SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY. 2005. 33(1).

77-88
© Society for Personality Research (Inc.)

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

BETWEEN THE PREFERENCES OF MALES AND FEMALES

ALI A. LOORI
Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain

This study reports the differences in intelligences preferences of male and female students
learning English as a second language at higher institutions in the United States of America.
The sample comprised 90 intemationai students registered at ESL centers at three American
universities. The study results indicated that there were significant differences between males'
and females' preferences of intelligences. Males preferred learning activities involving logical
and mathematical intelligences, whereas females preferred learning activities involving
intrapersonal intelligence. The study recommends some implications to be considered in
ESL/EFL classrooms.

Over recent decades, the issue of gender difference in various domains of life
has been investigated by researchers all over the world. The most common
domains in which research has been done are learning styles (Honigsfeld &
Dunn, 2003), attitudes toward mathematics and mathematical achievement
(Royster, Harris, & Schoeps, 1999; Utsumi & Mendes, 2000), general knowledge
(Lynn, Irwing, & Cammock, 2001), and intelligence (Bennet, 1996; Fumham,
Clark, & Bailey, 1999; Fumham & Fong, 2000).
In their study, Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003) found that their subjects, who were
from five different countries (Bermuda, Brunei, Hungary, New Zealand and

Ali A. Loori, Associate Professor of Special Education, College of Graduate Studies. Sphere of
Educational Studies, Arabian Gulf University. Manama, Bahrain.
Appreciation is due to reviewers including: Mohamed A. Albaih. PhD, United Arab Emirates
University. PO Box 10860, Khorfakkan. United Arab Emirates. Email: <m.albaili@uaeu.ac.ae>;
Abdu M. Al-Mekhlafi. PhD. Sultan Qaboos University. PO Box 32, Postal Code 123, Alkhoud.
Sultanate of Oman, Email: <ghamdan2@hotmail.com>; Prof. Adrian Fumham. University of
London, University College. Department of Psychology. 26 Bedford Way. I^ndon UK WCl OAP.
Email: <a.fumham@ucl.ac.uk>.
Keywords: multiple intelligences, cognitive abilities, gender differences in mathematics, and group
or individual work.
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Ali A. Lx)ori, Associate Professor of Special
Education, Arabian Gulf University, College of Graduate Studies, Sphere of Educational Studies. PO
Box 26671. Manama. Bahrain. Phone: (973) 943 9909 (mobile). (973) 1723 9811 (office). (973) 1725
5080 (home); Fax: (973) 1727 4028; Email: <aliloury@yahoo.com>

77
78 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER

Sweden), differed in their preferences for leaming styles according to their

gender type. It was found that females were more self-motivated, persistent and
responsible than males, whereas males were more kinesthetic and peer oriented.
When investigating the attitudes towards mathematics of 209 6th, 7th, and 8th
graders enrolled in Brazilian schools, Utsumi and Mendes (2000) found that in
contradiction to the common fmdings cited in the literature, there were no
differences between males' and females' attitudes towards mathematics.
However, these researchers concluded that students' attitudes might change from
positive to less positive as they progress through school. In other words, as the
content of the subject becomes more difficult in the upper years of schooling,
students' attitudes towards the subject matter change and differ accordingly.
By using a self-developed measure of general knowledge, Lynn, Irwing and
Cammock (2001) investigated the differences between 469 female and 167 male
undergraduate students at the University of Ulster in their general knowledge of
the following 18 domains: History of Science, Politics, Sport, History, Classical
Music, Art, Literature, General Science, Geography, Cookery, Medicine, Games,
Discovery and Exploration, General Science, Biology, Film, Fashion, Finance,
and Popular Music. Their results showed that there were significant differences
between men and women in 5 out of the 18 domains investigated in their study.
Men obtained higher means than women did in Current Affairs, Physical Health
and Recreation, Arts, and Science, whereas women had a higher mean in only the
Family domain. Differences found between the two genders, according to the
researchers, were attributed to differences in men's and women's interests.
In regard to differences in intelligence(s), which is the main concem of the
present study, three studies (Bennet, 1996; Fumham, Clark, & Bailey, 1999;
Fumham & Fong, 2000) can be cited. Two of these studies (Bennet; Fumham &
Fong) dealt with general intelligence, whereas the third one (Fumham, Clark, &
