equipment but is also the most reliable. It is
generally adopted by nearly all manufacturers for
all important applications.
(ii) Three sets of relays are sometimes used, which
can be switched to measure either phase-to-phase
or phase-to-neutral quantities. The relays are
normally connected for phase-to-phase fault
measurement and are switched to earth-fault
measurement by a residual current-detector. Dif-
ficulties arise due to spurious residual currents
and on changing faults. The arrangement is not
in common use.
(iii) One set of relays is used and can be switched to
anyone of the six measuring conditions. This
phase selection is normally accomplished by
over-current and residual current relays, but may
be supplemented by under-voltage relays. The
phase-selection relays restrict the application to
lower voltage and relatively unimportant lines.
The same difficulties are experienced with chang-
ing faults but are generally accepted as a reason-
able risk in this particular application.
 ZONE·) BACK-UP RELAY

I
ZONE-2 RELAY
I

DISCRIMINATING
TIME
H--- -----t-
CIRCUIT-BREAKER
OPERATING-TIME (C)

FIG. 47. TYPICAL STEPPED TIME/DISTANCE CHARACTERISTIC.

(iv) A method by which one set of relays can be used
for all faults by the use of static sequence net-
works has been considered. ,. The basic principle
is to derive the various sequence components of
voltage and current at the relaying point and
make use of the relation that
IV I I -lv 2 I -Iv o I
III I + 11 2 I + kil o I
This is reasonably accurate so long as the
phase-angle between source and line impedances
is small. Special methods have to be adopted
however for two-phase-to-earth faults for which
the expression does not apply. This method has
not been used in practice.
Earth and Phase Fault CompensationS
Having provided six sets of relays it is still necessary to
arrange the inputs in order that correct measurement is
obtained under all conditions. A typical arrangement is
shown in fig. 48. It can be seen that the quantities
applied to the various relays are as follows:
Phase-fault relays-Phase-to phase voltage.
Difference between phase cur-
rents.
Earth-fault relays-Phase-to-neutral voltage.
Phase current plus k times
residual current (31 0 )
where
~-,-1
k = _Z~l _
3
and Zo and ZI are the positive and
zero sequence impedances of the
protected line.
It can be shown that all relays measure positive sequ-
ence impedance for all appropriate fault-conditions. The
reason for the added component in the earth-fault relays
is that currents flow in the sound phases of the system in
the event of an earth-fault due to the various zero sequ-
ence paths via transformer neutrals. The presence of
these sound-phase currents induces a voltage into the
loop formed by the faulty phase and ground causing an
error in measurement. The added current component is
proportional to these currents and compensates for
them.

170
 COMPENSATION- RELAYS
TRANSFORMERS
n

I----_-~-~

f--_-~

For Red Relay I = IR + 3n l o

I 11 + Iz + (I + 3n) I
I = It + 12 + klo
k-l.
where k = 1 + 3n, or n = -3-

FIG. 48. CURRENT COMPENSATION.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLETE Phase-Fault Schemes

SCHEMES
General
The characteristics of complete schemes of protection
are conveniently expressed in the form of ideal polar
characteristics of similar form to those previously consi-
dered for single relays. The arrangements adopted for
phase faults and earth faults are conveniently studied
separately, different combinations of the various
schemes being used in practice. The principal forms in
current use are considered in the following sections.
ZONE 1 - - - -
ZONE 2 - - - - - --
ZONE 3 - - - -
Directional and Plain Impedance Relays
The overall characteristics are shown in fig. 49. There
are three identical sets of relays for the three types of
phase fault and one set only need be considered. The
direction of the fault is determined by a directional relay
and three separate impedance relays are used to deter-
mine the zone I, 2 and 3 cut-off points. The tripping
areas for the three zones are thus as indicated by the
shaded areas. The d.c. circuits associated with the relays
are shown in fig. 50. Operation of the directional (D)
and third zone impedance element (Z3) start a timing
relay (T) which permits tripping after a time-lag (T3).
Tripping in a shorter time is obtained if the zone-2
impedance relay (Z2) has also operated. Direct tripping
is obtained if the first zone relay (ZI) operates.
One of the difficulties associated with this arrange-
ment is the co-ordination between the directional and
the zone-I impedance relays. Under external-fault con-
ditions on an inter-connected system it is possible for a

+
D

FIG. 49. DIRECTIONAL AND IMPEDANCE

CHARACTERISTIC. FIG. 50. D.C. CIRCUIT.

171
 Polarised Mho and Plain Impedance
A B

e[~""'"-,.---~~.]e--
-~7 -- ~.
D
C FAULT
~ AFTER C OPENS ~ - -INITIAL
FiG. 51. CONDITION FOR SUDDEN
REVERSAL OF CURRENT.
sudden reversal of current to take place when one
circuit-breaker opens. Unless the timing of the direc-
tional and impedance relays are carefully co-ordinated
this can result in spurious tripping. The condition is
illustrated in fig. 51. There are two conditions which
must be satisfied.
(i) At terminal A the directional relay will initially
restrain and the zone 1,2, and 3 impedance relays
operate. When circuit-breaker C opens the direc-
tional relay will operate and the zone 1 and 2
impedance relays reset. It is thus essential that the
reset of the zone-l impedance relay is less than
the operating time of the directional relay.
(ii) At terminal B the directional relay, zone-2 and
zone-3 impedance relays will operate initially.
When circuit-breaker C opens the directional
relay will restrain and the zone-l impedance relay
operate. It is thus essential that the directional
relay resets before the zone-l impedance relay
operates. Thus both directional and impedance
relays require slow operating and fast reset times.
The "slow" is, of course, a relative term, as the
operation must still be fairly fast if the protection
is to be in the high-speed class.
In the arrangement just described four relays are
used. An obvious simplification is to use only one impe-
dance relay instead of three and change the setting by
the appropriate timing relays to obtain the second and
third zones. If this is done, starting must be by means of
the directional element only. A plain directional ele-
ment is liable to operate under load conditions, how-
ever, and such an arrangement is not very satisfactory.
By using a modified directional element, which is in
effect a crude form of polarised mho relay with very
inaccurate settings, this difficulty is overcome. The
arrangement is shown in fig. 52. It should be noted that
the circle shown for the polarised mho relay can vary
widely and does not give a precise cut-off point. The
general operation of the scheme is similar to that previ-
ously described and the same problems are encountered
as regards directional control.
With long heavily loaded lines, the inaccurate setting
of the polarised mho relay is not adequate to distinguish
between load and fault conditions. The polarised mho
relay can be made more accurate and provide the zone-3
setting. This simplifies the arrangements for changing
the settings on the impedance relays and makes the
scheme of wider application. In practice, however, the
limitations as regards operating time usually mean that
the scheme using off-set mho and polarised mho relays
described later is used instead.
Polarised Mho and Reactance"
With very short lines difficulty is experienced on arc-
ing faults due to the resistive component of the arc-drop
being added to the line impedance drop. In an attempt to
overcome this difficulty, reactance measuring relays
have been used instead of impedance measuring relays.
ZONE I
ZONE 2
ZONE 3

To avoid this race between contacts some manufac-

turers adopt the practice of directional control. In this
the impedance relays are short-circuited until the direc-
tional relay operates. This cuts out condition (i) com-
pletely. Of the two, this is the more onerous condition. It
can be shown that condition (ii) cannot in fact arise at all
if both lines are the same length, because the zone-l
impedance relay can never operate during the second
stage of the fault. This applies for any source conditions
at either end of the lines. The condition can arise if the
line AB is shorter than the line CD as may be possible on
a more complex system. Since in any case it is likely that
the impedance relay would then be operating marginally
with long time, the condition can normally be disre- FIG. 52. POLARISED MHO AND IMPEDANCE
garded as a practical risk. CHARACTERISTIC.

172
A polarised mho starting relay is used which also pro- ZONE I
vides the zone-3 setting, the reactance relay being set for ZONE 2
zone-l cut-off. The setting of the reactance relay is ZONE 3
altered by the timing relay to give the zone-2 cut-off. The
impedance diagram for this arrangement is shown in I
fig. 53.
The same problems as regards directional control
arise as discussed under "Directional and Plain Impe-
dance Relays" above. An alternative solution adopted
by one American manufacturer is to open the trip circuit
by means of an auxiliary element if the reactance relay
has not operated within 30 mS after the polarised mho
relay. To prevent a permanent lock-out of the trip circuit
in the event of slow operation of the reactance relay, a
further auxiliary relay reconnects the trip-circuit if the
reactance-relay contacts remain closed for 15 mS.
FIG. 54. OFFSET MHO AND POLARISED
MHO CHARACTERISTICS

ZONE I (ii) The tripping area associated with zone-l is small.

ZONE 2 This is of help in respect to power swings. (See
ZONE] the section "Power Swings" on page 29).
(iii) The area associated with the starting relays is
small. This is a help in cases where it is difficult to
distinguish between load and fault conditions.

Earth-Fault Schemes
Single Directional and Separate Impedance Relays
A single directional relay is used which is energised by
zero-sequence voltage and current at the terminal. This
is adequate for both directional properties and starting,
there being no difficulties associated with spurious oper-
ation on load currents. Separate impedance relays are
FIG. 53. POLARISED MHO AND used in each phase and are normally used for all three
REACTANCE CHARACTERISTICS.
impedance settings by alteration of settings. The
arrangement is illustrated in fig. 55.

The use of reactance relays is falling out of favour with

some manufacturers nowadays and their use has been ZONE I
discontinued. There are two main reasons for this: the ZONE 2
first is the preference for schemes in which zone-l trip- ZONE 3
ping is determined by one relay only in order to obtain
maximum speed. The second is that technically it is very
doubtful whether the use of reactance relays actually
improves matters when all system conditions are taken
into account. This aspect is discussed more fully later in
the section "Arc Resistance".

Offset Mho and Polarised Mho., 4.

This arrangement is shown in fig. 54. Zone-l is deter-

mined completely by a polarised mho relay and zone-2 is
obtained by alteration of the settings of this relay. An
offset mho relay is normally used for starting the timing
relays and for the zone-3 back up. This is set with the
backwards reach about 10% of the forwards reach. The
main features of this arrangement are as follows:
(i) The maximum possible speed is obtained for FIG. 55. DIRECTIONAL AND IMPEDANCE
zone-l faults. CHARACTERISTIC.

173
Single Directional and Separate Reactance Relays ZONE I -._.-
Reactance relays are sometimes used instead of impe- ZONE 2 - - - - - - -
dance relays for zone-l and zone-2 cut-off points. Due to ZONE 3
the large area covered by the reactance characteristic
associated with the directional characteristic an extra
impedance relay is added to restrict the tripping area.
This can be seen from fig. 56. This relay is normally used
to give the zone-3 cut-off point.

Offset Mho and Polarised Mho

With long lines and high source MVA difficulty is
experienced due to the very low polarising voltage avail-
able at the relaying point. This can be sometimes over-
come by using current polarising but this is not always
possible. A further difficulty is that a fairly low current-
setting is required for the operating current of the direc-
tional relay. With the long untransposed lines which are FIG. 56. DIRECTIONAL AND REACTANCE
becoming common nowadays, the zero-sequence cur- CHARACTERISTIC.
rent produced on a three-phase fault may be large
enough to operate the relay. As the phase angle is inde-
terminate this could result in spurious tripping. In such
cases, an identical scheme can be used to that already
described in the section headed "Offset Mho and Polar-
ised Mho" on page 26. This overcomes the difficulties
just described and also enables the faster operating-
times to obtained.

NnSCELLANEOUSPROBLEMS
Arc Resistance4
The effective resistance of an arcing fault is difficult to
assess accurately. The voltage does not vary uniformly
with current and the waveform is considerably distorted.
FIG. 57. ARC-RESISTANCE AND PLAIN IMPEDANCE.
The effect on the protection is also dependent on the line
length and spacing and imponderables such as the arc
length which is dependent upon wind velocity and other - t - - - - - - - - - - , - ---'- - ----.....I - -
variables. Published information on the subject gives a
figure for the drop of

V=drop in volts.
L=length of arc in feet.
I= current in amperes.

It is generally accepted that the effects become pro-

nounced with lines of 10 miles or less at the higher
voltages, and distance protection is not normally applied
to very short lines.
It is of interest to compare the errors produced by the
three types of relay characteristic in common use, i.e.
impedance, reactance, and polarised mho for various
system conditions. For this purpose it is not necessary to

174
J--
FIG. 58. ARC-RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE.
know the value of arc resistance accurately as relative
performances are being considered. In the simplest case
in which there is only an in-feed to the fault from one line
terminal the reactance relay has no errors, the impe-
dance relay has fairly large errors, and the polarised mho
relay is intermediate, the exact values depending upon
the angle chosen for the characteristic. Normally the axis
of the circle will be lined up along the axis of the line but
as can be seen there is a definite advantage to be gained
by setting the axis of the circle to a smaller phase-angle.
These conditions are illustrated in figs 57-60.
Normally there will be a feed into the fault from both
ends of the protected line. If the two in-feeds have the

FIG. 61. MODIFIED ARC-RESISTANCE AND PLAIN

IMPEDANCE.

FIG. 59. ARC-RESISTANCE AND MHO.

-~
----------~

FIG. 62. MODIFIED ARC-RESISTANCE

AND REACTANCE.

same phase-angle there will be no difference in the rela-

tive performance of relays. The actual effects of the arc
resistance will be accentuated slightly due to the larger
current in the arc. If, however, there is a phase shift
between the two in-feeds, as is quite likely when large
blocks of load are being transmitted on the system,
30" conditions are changed. The voltage across the arc can
now appear to have a reactive component. When viewed
from one line terminal this appears as a positive reac-
tance and when viewed from the other as a negative
reactance. The effect on the various relays is illustrated
FIG. 60. ARC-RESISTANCE AND MHO WITH A in figs. 61-64. It will be noted that the reactance relay is
SHIFT IN ANGLE. now worse than the polarised mho relay.

175

FiG. 63. MODIFIED ARC-RESISTANCE AND MHO.
FIG. 64. MODIFIED ARC-RESISTANCE AND MHO WITH A
SHIFT IN ANGLE.
Power Swings2 , 8
Distance protection, not being a true unit protection, is
affected by power swings on the system and can operate
under these conditions. The locus of a power swing can
be illustrated on the polar diagram as shown in fig. 65. It
will be noted that the locus is at right angles to the
general direction of the line impedances. In general
terms the mho types of characteristics are less suscept-
ible to operation on power swings due to their narrower
characteristics. If the system actually goes out of step of
course these relays will also operate. Because of this
special measures are sometimes taken to block opera-
tion during a swing. In general, these work on the time
interval between the operation of successive relays to
determine if a swing or a fault exists.
176
SOURCE IMPEDANCE
LINE IMPEDANCE
--------- lOCUS OF POWER
-------f'-f---------:~.;:..:.=-.::...: SWING
SOURCE
IMPEDANCE
-------
FiG. 65. Locus OF POWER SWING.
Double Circuit Lines
With double circuit lines there is an appreciable zero
sequence mutual coupling between the two circuits. The
impedance seen at the relaying point at the end of one
line is thus dependent on the current flowing in the other
line due to the induced mutual voltage. The apparent
impedance may become either larger or smaller depend-
ing on the direction of current in the unfaulted line. The
relay may thus tend to under-reach or over-reach respec-
tively. The amount of this over-reach or under-reach is
dependent on the line parameters, source and line impe-
dances, and position of fault. For a particular line con-
figuration it is possible to plot a graph as shown in fig. 66
in terms of the two range factors and the fault position.
The main axes are the range values of the source impe-
dances at the two ends of the double circuit line, Le. the
values YA and YB are equal to the ratio of the respective
source impedances to the impedance of one line. The
various lines on the graph represent the actual cut-off
point of the zone-l relays assuming that these have a
nominal cut-off of 80% of the line length. Thus, knowing
the values of the source impedances the cut-off point can
be estimated by interpolating between contours.
It should be noted that the maximum amount of over-
reach is restricted to the total length of the line and the
cut-off point can never extend outside the line length.
This can be shown to be independent of the line para-
meters and the actual value chosen for the zone-l cut-off
point. It is thus unnecessary to provide any form of
compensation for these effects in practice.
Setting Adjustments
Distance-measuring relays must be set to correspond to
the actual length of the protected line. These initial
setting adjustments may be made on either the voltage
or current inputs to the relay. In order that the perfor-
mance of the relay can be maintained for all values of
 ~:_zo xx~
y A="?-A9
Zo
YB=~~~
~y~/ez'----- J LJ
POINT -/
K=2'66
H= ·53
FAULT

100 V
,LIMIT OFn c 0-69
ATYA+o
~/ /
/ /
50 Ya ~oo
[7
I~
/~ /
20
rf\J
c:s~
/
/ /

V ",
-/

/V /V

--
./

~ It /
10
~
'/
/V r(I- C>'
5
L..---
,-/
,/ ~~~ V
iP
/ ",>x,1
2
/
:/ +~ 'l~ lA3~ -,/
'Y0~
~~/ / 0/~~"
>'B

V ?,O

--
·5

~
V
/
V/ / /
V~ l'
r(V)

/ V
/
1/
/ / / /
'05
/ I / / / /

'02
V
/
/
I
I / / / LIMIT OFn= 1

'0 I
·01 '02
/
'05 '1 '5
/ / V 2 5 10
>'A- 00
>'B- 0
20 SO
~
100
>'A
FIG. 66. CUT-OFF IMPEDANCE OF ZONE-l RELAY FOR VARIATION IN SOURCE IMPEDANCES.

setting the adjustments must be made on the current
input circuits. This follows directly from the considera-
tions of an earlier section headed "Characteristics of
Simple Relay" in which it was shown that the range of a
relay is dependent on the burden on the voltage-
transformers. Any alteration to the voltage input affects
the range of the relay. It is common practice therefore to
make the main initial adjustments in the current circuit
and to make only fine adjustments or zone-2 settings in
the voltage circuit.
Transient Response of Current-transformers and
Voltage-transformers
Current-transformers
With any form of distance protection it is necessary to
ensure that steady-state saturation of the current-
transformers does not take place when system condi-
tions are such that the relays are operating near the
cut-off impedance. This normally does not present any

177
 2f--------------------

ZONE- 2 CUT-OFF

I-----__~ --------
1200 m$
:r:
f-
t,)
Z
U.J
..J
\
Z
::::; I
ZONE-I CUT-OFF
:. .:_
\
[,.::,-~-~-~_:...:_:-_=-=-_=-_=_.:::_~_ =-=-=...::-=-=-=-='-='-=--\--------~-'---------

t:
z
::>
I
c>::
\
U.J
0..

-5 2 5 10 20 so 100
RANGE Y
- - - COMPOSITE TIMING
------- ZONE-I RELAY TIMING
- - - - ZONE-2 RELAY TIMING

FIG. 67. SYSTEM APPLICATION CHART.

difficult design problem. With high-speed protection it is System Application Charts

also necessary to ensure that transient saturation does
not occur under the same system conditions. This may
present difficulties with units having a high burden in the
current circuits.
Voltage-transformers
Electromagnetic voltage-transformers do not present
any problem as the primary voltage is reproduced faith-
fully in the secondary winding. With capacitor voltage-
transformers, transient voltages occur in the secondary
whenever a sudden change of primary voltage takes
place. These transient components consist of two
damped oscillations, one at a frequency higher than the
normal mains frequency and one at a lower frequency.
The order of these frequencies is 200 cis and 12 cis
respectively.
The effect of these transients will depend on the par-
ticular type of relay in use. Normally there is a slight
reduction in operating-speed of the protection. Cases
have occurred however in which mal-operations have
occurred with half-cycle protection in which this cause
has been suspected.
The contour method of presentation of distance relay
characteristics already discussed can be extended to
cover the performance of a complete scheme of distance
protection comprising a number of relays with different
nominal impedance settings. In this application of the
method it is convenient to take the impedance corres-
ponding to the complete length of the protected line as
the nominal impedance ZN' All relay characteristics are
then expressed on this basis and composite contours
drawn representing the performance of the complete
schmem, as illustrated in fig. 67.
As the performance of the protection may be quite
different for different types of faults it will normally be
necessary to have a series of diagrams covering the prin-
cipal types of fault, e.g. phase-to-earth, phase-to-phase,
and three-phase faults.
Special Applications
Distance relays may be applied to the protection of
transformer feeders and to tee'd feeders. In recent years
protective schemes employing distance relays and a car-
rier link between feeder ends have been used to an
increasing extent in order to provide high-speed clear-
ance over the complete length of line.

178
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following bibliography is not intended to be exhaus-
tive of the literature on distance protection. It has been
chosen so that further study may be made of topics dealt
with in this paper. To assist in this respect number refer-
ences have been given throughout the text to relevant
papers. Further references will be found in the bibliog-
raphies given in the various papers listed.
1. GUTTMAN, Behaviour of Reactance Relays with
Short-Circuit fed from both Ends, Elektrotech-
nische Zeitung, 1940. p.514 (in German).
2. CLARKE, Impedances seen by Relays during power
Swings with and without Faults, ALE.E., 1945,
p.372.
3. HUTCHINSON, The Mho Distance Relay, ALE.E.,
1946, p.353.
4. WARRINGTON, Application of the Ohm and Mho
Principles to Distance Relays, ALE.E., 1946,
p.278.
5. LEWIS & TIPPETT, Fundamental Basis for Relaying
on a Three-Phase System, ALE.E., 1947, p.694.
6. DEWEY & MCGLYNN, A New Reactance Distance
Relay, ALE.E., 1948, p.743.
7. GOLDSBROUGH, A New Distance Ground Relay,
A.LE.E., 1948, p.1442.
8. WARRINGTON, Graphical Method for Estimating the
Performance of Distance Relays during Faults and
Power Swings. ALE.E., 1949, p.608
9. BRATEN & HOEL, A New High Speed Distance
Relay, C.LG.R.E., 1950, Paper 307.
179
10. NEUGEBAUER, The use ofRotating Coil Relays and
Rectifiers in Protection, Elketrotechnische
Zeitschrift, 1950, August. (In German).
11. The Effect of Coupling Capacitor Potential Devices
on Protective Relay Operation, A.LE.E., 1951,
p.2089.
12. EDGELEY & HAMILTON, The Applications of
Transductors as Relays to Protective Gear,
Proc.LE.E., 1952, August.
13. RYDER, RUSHTON & PEARCE, A Moving Coil Relay
Applied to Modern System of Protection,
Pro.LE.E., 1950.
14. BERGSETH, An Electronic Distance Relay using
Phase Discriminator Principles, ALE.E., 1954.
15. All Electronic One Cycle Carrier Relaying Scheme,
Four papers, p.161-186, ALE.E., 1954.
16. GIBSON, Improvements in Electric Protective and/or
Fault Locating Systems for Polyphase Alternating
Current Power Transmission Network, British
Patent 743,323, 1956.
17. HAMILTON & ELLIS, The performance of Distance
Relays, Reyrolle Review, No. 166, 1956.
18. BERGSETH. A Transistorised Distance Relay,
ALE.E., 1956.
19. ADAMSON & WEDERPOHL, Power System Protec-
tion with Particular Reference to the Application of
Junction Transistors to Distance Relays,
Proc.LE.E., Part A, October, 1956.
20. ADAMSON & WEDERPOHL, A Dual-Comparator
Mho-Distance Relay using Transistors, Proc. LE.E.,
Part A, August, 1956.
CHAPTER 12 An Introduction to Distance Protection
By D. ROBERTSON.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
It is as well to remind ourselves at the beginning that
distance protection does not measure distance but actu-
ally the impedance between the relay and the fault.
However, the impedance of a feeder is related to its
length so that if the impedance per unit length of a feeder
is known the protection can in effect measure the dis-
tance to the fault.
H is fundamental to the requirements of discrimina-
tion that distance protection measuring characteristics
for direct tripping need to be directional. Also because
tripping is determined by measurement of the impe-
dance to the fault, fundamental accuracy is necessary
rather than comparative accuracy as required by diffe-
rential protection.
Thus a concept of zones of protection naturally
develops where the first zone of measurement is that
part of the protected feeder impedance to which the
distance really can be set without any possibility that
relay errors, instrument transformer errors or errors in
estimation of the power system impedances will cause
mal-operation. Typically a figure of 80% of the pro-
tected feeder length is chosen as first zone and many
installations are operating successfully using this zone 1
setting criteria. The advent of more accurate relays both
basically (i.e. better steady state accuracy) and dynami-
cally (i.e. little or no transient over-reach) has encour-
aged use of 90% of protected feeder impedance for zone
1 settings by some users, but most authorities prefer to
accept the better performance as increasing the safety
factors, considering that 80% of feeder impedance gives
adequate coverage.
There is some justification for increasing the percen-
tage coverage for phase fault relays but for earth fault
relays the uncertainty of determining the zero sequence
impedance makes it undesirable to change from the well
established 80% value.
The remainder of the feeder is protected by zone 2
which is set typically at 120% of the protected feeder
impedance. This means that zone 2 will operate for
busbar faults and faults at the busbar end of adjacent
feeders. This allows the zone 2 to provide busbar protec-
tion in its own right or to act as back up to a busbar unit
protection. Also the zone 2 acts as back up protection in
the important area at the busbar end of adjacent feeders
where, in general, a relatively high fault incidence may
be expected. Discrimination between zone 1 and zone 2
is traditionally provided by a definite time lag relay
which can be made to be very precise and relatively
unaffected by climatic and electrical environmental
conditions.
Thus the grading of zone 1 and zone 2 is simple
becausc it is only one step and only the circuit breaker
operating time has significant variation.
180
A third zone of protection is traditionally provided
which is not directional, this has special duties which
depend on the type of scheme and facilities required.
Because it is available for these duties it can also be used
as a second stage of back-up protection covering typi-
cally the next feeder in the forward direction and the
busbars and a small percentage of the feeder in the
reverse direction.
Impedance settings of this zone 3 are sometimes dic-
tated by the zone 3 other duties and may also be limited
by load impedance. Time settings of the zone 3 back-up
have to take account of any I.D.M.T.L. relays which may
be providing back-up for other equipment. This leads to
the difficulty of grading inverse characteristics with defi-
nite time lag characteristics. However, the zone 3 time
lag may always be set long enough to provide a back-up
to the I.D.M.T.L. back-up if co-ordination ofthe two is a
problem.
Individual relays may be used for each zone and the
six basic types of fault may each have an associated relay.
With this arrangement a three zone distance protection
requires 18 relays. There are two ways of reducing the
number of relays; first, common relays may be used for
zone 1 and zone 2; this is referred to as a zone switched
relay. Secondly, a common measuring relay may be
switched to the appropriate current and voltage signals
by fault detecting relays; this is referred to as a phase
switched relay.
This concept of zones with increasing settings and
time lags to give discrimination gives a very comprehen-
sive protection scheme when viewed from the total
power system aspect. In addition when the various zones
are programmed with other equipment to provide the
full facilities of which a modern distance protection is
capable, the fact that it is all provided from one set of
C.T. cores makes distance protection very attractive.
Schemes of distance protection were originally built
up from discrete relays of various characteristics with
interconnection being done at the panel building stage.
The need for faster and more sensitive distance relays
has been met by using semi-condl'~tor designs which
allows greater sophistication in the interconnection of
the various relays. However the inclusion of the relay
interconnection within the composite relay case can be a
disadvantage if the overall relay design is not flexible
enough to cater for the varieties and options within the
various types of scheme.
The inter-face between supplier and user is especially
important in this respect because communication of the
complexities and their possible options is not easy and
changes introduced late in manufacture or on site while
although unavoidable in some circumstances are not to
be recommended.
 x

10

30

]j 20

FIG. 2. CIRCULAR POLARISED CHARACTERISTIC-

FAULT CONDITIONS.

--~ ......=!:::=o_",------ --+_R W is ratio of minor to major axis = ZN : NZN

FIG. 1. CIRCULAR POLARISED CHARACTERISTIC-

BALANCED CONDITIONS APPLICATION - ZONE I W~----,--- w ~ 0.354
AND ZONE 2.
1-+-\--'\---- w ~ 0.5
x
I--f---\---- w ~ 0.6

1----+-- w ~ 0.75

w ~ 1.0

------'......",.-\-\-+---f----''--+-h'---f---,f----- R

___....... +-_...1.- ----,(- R

FIG. 3. CIRCULAR OFFSET CHARACTERISTIC FIG 4. CIRCULAR/ SHAPED OFFSET CHARACTERISTIC

BALANCED CONDITIONS AND FAULT CONDITIONS BALANCED CONDITIONS AND FAULT CONDITIONS
APPPLICATION - ZONE 3 POWER SWING BLOCKING. APPLICATION - ZONE 3 POWER SWING BLOCKING.

TYPE OF RELAY Further development produced a relay with a basic

Distance relays are generally classified by their charac-
teristic as defined by a polar characteristic using resis-
tance and reactance axes. Thus a plain impedance relay
will operate when the ratio between the voltage applied
to it and the current applied to it is a set value (setting)
irrespective of the angle between the current and vol-
tage. This characteristic is a circle with radius equal to
the relay setting and centre at the origin of the R and X
axes.
characteristic of a circle whose diameter is the relay
setting and whose circumference passes through the
origin of the R and X axes as illustrated in fig. 1. This was
termed Mho relay because of the fact that the Mho
characteristic when plotted on an admittance instead of
an impedance polar diagram gives a straight line. The
Mho relay is clearly directional and the characteristic
angle is at the diameter of the circle which originates at
the origin of the R and X axes. This characteristic is

181
generally designed with a polarising signal derived in represented typically by the characteristic in fig. 4.
part from the sound phase voltage (conventionally refer- This off-set element can be set to a variety of charac-
red to as Polarised Mho relay). With this type of polaris- teristics from the conventional off-set Mho circle to a
ing signal, during unbalanced fault conditions, when the narrow waisted characteristic by choice of simple links
faulted phase voltage can have significant phase differ- within its printed circuit. It is particularly useful when
ence from its reference but the sound phase voltages used as shown in fig. 5 where the links for the top half of
will not have changed their phase angle, the characteris- the characteristic are chosen to give a reasonably broad
tic will change to that shown in fig. 2. The extent to which coverage to allow for errors in the power system data,
the characteristic is changed is dependent upon the rela- fault resistance etc. and the lower half of the characteris-
tionship (magnitude and phase angle) between the tic is chosen as the narrowest to give very good discrimi-
faulted phase voltage and the sound phase voltage. This, nation with load impedance.
in turn, is dictated by the magnitude of the source impe-
dance in relation to the nominal measured impedance.
Hence the various curves for different values of SIR
(system impedance ratio). For balanced faults (i.e.
3-phase) the relay characteristic is the circle as in fig. 1
because all voltages are affected equally and remain in
balanced phase relationship.
Fig. 3 shows a modified impedance characteristic
which is called the offset Mho characteristic and is used
to supplement polarised Mho relays to provide definite
operation for close up balanced faults where the polar-
R R
ised Mho relay is not sure to operate. The offset Mho X X
characteristic develops from the requirements to have a
large reach in the forward direction to use as a starter
and overall back-up without encroaching too much on
the load transfer of the feeder. The load impedance 1,0 1.5

generally will be centred around the resistive axes and

thus the offset Mho relay gives better discrimination
with load whilst providing sufficient reverse coverage to
ensure operation for close up faults in the forward direc-
tion (line earth bars left on) or reverse direction (busbar
faults). FIG. 6.
DIRECTIONAL SHAPED CHARACTERISTIC
Where very long starter or back-up reach is required, BALANCED CONDITIONS
shaped characteristics need to be applied and these are TYPICAL APPLICATION - ZONE 1 AND ZONE 2
x SHORT AND MEDIUM LENGTH LINES

One of the problems encountered by distance protec-

tion is the possibility of relatively large values of fault
resistance in earth faults. This is obviously related to the
length of line or magnitude of impedance being pro-
1----W~O.6 tected because the fault resistance is determined by the
voltage, current and physical make-up of the fault. To
eliminate resistance from the distance relay measure-
ment on short lines, reactance relays may be used. This
type of relay characteristic is effectively a straight hori-
zontal line at the relay setting value above the R axes.
Theoretically a reactance relay will operate when a cer-
tain reactance is reached without any limitation as to the
---+---+_--L~f------ R
resistance involved. However, all reactance relays will
have limits and generally they are controlled by other
characteristics such as an off-set Mho starter to keep
their reach within reasonable limits. The use of two
relays to provide a composite characteristic has always
FIG. 5. CIRCULAR/SHAPED ASYMMETRICAL OFFSET
produced problems of contact racing, (if not in the oper-
CHARACTERISTIC BALANCED CONDITIONS AND FAULT ate mode quite often in the reset mode) and fig. 6 shows
CONDITIONS a reactance form of characteristic developed from a
APPLICATION - ZONE 3 shaped Mho characteristic thus giving a directional reac-
POWER SWING BLOCKING. tance characteristic produced by one element.

182
 x factor to compensate for the mutual effect. Obviously
ZN
SIR = 1.3 12 16
-+-.L-_....,I.O,.--~'-----:--"---+---~---:---- R relays will measure correctly. The phase fault relays will
FIG. 7. DIRECTIONAL SHAPED REACTANCE
CHARACTERISTIC FAULT CONDITIONS.
Because this characteristic is derived from the polar-
ised Mho characteristic it retains the change in charac-
teristic during unbalanced conditions as shown in fig. 7.
FAULT TYPES AND QUANTITIES APPLIED
TO RELAYS
Because the power system has three phases which are
carried on conductors in relative close proximity, the
effective fault impedance of the conductors is made up
from self and mutual impedance. Thus the fault currents
in each conductor inter-act with the other two conduc-
tors and incorrect measurement would occur if compen-
sation was not included to allow for this.
With phase to phase faults the fault driving voltage is
clearly the phase to phase voltage and the fault impe-
dance does not include mutual effects because equal and
opposite currents are flowing in the two conductors
which cancel out any induced voltages. It is conventional
therefore with phase to phase distance measurement to
apply to the relay phase to phase voltage and the differ-
ence of the two phase currents, (because these are in
phase opposition the difference results in twice the value
of one phase current) which results in a measurement of
one conductor impedance without any mutual effect.
(Self impedance minus mutual impecance which is equal
to the positive sequence impedance.)
With phase to earth faults the driving voltage is clearly
phase to neutral voltage and considering that the earth
fault current could all return to the sending end via the
earth path, considerable mutual effects can be present.
This results in an earth fault impedance 1· 5 - 2 times the
impedance measured by the phase fault relays. This can
be compensated for simply by an increase in setting of
the earth fault relays but for the fact that in some cases
the earth fault current may return on the unfaulted
phases (i.e. the sound phases). Thus if the earth fault
relays are arranged to measure the increase in earth fault
impedance caused by mutual effects by a simple increase
in fault setting, this must be cancelled if the earth fault
current returns via the sound phases. This can be
achieved by feeding a signal to the earth fault relays
derived from the sound phase current, and is referred to
as sound phase compensation.
An alternative compensation for earth fault relays is
to feed an additional current signal to the relay which is
derived from the residual current in the C.T.'s so that the
current which is flowing back to source via earth is
identified and can be fed to the relay with an appropriate
183
with this arrangement if the current returns via the
sound phases there is no residual current and hence no
compensation. Thus, in this case, the earth fault relays
basic setting is the same as the phase fault relays.
Under three-phase fault conditions there will be no
residual current and no mutual effect so the earth fault
be energised with phase to phase voltage which is equal
to phase to neutral vol+age times V3 and the currents
will be the difference of the two phase currents which in
the case of a three phase fault are displaced 120° in phase
and will therefore give a V3 times factor on the current
per phase. Hence both earth fault and phase fault relays
will measure three-phase fault conditions correctly.
SCHEME ARRANGEMENT
From the previous section, it is obvious that different
types of fault require different input quantities fed to the
relay and in full distance protection schemes it is conven-
tional to provide relays for each main type of fault. Thus
in each zone of protection six relays would be provided,
red-yellow, yellow-blue and blue-red for phase faults
and red, yellow and blue for earth faults. These would be
connected directly to the appropriate current and vol-
tage signals to measure their designated faults
To obtain individual measurement in each zone for
each type of fault a three zone full distance protection
would therefore use eighteen relays (or more correctly
eighteen measuring elements because with semi-
conductor design, the inputs and output tripping and
logic circuits are often commoned and the dedicated
element for each fault type resolves to a simple printed
card). The use of eighteen elements is regarded as
unjusitified economically for distribution systems and
schemes with less elements are readily arranged by, in
the first stage, using common relays for the first two
zones by switching settings on completion of the zone 2
time lag. This results in using 12 relays in a full scheme, 6
relays for zone 1/zone 2 and 6 relays for zone 3. This is
possible because the zone 1 and zone 2 relays are of the
same type (i.e. directional distance) and the zone 3
relays are non-directional. Where schemes use the same
type of relay for all zones, the setting can be switched
twice or more, however, there is a requirement always
for an independent set of relays to start the timing sequ-
ence. These detect that a fault exists and therefore have
to be set to cover the complete range of all zones.
The above schemes are referred to as zone switched
schemes and a further reduction in number of relays (or
elements) can be achieved by employing the technique
of phase switching. Phase switched distance relays gen-
erally use only one master measuring relay and three
starting relays and are referred to loosely as switched
distance schemes.
A typical switched distance arrangement is shown in
fig. 8. Because this relay is a semi-conductor design all
currents and voltages are fed to the elements via isolat-
ing transformers. The current transformers perform the
additional duty of providing the replica impedance so
V,o---,..,
[ R
STARTER

[ STAR
DELTA
SWITCHING
y
ST ARTER
) Z)
I

[ B
ISTARTfR

~
6 1 1 f---- ) T,

f---- ,
~ ZONE TRIPPING AND
T,
I, PHASE TIMERS SIGNALLING
1'0---,..,
f---- ,
SELECTION AND LOGIC

lL
LOGIC SWITCHING INDICATION T,

r-- ) 5S

I; PHASE
SELECTION
I
lL
CIRCUITS SR I

I,
\'I<ISl

\'POl 0
lL
MEASL'RI!'IG
11'11
ELEMENT
I--
h

lL T, TRIP RED PHASF

T, TRIP YELLOW PHASE
T, TRIP SLLF PHASE
SS SIGNAL SEND

y
N SR SIGl"'AL RECEIVE

lL FIG. 8.

that they provide to the measuring elements the current will reflect the primary impedance to be measured to the
signal as a voltage equal to I times the relay setting and relay at a level dependent upon their ratios Thus the
phase shifted to correct for the line angle. Thus the impedance presented to the relay:
current transformer in the relay has an angle setting and
an impedance magnitude setting. Zs = V s Vp x Ct Ratio
Is VT Ratio Ip
Residual compensation is provided for earth faults
and a second residually connected transformer feeds a Ct Ratio
neutral starter which switches the voltages from delta to x
VT Ratio
star when an earth fault is detected.
Offset Mho starters are used and these select the The relay is normally set to 80% of the line impedance
correct voltages and currents to the measuring element so that the relay setting would be:
dependent on the fault condition they detect. They also
start the zone timing which increases the setting of the Zr = 0·8 ZL x Ct Ratio
main measuring element. VT Ratio
These schemes which save in relay equipment are Positive Sequence
Zr relay setting; ZL
economical for application to voltages as low as 11 kV Line Impedance
but have the disadvantage of the dependence on the
starters to detect the correct type of fault. Sound phase
In the general case, the source impedance is signific-
currents, load current and complex fault conditions can
ant and during a fa:.Jlt, less than rated voltage is applied
cause incorrect measurement and this would only result
to the relay; as the source impedance increases, the
in incorrect indication in a full scheme but it could result
voltage applied to the relay reduces to a point at which
in incorrect tripping in a switched scheme if the measur-
the relay cannot measure accurately. It is important to
ing element was provided with incorrect measuring understand and allow for this limitation in applying dis-
quantities. However, provided the worst case can be
tance relays.
analysed, the use of shaped characteristics (fig. 5) will A typical relay is shown in block diagram form in fig.
allow wide application.
9. This is a semi-conductor design using a phase angle
comparator fed by amplifiers but a limit is placed on the
OVERALL RELAY PERFORMANCE sensitivity obtainable because of the linearity of the
Of necessity relays are fed from the power system by current transducers, among other things. Thus all dis-
current and voltage transformers and these transformers tance relays have a lower limit at which accurate meas-

184
 THREE INPUT COMPARATOR
IZ N
composite characteristics in fig. 10 and fig. 11 where fig.
lOis for the condition of minimum transient current and
fig. 11 shows the increase in time of operation caused by
maximum off-set current transient. The insignificant
transient overreach (i.e. little difference in the two
boundary of operation characteristics) which is typically
SJ obtained from semi-conductor designs should be noted.
The third input shown in the typical relay block diag-
-': PHASE ANGLE
ram in fig. 9 is a useful stabilising device for line drop-
COMPARATOR
v,
ping conditions. Line dropping can cause operation of
IZ"
distance relays with consequent difficulty when auto-
reclosing is being used. The third input is also used for
shaping characteristics.

END TO END SIGNALLING

FIG. 9.
OUTPUT
urement is maintained and this can be defined by voltage
limits. However, a powerful method of measuring dis-
tance protection performance uses the ratio between
source and nominal measured impedance, this is termed
system impedance ratio (S.I.R.). This value can be plot-
ted against the accuracy of the relay and the time of
operation in relation to fault position is shown in the
Ml~;IML'~ DC OFFSET
lO .... E I PHASE FAl'LT
One of the main objections to the use of distance protec-
tion is the fact that because of inaccuracies in the relay
and in the determination of power system data, the high
speed zone 1 protection can only be applied to operate
for faults within the first 80-90% of the feeder. This
leaves a proportion of the feeder at each end which can
only be protected by zone 2 of the remote distance
protection and unless additional equipment is used final
clearance of faults in these areas is delayed by zone 2
time.
The additional equipment used with the distance pro-
tection is generally some form of end to end signalling
which ensures high speed operation for all faults bet-
ween the two associated distance protections and, of
course, stability for faults outside the protected zone.

F·\lLT POSITlO",
FAL'L T POSfTIO!" SIR A~D OVERALL TIMISG CHARACTERISTIC This effectively gives distance protection a unit scheme
type of operation.
"',' 1--~~~~--~---
BOL~D."'RY
Of OPERATlO1'"

Before describing the various forms of end to end

signalling, a diversion describing extended reach
schemes is worthwhile because these are the most
economical method of providing the high speed clear-
ance over the whole length of the feeder which is a basic
requirement for auto-reclose schemes.
The basic scheme of extended reach operation is
arranged by setting the high speed zone 1 relay to over-
lap the adjacent feeder as shown in fig. 12(a). Thus a
fault in the overlap areas as represented in fig. 12(a) will
trip circuit breakers A, C and D. During the dead time
FIG. 10.
the auto-reclose relay will switch the zone 1 setting of the
distance relay to 80% of feeder impedance giving there-
fore the conventional stepped time distance protection
MAXIMVM DC OFFSET
lONE I PHASE FAClT
scheme as shown in fig. 12(b). Upon reclosing, circuit
FAlil POSITION
FAUl T POSITIONiSIR AND OVERALL TIMING CHARACTERISTIC
breaker A will remain closed, circuit breaker C will trip
1;~'r-_~BO~UN~D::AR~Y~DF~Dc:"~RA~T1~ON~ _ high speed and circuit breaker D will trip in zone 2 time.
Of course, if the fault is transient, all circuit breakers will
reclose successfully.
At the end of the auto-reclose reclaim time the zone 1
.60-1-----_ setting of the distance relays are switched back to the
20m!
extended reach as in fig. l2(a). Thus the scheme pro-
vides the high speed tripping at both ends for all fault
positions as required for the high speed auto-reclose
sequence. The disadvantages are that faults in the over-
lap area will trip a healthy feeder as well as the faulty
.>0 feeder causing additional circuit breaker operations, and
FIG. II. will give final clearance of one end in zone 2 time. These

185
 IA
rX"""J------------rrX!~-7r--------!'<l
(a) INITIAL CONDITION WITH REACH EXTENDED ZONE 1 SETTINGS (AT LEAST 120% OF FEEDER IMPEDANCE).
r------------
I
I,
~~T""A---I--------~!,~T""!---'1~,~~~~~~~~~~~~!5<~
• I
I I
4----------'
~
(b) FINAL CONDITION HAVING SWITCHED TO NORMAL ZONE I SETIING (80% OF FEEDER IMPEDANCE),
AND AUTO RECLOSED.
DOUBLE END FED SYSTEM WITH FAULT ON FEEDER CoD
factors must be taken into account when assessing the
economics of the scheme.
In choosing the form of end to end signalling to be
used the fundamental fact that the faster the signalling
channel, in general, the more susceptical it will be to
interference must be considered. The assessment of how
much the worst fault condition may interfere with a
given signalling scheme is not simple and therefore the
various types of scheme have developed to suit particu-
lar requirements as developed from experience in ser-
vice.
The simplest form of end to end signalling is to use a
plain intertripping channel to signal to the other end that
a fault has been detected in zone 1 and therefore the
other end should trip directly. The problem with this
arrangement is that interference at any time will directly
trip the circuit breaker and therefore the signalling
channel must be very secure and therefore generally
slow.
To improve the security of the end to end signalling
system, it is gated with a local relay and this allows a
faster signalling channel to be used because operation is
dependent upon both the signalling channel and the
local relay. One form of this scheme is shown in Fig. 13
where the signal to the other end is sent by the zone 1
which is set to its conventional underreach setting (80-
90% of feeder impedance). The received signal is per-
mitted to trip if zone 2 has operated and hence this
scheme is caJled the permissive underreach scheme. In a
switched zone distance protection the received signal
cannot be gated with zone 2 because it does not exist as a
separate relay and the zone 2 setting will not be effective
until after the zone 2 time lag. Thus in these circums-
~C ~
~-----------------~
I
I
J
r--------~
I
I,
~---------' ~
I
JI r RELAY LOCATION
- - INSTANTANEOUS TRIP
____ TIME DELAYED TRIP
FIG. 12.
tances a permissive scheme must gate with zone 3 which
because of its greater reach is less secure. However, an
alternative is to use the received signal to accelerate the
change of setting so that the zone 2 reach is made effec-
tive as soon as the signal is received. This system may be
classified as an acceleration scheme and is slower than
the permissive scheme because the zone 2 relay only
starts to operate after the signal is received. Thus a faster
signalling channel may be used for an acceleration
scheme because the time of operation of the zone 2
element is a safeguard against short pulses of interfer-
ence.
Very short feeders require the use of overreach
schemes because the distance relay settings may not be
low enough to match the line. Also with short lines the
fault resistance, which is determined by line configura-
tion, earthing and rated voltage, will be higher in rela-
tion to a conventional relay setting of 80% of line impe-
dance so that an overreach scheme may be used to
increase the effective fault resistance coverage. The
simplest form of overreach scheme is that using the zone
2 to signal the remote end zone 2 to trip. Thus tripping at
each end is dependent on a signal from both ends. This
scheme requires two independent signalling channels
because the permissive signal from one end must not be
confused with the permissive signal from the other end.
Because the received signal in the permissive over-
reach scheme has the same action as in the permissive
underreach scheme, the two schemes can be combined
as shown in fig. 14. This, of course, can only be achieved
when independent zone 2 relays are available and the
zone 1 settings are low enough to set to 80-90% of the
line impedance.
186
 ~l

~'
I

I i ~-- I
r-------- J ~---------..,
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I

: ~ ~:
:r;;~~ - -l- ~ +---- -- ~E£E.!V~ ~I
~"'-l:J- AND I I , ;'
;' -- -- - - - - - -:-
I
i -:- --1)G;,-:
I I
:
'-0-'.•
AND
I __ ~_~: ;V, I ~L__ I
I I SEND;' , I I I I
I I I ~ - - - - - - - - - ;'[. ' - - - - - - - - - - I I I

L.-@-----J : : : l ~-----_6l-~
~_[B_------~: I ~------~-t
____________ -4 PERMISSIVE UNDERREACH SCHEME. .... - - - - - - - - - ...
FIG. 13.

A particular problem of overreach scheme is when a
healthy circuit in parallel with the faulted circuit first
detects the fault in one direction and, on opening of a
circuit breaker in the faulted circuit, then detects the
fault in the opposite direction. This is the classical revers-
ing fault condition and may be allowed for by delaying
the tripping logic a short time to allow the establishment
or reset of the end to end signalling in relation to the
operation and reset of the overreaching distance relays.
Signalling channels for end to end signalling have
traditionally been provided by power line carrier
equipment operating over the protected line and it is
obvious that in order to receive a permissive signal or
acceleration signal the power line carrier equipment is
required to transmit through the primary fault. Experi-
ence has shown that this is a viable system but doubt still
remains in some minds and the alternative system of
using the signal to stabilise the remote end is thus
favoured. These schemes are referred to as blocking
schemes and generally require more complex relaying.
A simple blocking scheme is shown in fig. 15 where
the signal is sent to the other end if zone 3 operates and
zone 2 does not operate, thus indicating that the fault is
in the reverse looking portion of the zone 3 characteris-
tic and signalling that the overrreaching zone 2 at the
other end is not to operate. The basic problem of this
scheme caused by racing of the zone 3 and zone 2 con-
tacts is overcome by the short time lag relay (STL) and
provided that the blocking channel has a fast reset a
reasonable scheme is possible. However, the problem of
relative relay sensitivities could cause incorrect opera-
tion at marginal fault levels.
An external fault within the reach of the remote zone
2 relay must be blocked by operation of the local zone 3
relay which will detect the fault within its reverse reach.
If the zone 2 relay is intrinsically more sensitive than the
zone 3 relay low level faults can operate the zone 2 and
not the zone 3 thus giving mal-operation for·a low level
external fault.
To correct this the zone 2 may be made less sensitive
than the zone 3 relay but this may cause blocking of an
internal fault which could operate the zone 3 relay and
not the zone 2 relay at the low infeed end thus giving a
blocking signal and causing failure to trip. This is the
basic dilemma of simple blocking schemes and the
reason why blocking schemes tend to be more complex.
The classical blocking scheme uses elements for block-
ing which can only operate for external faults e.g. direc-
tional elements looking into the reverse direction. The
scheme is shown in fig. 16 where it can be seen that the
reverse directional element (ZIR) sends its signal to
block the remote end provided the local end zone 2 has
not operated, also a special 3 phase detection gate sends
a blocking signal to cover the condition when the polar-
ised Mho directional relays may not have correct polaris-
ing signals. Tripping is dependent on operation of both
zone 3 and zone 2 which ensures that the blocking signal
is more sensitive than the tripping signal because the
zone 3 is not as sensitive an element as the reverse
measuring element.
Where a full complement of elements (24) is incluGed
in the relay, independent zone 1 high-speed tripping can
be included. This is a very powerful scheme and the
blocking mode can be regarded as complementary to

187
 .I Z

I
' ..I
I

..... ----------..
1*
I ~I
~---------,
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I

: ~ ~:
L_
I
I
B<8No ---t~-l------~E£E.!.V~r--f~,...,,//
---:-l-l------~END
r I r;;'1 OR - - /f
// '"
-------

- - OR r;;'1 I
---t~-:---~NO
~------l-~.l--
I I
B-1 I
I I I ~-~--- 1 ---~- .... I I I
I~ I I I L- ..J I I ~I
t T) - - - - - -4 I I I I l. - - - - - T) ..
~ T, _ - - - - - - ~ : : ... - - - - - - T, - +
l..----------~ ~- !
PERMISSIVE OVERREACH/UNDERREACH SCHEME P DENOTES PROLONGED ZN OUT
FIG. 14.

.. I Z.

I
~1-4-*-----+-----if-¥I~-I I
~--------- ~--------I
I I
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I

1zJZlZl:
V
: rzJZJZ;l
I ~ TH I
I ~ I I r.l RECEIVE s:l I I I
I. --t-t1-u------ I
-!' /f------U--I-~I- I
... SIL AS[) --. I J ........... ./ I I .... - - - · \ . . D -B-1
: - - j - ... .l-.JIl---~END //<, .... , ~-...IJl--:-~L-- II
I I I ~ "" __ [..-1 - _ '" L.J I I
: t- T 1- - - - - , - - - - ~ -:- t I
.--Gl-------J: I I: . . -----GJ--.
t -0- --- - - --, :
~ - - - - - - - - - - - .. TRANSFER BLOCKING SCHEME
: .. - - - - ---~- i
..... ..
FIG. 15. WITH NON DIRECTIONAL BLOCK INITIATE.

acceleration and permissive schemes. tional reverse measuring element to be housed within a
Fig. 17 shows a dual element which allows the direc- standard distance relay.

188
 I
I

.. I
~ Z]
I
~ Z,
I

•
I
Z'R' Z,
I
J I
1 I

I~ I---A-~t--I-I
r---------I '--------- -
I
I
I
I
I

: ~ ~
: J;;71 ~ - -:- ~ J - 8 - - ~E.s:E.!.v5. .J;.... ,. - - - - - - IT]- -: - ~ ~ + -{7
t'"
I
I
I
~ "
AND - - --

... 1_,I I
I
I
--~-.-:--G1---~SEND
L:J 1_
I

I
,.."',. ~ -r- ""
"" - - -I-" r
I
I I
I
....... <"

I
4r--fJl-..J-.. .
l-~
I
I
---T- I
,- -..
I

I
I ... - I -
L
I
~
I
-
AND
0
-e!:J-"
:
I
I
Ir---J----------~]- ..
+- T2---
r-=[ili3-------,,-L.l-..,

... - - - - -
~
- - - ..I
II
lllR
I
~~tI:>l-t>-1
1__ .\'Il __ .\'-[)
I
~ I ~.J~"J
:
1_ ~"IJ .

"" ..'
lsi : L.------ T,-~I
.L.. - - - - - - -
~

- --4

FIG. 16. TRANSFER BLOCKING SCHEME _I Z,Z,Z. ZONE'NSTANTANEOUSELEMENT

llK BLOCK INITIATE ELEMENT
WITH DIRECTIONAL BLOCK INITIATE. STl SHORT TIME LAG ELEMENT
T;, ZONE 2 TIMER
T:, ZONE 3 TIMER
I INVERSION FUNCTION

x
ANCILLARY FEATURES
Line Check
Polarised Mho relays require a voltage signal to
ensure operation and the severe condition of a bolted
3-phase fault can cause failure to trip because the vol-
tage at the primary of the V.T. is too low to give relay
operation. The bolted 3-phase fault is caused by earth
bars being left on a circuit when it is closed. A special fORWARD POLARISED
feature can be provided for the special problem of the MHO

bolted 3-phase fault.

The zone 3 or starting relays are invariably not depen-
dent on voltage for operation and can thus be relied on
to detect the bolted 3-phase fault. Because this type of
fault can only occur when closing-in, the zone 3 or start- ---:::".....-====~"""=:::!==-.....c;'-- R
ing relay can be made to trip directly for a certain time
after closing-in and this feature is referred to as line
check. The switching of the time lag to give direct trip
from zone 3 or starting relays may be achieved by an
additional contact on the closing control (d.c.line check)
or by an undervoltage relay which detects that the line RFVERSE POLARISED MHO
has been de-energised (a.c. line check.)

Voltage Transformer Supervision

The distance relay is dependent on being provided
with the correct voltages for operation and also to main-
tain stability. Operation due to load current is likely if
the voltage signal is lost due to fuses blowing or being DUAL CIRCULAR POLARISED MEASURING ELEMENT
BALANCED CONDITIONS
removed. Supervision of the voltage signals to the dis- TYPICAL APPLICATIONS FORWARD - ZONE I AND ZONE 2
tance protection is therefore very important because the REVERSE- START FOR PROTECTION
SIGNALLING OR REVERSE DIRECTIONAL
whole operation of the distance protection is dependent FIG. 17. BACK·UP (ZONE 4)

189
 x with the attendant difficulties in ensuring stability, con-
sidering that it has to detect the difference between loss
of voltage due to a primary fault and loss of voltage due
to voltage transformer supply failure.
Power Swing Blocking
LOCUS OF APPARENT Any sudden power system disturbance results in trans-
IMPEDANCE DURING
TYPICAL POWER
ient changes in the generator angles caused by changes
SWING in the power demand and the inertia of the generators.
~=6"-£----,f--f-- R
With substantial power system disturbance the
generators can swing in this way until their apparent
impedance is contained within the distance relay charac-
teristic thus causing tripping. On transmission systems
POLAR CHARACTERISTICS OF OFFSET MHO where power swing is a likely condition, distance protec-
POWER SWING BWCKING RELA Y & ZONE
DISTANCE RELAYS tion can be fitted with power swing blocking which
-12v detects the power swing and blocks all the distance
measuring relays.
A typical power swing blocking arrangement is shown
R Y B RY VB in fig. 18. A relay which matches the zone 3 characteris-
tic is used with a time lag to detect the difference bet-
ween a power swing and a fault. A power swing changes
the impedance slowly from operation of the power swing
element to operation of the zone 3 element, so that the
power swing timing element can time out and block all
the distance measuring relays. On the other hand a fault
will effectively operate both the power swing element
and the zone 3 element simultaneously resulting in

RYB
PS
PST
-
-
-
PHASES
POWER SWING ELEMENT
POWER SWING TIMING CiRCUIT
--
PSTR

-
PSTR

...-
blocking of the power swing element and thus resetting
of the power swing timing element.

PSTR - POWER SWING TIMER REPEAT RELAY Directional Earth Fault

D.C. CIRCUIT - POWER SWING BLOCKING RELAY
FIG. 18.
upon the reliability of the voltage transformer output.
Two basic forms of voltage transformer supervision
are used, one which give an alarm only and therefore has
no special high speed requirement and the other which is
made fast enough to prevent the distance relays operat-
ing when a voltage is lost. With the high speed of dis-
tance protection measurement (typically 15 mil-
liseconds) the voltage supervision scheme to prevent
distance protection operation must be extremely fast
Certain power systems have a problem of high resis-
tance earth faults and, although the distance relay has
much better fault resistance coverage than is apparent
from consideration of the simple characteristics, the use
of sensitive directional earth fault relays is the only
solution when very high earth fault resistance is present.
The directional earth fault relay is essentially an over-
reach element and therefore if it is required for high
speed tripping it must be used in one of the overreach
types of scheme i.e. permissive over-reach or blocking.
In a classical blocking scheme dual elements similar to
the dual Mho elements would typically be used.

190
CHAPTER 13 Polarised mho distance relay
New approach to the analysis of practical
characteristics
By L. M. WEDEPOHL.
SYNOPSIS
The use of the polarised mho distance relay for the
protection of high-voltage lines has become widespread.
Up to the present time, the relay has been thought to be
of limited use in the protection of short lines, owing to its
relatively small reach for arcing faults. However, recent
practical tests have shown that the actual performance is
considerably better than that predicted by theory. A new
analysis is therefore developed in this paper which shows
that the polarised mho relay has an offset characteristic,
in the case of unbalanced faults, which encloses the
origin and hence enhances the relay reach in the direc-
tion of the resistive axis. The degree of offset is a func-
tion of the source/line impedance ratio of the system to
which the relay is connected. It is shown that the theory
developed is in good agreement with results obtained in
practice.
It is shown in an Appendix that the theory also covers
the cases of crosspolarised directional relays and
polyphase impedance relays, both classes of relay having
an offset characteristic.
The paper concludes by discussing the implication of
the results. It is noted that the polarised mho relay has
most of the benefits of the reacatance relay, while retain-
ing the advantages of being inherently directional and
insensitive to load currents and power swings. It is also
noted that, by using this method of analysis, the reach for
lines with series capacitance may be predicted.
List of symbols
V R , V y , V B = phase-neutral voltages of red,
yellow and blue phases,
respectively, at relaying point
I R , I y , I B = phase currents
E= phase-neutral generated voltage on
red phase
II = positive-sequence current
12= negative-sequence current
10 = zero-sequence current
K, KJ, K 2= relay constants
Zn, ZnJ, Zn2= relay impedance constants
8= angle of Zn
ZL = positive-sequence line impedance
ZLO= zero-sequence line impedance
Zs= positive-sequence source impedance
Zso= zero-sequence source impedance
p= Zso/Zs
q= ZLO/ZL
a= - i + ij\13 or /120 0
191
INTRODUCTION
In the past two decades, the use of polarised mho dis-
tance relays for the protection of high-voltage transmis-
sion lines has become widespread, because of their
inherent property of being simultaneously an impedance
and a directional measuring element.
This type of relay is associated with a number of
advantages and drawbacks, and these have in the past
been used as a basis for assessing its merits relative to
other schemes of feeder protection. It is inherently
directional and has the virtue that of all distance relays it
is least sensitive to power swings. 1 On the other hand, by
virtue of its constrained characteritic, it is rather insensi-
tive to resistive components in the fault impedance and
is, for this reason, of limited use in the protection of short
lines, when resistance due to fault arcs may be appreci-
able compared with the line impedance. In these appli-
cations it is customary to specify reactance relays' or
differential schemes of protection. The fault-arc prob-
lem is further aggravated by the fact that the polarising
voltage, derived from an unfaulted phase or a tuned
circuit, may be out of phase with the fault voltage.
Recent measurements have been made to investigate
the sensitivity of polarised mho relays to faults with
simulated arc resistance, and it has been found that the
results are not consistent with the present theory. The
relays are found to be capable of operating in the pres-
ence of fault-arc resistances which considerably exceed
the values predicted by simple theory; the situation
improves as the source/line impedance ratio increases.
As a result of these measurements, a new analysis of the
polarised mho relay was developed, and it is the purpose
of the paper to describe this, together with presentation
of results and consideration of their practical impli-
cation.
SIMPLIFIED THEORY OF POLARISED MHO
RELAY
It is well known that the characteristics of all distance-
relay functions may be obtained by using either an amp-
litude or phase-comparing measuring element. The rela-
tionships in the polarised mho relay are more readily
understood by considering the operation of the phase
comparator. Identical characterisitcs may be obtained
from both comparators if the following transformations
are observed:
Sx = i(SI + S2)
Sy = !(SI - S2)
or Sl = Sx + Sy The relative phase angle between Sl and Sz is not dis-
Sz = Sx - Sy turbed if they are multiplied by the same quantity, i.e.
(Zs + Zd/E. The two vectors to be compared in phase
where Sx and Sy are the operate and restraint input
are therefore
signals to the amplitude comparator, and Sj and Sz are
the two inputs to the phase comparator. The criterion for Sf = ZL
operation of the two relays is S2 = Zn - ZL
Sx ,:;; Sy The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 2, and it is clear
and -tr/2 ~ cP ~ Tr/2 that the locus of ZL is a circle with Zn as diameter.
In practise, the mho relay is not suitable as a direc-
where cP is the phase angle between Sl and Sz.
tional element, since a finite value of Sl is required in
The basic phase-comparator input quantities for a
order to effect operation, so that the origin is outside the
polarised mho relay are
relay characteristic, and there is no protection against
Sl = V p terminal faults. The problem is solved in the polarised
Sz = IZ n - V mho relay by making Sl = V p , where Vp is in phase with
where V p is the polarising voltage and V and I are V but not proportional to it so that for terminal faults,
voltage and current at the relaying point.
The corresponding inputs to the amplitude com- x
parator to give identical characteristics are
Sx = !(Vp + IZ n - V)
Sy = HVp - (IZ n - V)]
Fig. 1 shows the basic input arrangement for a mho-
connected phase-angle comparator. The two quantitites
which are compared in phase are
Sl = V
Sz = IZ n - V
where V EZ L
Zs + ZL
E • R

FIG. 2. MHO-RELAY CHARACTERISTIC.

Zs + ZL
when V = 0, phase comparison can be effected. In this
Sz = E(Zn - Zd case,
Zs + ZL
Sf = Zp
The criterion for operation is that
S2 = Zn - ZL
- TrI2 ~ ~ /So .:S Tr/2 where Zp is a vector of constant magnitude but in phase
with ZL' The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 3, from
~- which it is clear that phase comparison of Zn - ZL with
Zp is the same as ZL, because these latter two impe-

ts'--",_v_ _ ----1
Phas~1-------s:Iz
comocr~_~ n
-v I
R

FIG. 3. BASIC POLARISED-MHO-RELAY

FIG 1. BASIC CONNECTION FOR MHO RELAY. CHARACTERISTIC.

192
dances are in phase: consequently, the 'polarised mho'
characteristic is identical with the 'mho' characteristic,
except that the origin in this case is a well defined point.
The problem is in selecting a suitable polarising vol-
tage V p' and three basic solutions are adopted in prac-
tice. V p is either derived from the fault voltage V
through a resonant circuit tuned to system frequency
(memory) or from an unfaulted phase through a suitable
phase-shifting circuit (sound-phase polarising): alterna-
tively, a combination of part sound-phase and part
faulted-phase polarising is used. The last two methods
do not solve the problem in the case of 3-phase faults,
when an unpolarised mho characteristic is obtained, and
operation for close faults once more becomes indeter-
minate.
In practice V p and V are not in phase for terminal
faults, because of the characteristics of the system, prin-
icipally unequal source-impedance/line-impedance ang-
les. By considering a number of boundary conditions,
Ellis3 has shown that, in most cases, a suitable choice of
sound-phase polarising voltage gives rise to errors in
phase of less than 1 SO between V p and V. The effect of
phase shifts between these two voltages modifies the
relay-imput equations to the following:
S{ = Zp ~
S;; = Zn - ZL
Zp and ZL have the same phase, and the angle between
V p and V is accounted for by the additional rotation a.
From the relationship in the vector diagram shown in
Fig. 4, it is seen that Zn is achord of the mho characteris-
R
FIG. 4. CHARACTERISTIC OF POLARISED MHO RELAY
WITH PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN Zp AND ZL.
tic, and the diameter D lags Zn by a and has a magnitude
IDI = IZnl sec a. For a = 15. sec a IS 1·035, which is a
negligible increase. The polar equation of the mho circle
is
IZI = IZnl
cos (cjJ - () + a) sec a
where cjJ and () are the angles of ZL and Zn, respectively.
The value of Z when cjJ = 0, i.e. the relay reach in the
resistive axis for terminal faults, is
I
R = Znl cos (() - a) sec a
Engineers concerned with the application of polarised
193
mho relays to systems are interested in the maximum
negative value which ex: can attain, since this corresponds
to a minimum value of R. Typically, () = 75°, and, if a =
- 15°, R = O. This case is illustrated in Fig. 5, together
with a typical range of system impedances superimposed
on the diagram, including the effect of fault-arc resis-
tance. It may be seen that the relay coverage under
FIG. 5. POLARSED MHO CHARACTERISTIC
() = 75 a = - 15
arc-resistance conditions is rather poor. The effect
shown in Fig. 5 is most severe in the case of short lines
and low fault currents, corresponding to high source/line
impedance ratios, and has detracted considerably from
the appeal of these relays in this case.
Warrington' has shown that, in these circumstances, a
reactance relay is more suitable as a distance-relay ele-
ment, despite the added complexity of the arrangement,
since separate directional elements must be provided.
In order to verify these conditions in practice, a series
of measurements was made on a practical polarised mho
distance relay, and marked disparities between theory
and practice were noted. The reach in the resistive axis
for terminal faults was found to be greater than
expected, and it increased as the source/line impedance
ratio increased. These results are presented and discus-
sed in Section 7.
The reason for the disparity between theory and prac-
tice is in assuming that V p and V are in phase or sepa-
rated by a fixed angle a. In practice, this only applies
when ZL and Zn are in phase. Deviations become prog-
ressively more severe as ZL moves around the polar
diagram, and it is possible under certain conditions for a
to equal 180°. In the Sections to follow, a more rigorous
analysis of the operation of the polarised mho relay is
presented, in order to take this effect into account.
In Section 3 it will be seen that, in the case of the
polarised mho relay, the input quantities to the relay
take the most general form, i.e.
SI = Zne + KZ L
S2 = Znl - ZL
It is shown in Appendix 12.1 that the locus of ZL at the
boundary of operation of the relay is a circle, and a
simple construction is developed which relates the posi-
tion of the circle in the complex plane to the three
constants Znh Zne and K.
ANALYSIS OF POLARISED-MHO-RELAY
CHARACTERISTIC FOR PHASE-TO-PHASE
FAULTS
The system is shown schematically in Fig. 6, together
with the sequence impedance diagram. The operation of
a relay connected between yellow and blue phases is
VBR is not used in practice, because the vector position
is such that inductive phase shift is required to achieve
the correct phase relation with V yB , and this raises prac-
tical problems. There are no further advantages to be
gained by this choice, and it will not be considered.

E_
Derivation of polarising voltage for phase-fault
O---l\.Jv~ R
relay element
Zs ZL The three practical cases are considered below for the
a2E _ derivation of the polarising signal SI'
r--~\,I\/'\I"------'\/\JVe---,y (a) SI = KIV YB + KZV R
This is a case of mixed polarising, where K z is complex
oE_
with an angle of approximately -90°. For later simplifi-
cation, we write K z = -jY3K2. K I is generally real and
approximately equals 1.
Subsituting for VYB and VR and simplifying,
SI = E(a 2 - a)[KIZ L + K2(Zs + ZL)]/(Zs + Zd
(b) SI = KIV YB + KzV YR
K 1 is as before. For convenience in this case we write
K z = K2 /60°.
Substituting for the voltages and simplifying, SI becomes

E(a 2 - a)[KIZ L + K2Z L

+ (Y3/2)K2 /30 Z s]/(Zs + Zd
0

FIG. 6. EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR SYSTEM WITH

PHASE FAULT
This is the case of a memory relay, where KIVYB is
initially the interphase voltage prior to the fault, which
considered. then decays exponentially to the fault voltage. K I may
The voltages and currents in each phase are have a small angle, owing to the resonant frequency of
VR E the tuned circuit not coinciding with the system fre-
quency. In this case,
Vy E (2a 2 ZL - Zs)
2(Zs + Zd
VB E (2aZL - Zs)
2(Zs + ZL) which is the signal just prior to fault occurrence.
These three cases cover those generally used in prac-
V YR E[(a 2 - I)ZL- I'SZs]/(Zs + Zd
tice. The general characteristics for the three types of
V YB E(a 2 - a)ZJ(Zs + ZL) mho relay may be obtained in the manner detailed in
IR 0 Appendix 12.1. The signal Sz in each is the same; SI
Iy E(a 2 - a)/2(Zs + Zd takes the three alternative forms described in (a), (b)
IB - Iy and (c) above. In order to obtain the general form of
input signal Si and Sl, all input signals will be multiplied
Iy - I B E(a2 - a)/(Zs + ZL) by the vector
The measuring signal for a polarised mho phase-fault
relay is
Sz = (Iy - IB)Zn - V YB (Zs + Zd/E(a2 - a)
which, in this case, is The input signals for the three cases then become
Sz = E(a 2 - a)(Zn - Zd/(Zs + Zd (a) Si = K2Z s + (K I + K2)ZL
There are three possible practical alternative choices for Sl = Zn - ZL
polarising voltage: (b) Si = (Y3/2) /30° K2Z s + (K I + K2)ZL
(c) combination of V YB and V R Sl = Zn - ZL
(b) combination of V YB and V YR (c) Si = KIZ s + KIZ L
(c) memory circuit associated with V YB' Sl = Zn - ZL
194
 Characteristic of polarised mho phase-fault relay
The relay characteristics for the forward direction of
power flow in the three cases are shown in Fig. 7. In all
cases, the origin is enclosed by the relay characteristic,
the degree of offset of the relay in the third quadrant
being principally a function of the source-impedance

Q Polarised
K j V YB +K z V R
x

R
R
Q
K2 'Z n

b Polarised x
K j V YB + K z V YR

1
~IJ-- --R

0=00
c Polarised b

K j E YB (memory)

FiG. 7. POLARISED MHO PHASE-FAULT-RELAY

CHARACTERISTICS
FIG. 8. CHARACTERISTICS OF POLARISED MHO
RELAY FOR CASE (a) OF SECTION 3.1

The relationship between the three general constants a Zs = 0

Znb ZnZ and K is given in Table 1. bZs=oo

vector Zs and the constant K z. When Zs = 0, the charac-

teristic always passes through the origin. The construc-
Table 1 tion for this special condition for case (a) is shown in Fig.
Relationship between vectors 8. By virtue of the construction for the relay characteris-
0
tic, the diameter subtends an angle of 90 at the origin,
Case Znj Zn2 K which must therefore lie on the relay characteristic. Also
shown in Fig. 8 for the same case is the construction for
(a) Zn KzZ s K j + Kz the special condition Zs = <Xl in case (a). It is evident that
the characteristic is a straight line through Zn perpen-
(b) Zn (Y3/2)Kz /30 Zs
0
K j + Kz dicular to KzZs.
From the foregoing, it would appear that the direc-
(c) Zn KjZ s Kj tional feature of the relay has been lost, since the origin
is enclosed by the relay characteristic. This interpreta-

195
 ongm lies outside the relay characteristic, which is
almost entirely in the third or negative-impedance
quandrant. Only in the special case of Zs = 0 is it per-
missible to identify negative impedance and reverse
power, since the characteristics for both directions of
power flow are then identical.

ANALYSIS OF POLARISED MHO RELAY FOR

EARTH FAULTS

In this case, operation of a relay connected beween the

red phase and earth is considered. The sequence diag-
ram is shown in Fig. 10.

I) E/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd

11 I z = 10

Where Zso = pZs and ZLO = qZL

FIG. 9. POLARISED-RELAY CHARACTERISTICS. CASE
(a) OF SECTION 3.1; REVERSE-POWER-FLOW CONDITIONS VR E - Zsl\ - Z,l z - pZ,lo
E[(2 + q)Zd/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd
E[(2 + P)a 2 Z s + (2 + q)a 2 ZL
tion follows from the fact that negative impedance in the + (1 -p)Z,]I[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd
forward sense and positive impedance with reverse E((2 + P)aZ, + (2 + q)aZL
power flow are normally identified. This assumption is
not valid. In the case of reverse power flow, the relay-
+ (1- p)Zs]/[2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd
input equations change, owing to the new vector rela- E(a 2 - a)
tionship between voltage and current. Typically, in case
3E/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd
(a), the equations become
Sl = K2Z s + (K I + K2)ZL
S2 = - Zn - ZL
In the case of an earth-fault relay, the measuring current
is a combination of phase and zero sequence to give
The vector construction for this case is shown in Fig. 9. It correct measurement impedance, i.e.
may be seen that the characteristic is totally different
from that for forward power flow. In particular, the 1m IR + [(Zul/Zd - 1]1 0
E(2 + q)/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd

[1

The measuring signal in the case of an earth-fault relay is

E(2 + q)(Zn - Zd/[(2 + p)Z, + (2 + q)ZLJ

In this case, there are four practical cases of polarising-

FIG. 10. SEQUENCE DIAGRAM FOR PHASE-EARTH voltage signal Sl to be considered: K1V R + KeV B, K1V R
FAULT + KeV yB . K1V R (memory) and K1V R + KeV RB •

196
Derivation of polarising voltage for earth-fault
relays
(a) 5/ = KIV R + K 2 V B
Writing for convenience K 2 = K~ /-120°,

E[KI(2 + q)ZL + K~(2 + p)Zs + K~(2 + q)ZL + ~(1 - p)Zs~]

K IVR + K 2V B - ... -
(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL

E(2 + q){K2[(Y3 ~ + Y3p ~)Zs/(2 + q)] + (K[ + K2)ZL}

(2 + p) Zs + (2 + q)ZL

Writing K 2 = - jK~,

E(2 + q){[Y3K~(2 + p)Zs/(2 + q)] + (K I + Y3K2)Zd

(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL

E(2 + q){[K I(2 + p)Zs/(2 + q)] + KIZ L}

KjE =
(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL

E(2 + q){[Y3K~(cl!E + p)Zs/(2 + q)] + (K j + Y3K2)ZL}

(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL

Characteristic of polarised mho earth-fault relay reason. The same arguments regarding extrerr,e limits of
element Zs apply, i.e. zero and infinity.
In the former case, simple mho-relay characteristics
The input quantities S{ and S2 for the four cases are
are obtained and, in the latter case, reactance-relay
obtained by multiplying 51 and 52 by
characteristics.
[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)Zd/(2 + q)E

I.e. RELA Y CHARACTERISTICS UNDER

(a) S{ = Y3K2[( j- 30° + p LlQ~ )ZsJ(2 + q)] 2-PHASE-TO-EARTH FAULT CONDITIONS
+ (K[ + K2)ZL Owing to the complexity of the voltage and current
52 = Zn - ZL relationships, it is not possible to describe the charac-
teristics in terms of the simple basic quantities as has
(b) S{ = Y3K2[(2 + p)ZsJ(2 + q)] been done in other cases. However, the following gen-
+ (K[ + Y3K~)ZL eral observations may be made:
(i) When Zs = 0, all characteristics are simple 'mho'
circles through the origin.
(c) S{ = K j [(2 + p)ZJ(2 + q)] + K1Z L (ii) When Zs = 00 , the characteristics are straight
52 = Zn - ZL lines whose angles of inclination are functions of
Zs, as before.
(d) S{ = Y3K~Zs[( /- 60° + p)/(2 + q)] The choice of the type of sound-phase polarising is of
+ (K[ + Y3KDZL some importance, since the vectors are subject to severe
phase shifts. A danger exists when Zs is large that, if K2Z S
is too far in the fourth quadrant, overreach for arcing
It may be seen that cases (a) and (d) are almost identi- faults will be experienced. The basis for selection of
cal if K2 in the second case has a leading angle of 30°, sound-phase polarising described by Ellis" is valid in this
while cases (b) and (c) are similar. case, since the phase shifts described in his paper are in
The characteristics for cases (a) and (b) are shown in fact related to the effective position of K2Z S on the mho
Fig. 11. The general appearance is similar to that for the characteristic. In general, the preferred choice of 'sound
phase-fault relays. The condition for reverse power is phase' for a phase-fault element is VB for a RY relay
similar to that previously described for the phase-fault while the preferred phase for a RE relay is also VB' It is
elements, and the characteristics are not plotted for this important to note that the RE relay measures correctly

197
 x (iii) Sj KjE
S2 E(Zn - Zd/(Zs + Zd
S{ KjZ s + KjZ L
S2 Zn - ZL

The two characteristics are shown in Fig. 12. The

1J:s~'---+---~-R angle of K~ has purposely been exaggerated to show the
lack of coincidence between Zn and the diameter in this
case.

a
x
I
/.--- -~+i
/ i. / /
! I/! / .
! Y I!. I
I il// / !

~ it /
rt:f----+----
R ~/ Yi",f,;:c- / !
/1JIi1 ~ ~/
1/ /Cz~/
1
1. /

.1\.,1::/ i
o / I

~/
ti G

b
*,~,0 x
!
FIG. 11. POLARISED MHO EARTH·FAULT·RELAY
CHARACTERISTICS
a POLARISED S, = K1VR + K2VIl
b POLARISED S, = K,V R + K2VYB

--_R
for both RYE and RB E faults. In the former case, the
characteristic encloses the origin as in the case of the
simple earth fault, while in the latter case the origin is
indeterminate, because VB falls to zero with VB, and a
simple mho characteristic is obtained.
FIG 12. POLARISED MHO EARTH·FAULT-RELAY
CHARACTERISTICS DURING '·PHASE FAULTS
a POLARISED K,VR + K2V B
RELAY CHARACTERISTIC UNDER b POLARISED K[ER (MEMORY)
BALANCED-FAULT CONDITIONS
With the exception of the memory relay, the characteris- PRACTICAL RESULTS
tics will be simple 'mho' circles, the origin being inde- Tests were carried out on a polarised mho phase-fault
terminate. The diameter may not coincide with Zn if K2is relay using the rectifier-bridge moving-coil principle.
not real. Polarising was as for case (0) of Section 4.1. and the
The behaviour of a RE relay polarised from VB and constants of the relay were () (angle of Zn) = 60°, K 1 =
the same relay with memory are considered below: 1.42 and K2 = 0'14/-15".
A set of polar curves is presented in Fig. 13. These
EZ,/(Z, - Z,) were obtained by connecting a relay to a 3-phase test
aEZ,/(Z, - Zd bench and varing the line impedance together with simu-
E/(Z, - Z,) lated fault resistance. The curves are normalised. in that
all vectors are divided by Zn. It follows that Z,/Zn = Y is
o the system-impedance range factor. The curves are pre-
(ii) S, E[K,Z, - K2Ztl/(Z, + Z[) sented for a number of such factors. The curves are not
circles about the major diameter, since in this particular
S2 E(Zn - Zd/(Z, + Zd type of relay the criterion for operation is that the angle
S; K,Z, - K2Z r between the two signals S[ and S, is 75° rather than SlO°,
S2 Zn - Z, so that the relay characteristic consists of the arcs of two

198
circles with the major diameter becoming a chord. If the
reach in the resistive axis is critical, this effect could be
taken into account. The theoretical curves are also
given, and, apart from the disparity in reach in the resi-
tive direction for the reason stated, the agreement bet-
ween theory and practice is good.
ASSESSMENT OF THE CAPABILITIES OF
THE POLARISED MHO RELAY
In the past, it has been customary to use polarised mho
relays for relatively long feeders, while reactance relays
have been preferred for short lines where arc resistance
x
nominal
1·0 angle 60·
~-----d;::l::---tl.:""-_~-O-...L..:-'::'~.L----1:L5=--R
Zn
FIG. 13. COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Y = Zs/Zn
- 0 - experimental
- - - - theoretical
has been a problem. This latter solution has not been
ideal, because of the need for a directional-control ele-
ment and an impedance element for preventing unde-
sired operation on load current. From the analysis pre-
sented in this paper, it may be seen that, when the source
impedance is large compared with the relay setting, the
polarised mho characteristic is similar to that of a reac-
tance relay, and the advantage of the latter becomes
marginal. The condition of a very short line with arc
resistance usually implies that the source-
impedance/line-impedance ratio is high, and it follows
that the polarised mho relay has the virture of automati-
cally adapting itself to system conditions. Load current is
not a problem, since in this case of balanced current
flow, the characteristic is the classical mho circle. Gen-
erally the likelihood of a 3-phase arcing fault is small,
and the lack of reach in this case would not be a serious
drawback.
The analysis also enables an assessment of reach to be
made for faults which lie in the fourth quadrant. This
may be necessary in lines which have series-capacitor
compensation, and in the past it has been difficult to
predict the relay behaviour in this case.
A further important point which should be noted is
that there is only one point on the polarised-mho-relay
199
characteristic which is independent of system condi-
tions, i.e. ZL = Zw In the past, in certain cases, the
setting of a polarised mho relay for line angles other than
that of Zn has been specified in terms of the simple
trigonometrical equation Zs = Zn cos (0 - ¢), where Zs
is the setting for a line angle 0 - ¢ displaced from that of
Zn. It may be seen from the analysis in this paper that the
equation is not valid and that errors in setting may arise
if this approach is used. If an accurate knowledge of the
setting is required, the angle 0 - ¢ should not exceed
10°.
In the case of lines with series capacitors, this condi-
tion cannot be met and the setting becomes indeter-
minate.
CONCLUSIONS
Owing to disparities between theory and practice in
predicting the performance of polarised mho relays, a
new theoretical analysis was undertaken, the treatment
being presented in Section 1 of this paper.
The charactenstics of the polarised mho relay for a
number of well known connections are shown to have an
offset in the negative-impedance quadrant in the case of
unbalanced faults, thus providing added reach in the
direction of the resistive axis. In particular, the reach for
arcing-terminal faults is far greater than would be
expected from a simplified analysis.
Negative impedance and reverse power flow should
not, in general, be identified, since the characteristic for
reverse power flow is different from that for forward
flow. It is shown that, for unbalanced faults, the polar-
ised mho characteristic for reverse power flow is a circle
lying almost entirely in the negative-impedance quad-
rant and not enclosing the origin, so that die relays are
directional.
The characteristics of crosspolarised directional relays
are in accord with the general theory as shown in
Appendix 12.2. For unbalanced faults, the origin is
included within the relay characteristic for faults in the
forward direction and lies outside it for faults in the
reverse direction. In this case, the relay characteristic is a
straight line.
The polar characteristics of polyphase directional
impedance relays may be obtained by the same general
method (Appendix 12.3) and are in accordance with the
results for single elements.
The advantages of the reactance relay for short lines
are not as great as may be expected from a simplified
analysis, and the polarised mho relay may be favoured,
because of its ability to adapt itself to the system condi-
tions; i.e. increasing its reach in the resistive axis for
arcing faults on short lines, whilst retaining the virtue of
insensitivity to impedances due to load currents and
power swings.
If an accurate knowledge of the settings of a polarised
mho relay is required, the angles of the nominal impe-
dance Zn and the line impedance ZL should not differ by
more than 10°. The setting in the case of lines with series
capacitance may be determined for certain specific plant
conditions but cannot be specified in the general case,
since it is a function of the system source-
impedance/line-impedance ratio.
Finally, it should be noted that the analysis in this
paper is based on the assumption that the faulted line is
energised from one end of the system only. The analysis
in the more general case does not lend itself readily to a
simple geometrical interpretation. In this case, it would
be more appropriate to study specific cases with the aid
of a digital computer backed by practical results
obtained from a test bench. This does not detract from
the analysis in the paper, however, since the main effect
of an interconnected system would be to alter slightly the
amplitude and phase of the voltage derived from the
unfaulted phases and to include reactive effects in the
arc-resistance voltage, which is purely resistive in the
simple case. The general form of the characteristic
would remain unchanged. The comparison with earlier
analysis is in any event valid, because this was invariably
based on the assumption of a power feed from one end of
the system only.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank A. Reyrolle and Co. Ltd. for
permission to publish this paper.
Thanks are expressed to Mr. F. L. Hamilton
(Engineer-in-charge of research), and Mr. J. B. Patrick-
son (Deputy Engineer-in-charge of research) for helpful
discussions during the preparation of this paper, and to
Mr. T. H. Potts for carrying out the practical tests.
REFERENCES
1. WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C.: 'Application of the
ohm and mho principles to protective relays', Trans.
Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs., 1946,65, p.378
2. WARRINGTON, A. R. V AN c.: 'Reactance relays
negligibly affected by arc impedance', Elect. World,
1931,98, p.502.
3. ELLIS, N. S.: 'Distance protection of feeders',
Reyrolle Rev., 1957, (168), p.16 (which is chapter
11)
4. WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN c.: 'Protective relays,
their theory and practice' (Chapman and Hall,
(1962) p.285
APPENDIXES
12.1 General distance-relay characteristic
The most general input to a 2-terminal phase-angle
comparator is
Sl = AI - BV
Sz = CI + DV
The relative phase angles are not disturbed if both
signals are divided by BI to give
S; Znl - ZL
S2 ZnZ - KZ L
where
Znl AlB
ZnZ C/B
200
K = D/B
ZL = V/I
and A, B, C, D and K are, in general, complex. The
boundary of relay operation is defined by the condition
that S; and S2 should be displaced in phase by 90°.
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 14, the vectors Sf
and S2 being represented by AB and DC, which are at
FIG. 14. GENERAL VECTOR DIAGRAM FOR PHASE
COMPARATOR
OE = ZnZ/K
right angles on the relay boundary. Since it is the locus of
point B which is of interest, a point E is described, so that
triangle OCD is similar to triangle aBE. The ratio bet-
ween sides is OC/OB = K, so that corresponding sides of
the two triangles are in the magnitude ratio K and sepa-
rated in phase by 8, the angle of K. The corresponding
sides EB and CD intersect at X, and the angle BXC is 8.
By definition, AB and DC are at right angles; angle
XBY is therefore 90° - 8 and angle ABE is 90° + 8.
Since A and E are points fixed by Zn I, ZnZ and K and are
not functions of ZL, AE must be a chord of the relay-
characteristic circle. A diameter of the circle must be
AF, such that ABF is a right angle, and therefore angle
FBE is 8. Since A is also on the characteristic circle, FE
must subtend the same angle at B as at A, so that angle
FAE is 8. Finally, FEA is a right angle, since it is sub-
tended by the diameter.
This diagram provides the basis for a simple construc-
tion for the general circle. It is noted that ZL = Znl is a
point on the circle; the vector diagram is drawn for this
special case in Fig. 15. Here B and A are coincident,
since Znl = ZL and OC = KZ L =KZn1 . E is the same as
before. The phase of the zero vector AB must be at right
angles to DC (= ZnZ + KZ n1 ). The triangles OCD and
OAE are similar, as before. A diameter is obtained by
describing F so that angle FAE is8 and angle FEA is a
right angle as before.
A new point M is fixed so that MA is equal and
parallel to OC (= KZ n1 ), and G is fixed so that MG is
equal and parallel to DO (= zd. OH is drawn perpen-
dicular to OA (= Znl), and it remains only to show that
HF is parallel to MG and GFA lies on a straight line.
This is done by noting that triangles OAH and EAF are
similar (equal angles 8 and one right angle), and conse-
quently triangles AHF and AOE are similar, since there
is an equivalence in translation from H to 0 and F to E.
However, triangles OAE and MAG are similar, and K
therefore MAG and HAF are similar, so that F lies on
AG. The final construction of the general characteristic <1,0)
is shown in Fig. 16. Vector K is also shown for clarifica-
tion.

FIG. 16. CONSTRUCTION FOR PHASE-COMPARATOR

POLAR DIAGRAM (GENERAL CASE)

12.2 Directional relays

'Crosspolarised' directional relays may be explained
in terms of the analysis described for polarised mho
relays. The analysis will be performed for one particular
connection, but the extension to other connections is
obvious. Consider a phase-comparing relay of the type
previously described, in which SI = IpZ n and S2 = V YB
L 90°, this being the so-called 'quadrature' directional-
relay connection.
A number of faults need to be considered, i.e. RY,
RB, RE and R YB.
RY fault
SI E(l - a2)Zn/2(Z, + Zd
S2 Y3E(!Y3Z s LlQ:. + Zd/(Z, + Zd
SI Zn /30°/2
SI tY3Z, /30° + ZL
/G
RB fault
FIG. 15. GENERAL VECTOR DIAGRAM FOR PHASE
SI E(l - a)Zn/2(Z, + Zd
COMPARATOR
ZL ~ Zn S2 Y3E(!Y3Z, L~30° + Zd/(Z, + Zd
S; Zn L- 30°/2
Since the construction will be used repeatedly in the
text, it is worth while summarising the steps: S2 tY3Z, 1- 30° + ZL
I. Vector Znl is drawn from the origin. RE fault
2. Vector KZ nl is drawn to meet the extremity of the SI EZ n/[(2 + p)Z, + (2 + q)Zd
Znl vector.
3. Zn2 is drawn in such a position that the extremity S2 (a 2 - a) /900 E
touches the beginning of vector KZ nI. S; Zn/Y3 (2 + q)
4. Vector Zn2 + KZ I11 is formed by joining the begin-
ning of ZI12 to the extremity of KZ nl (and incidentally S2 Zsl(2 + p)/(2 + q)] + ZL
ZI1I)'
5. A line is drawn from the origin perpendicular to ZI1I RYB fault
to intersect KZ nI. SI EZ I1 /(Z, + Zd
6. From the point of intersection with KZ I1I , a line is
S2 Y3EZ L/(Z, + Zd
drawn parallel to ZI12 to interset ZI12 + KZ I1I .
7. The vector diameter of the relay characteristic is S; ZI1/ Y3
drawn from the final point of intersection to the
extremity of the ZI1I vector. S2
201
 The characteristics are shown in Fig. 17, where it can either be in phase or in antiphase at the boundary of
be seen that they are similar to those of the polarised operation. The same characteristic could be realised
mho relay, except that in this case the diameter is infi- with a cos ¢ comparator, if a relative phase shift of 90°
nite. The general characteristic is a straight line through were introduced between the two signals. It has been
indicated! that a phase comparator with this connection
gives correct impedance measurement for interphase
x faults between any pair of phases but gives no protection
against 3-phase faults. However, the polar characteristic
for various fault types is not described.
The polar characteristic is obtained for the possible
fault types as shown below.
znt2Q"
--
2 Fault between phases Rand Y
2
k---------- R (1 - a )E (Zn - Zd
Zs + ZL
J3Z m"
5 2 (1 - a 2 )E [Zn _ (1-a)(Z,+Zd + Z].
Z, + ZL [ 2 1 - a2 2]
a
x s; Zn - ZL
S; !Zn - Zs( !-60° - n - ZL 1- 60°
,
zZn + !j ,/
v 3Zs - ZL 1- 60°

---....,j,L-- ---<_R

FIG. 17. CHARACTERISTIC OF CROSSPOLARISED

a b
DIRECTIONAL RELAY
1I RY fault

h RB fault

the modified Zs vector, perendicular to the modified Zn

vector. Again the origin is included within the relay-
operating characteristic for forward power flow and is
outside it for reverse power, except in the case of a
3-phase fault, when the characteristic passes through
the origin. For the cases considered for this particular c
connection, the characteristic rotates through ±30°,
depending on the type of fault. This is a well known
effect and is taken into account when specifying the
angle of ZI1"

12.3 Polyphase directional impedance relays

There is a certain class of relay connection which gives
rise to polyphase directional impedance characteristics.'
The characteristics of one of these will be described
d e
below. The two input signals to a phase comparator in
this case are FIG. 18. POLAR CURVES FOR POLYPHASE MHO
SI = (lR - ly)ZI1 - V Ry RELAY
1I RY fault
and S2 = (lR - lB)ZI1 - V RB
h RB fault
The only practical realisation of this relay described in c YB fault
the literature' makes use of an induction-cup movement, d General dlaractcristic. all phase faults. forward power flow
so that the criterion for operation is that Sl and S2 should e General characteristic. r('\erse power flo\\.

202
 It is important to note that the criterion for operation 12.3.3 Fault between phases Y and B
is S\ and S2 in phase or antiphase. If S/ \ is advanced 60° to In this case, the two input signals are
become S2, the criterion for operation becomes S"1 = lcZ
2 n /60° - lcY3Z
2 s /-30°
60° < a < 240°
S"2 = lcZ
2 n /-60° - lcY3Z
2 /30°
s~
where a is the angle of S:; relative to S; and
S; = Zn - ZL where, as before, the operating criterion is 60° < a <
S"2 = lcZ
2n~ /60° - lcY3Z
2 s 1-30° - ZL 240°. The characteristic is once more an offset circle
through Zn, as shown in Fig. 14c. The vector chord in this
The polar characteristic is shown in Fig. 18a. It is seen case is
that the characteristic is an offset 'mho' circle with the !Zn( /60°- !600)-!Y3Zs (/-30°- L1Q':)
= !jY3(Zs + Zn)
Zn - (iZn L.2.!r... - !Y3Zs 1-30°) As before, the vector chord subtends 60° in the major
= !Y3(Zn + Zs) /-30° quadrant, so that the diameter is Zs + Zn, and the
vector as a chord. characteristic is identical with that for the previous two
It is clear that the chord subtends an angle of 60° to the cases.
right and 120° to the left of the chord. The diameter must The characteristic for all phase faults for forward
therefore be the vector D = C LlQ:. sec 30°, where C is power flow is shown in Fig. 18d and for reverse power
the chord; i.e. D = Zn + Zs. For reverse power, the flow in Fig. 18e.
diameter is D = - Zn + Z" and, as in previous cases, the
characteristic lies almost entirely in the third quadrant 12.3.4 2-phase-earth faults
and the origin is outside the relay circle. As before, a geometrical presentation of the polar
characteristics is complicated, but it is readily seen that
the vector Zn is on the relay characteristic, and it may be
12.3.2 Fault between phases Rand B assumed that the main effect in this case is for the degree
In this case, the two signals become, after manipula- of offset in the negative-impedance quadrant to be mod-
tion, ified, while retaining accuracy of setting in the positive-
impedance quadrant.
S'{ = !Zn /-60° - !Y3Zs 1+30° - ZL
12.3.5 3-phase faults
S2 = Zn - ZL
The criterion for operation is, as before, In this case, S\ and S2 are equal in magnitude. S\ is
proportional to (1 - a 2 ) and S2 to (1 - a), so that there is
60° .::: a < 240° a permanent restrain condition; no operation can take
where a is the angle of S2 relative to S/I. The polar place.
characteristic is shown in Fig. 18b. In this case, the
vector chord is 12.3.6 Comparison of the relay characteristic for different
Zn - (!Zn /-60° -!Y3Zs /+30°) fault types

= !Y3(Zn + Zs) /30°

Applying the same reasoning as for a RY fault, the
diameter is Z, + Zn, and the characteristics are identical
in the two cases.
It has been shown that, in the case of each type of
phase fault, the relay characteristics are identical, with
diameter Zs + Zn. The connection thus yields a true
poly-phase polarised 'mho' phase-fault element which is
insensitive to 3-phase balanced conditions.

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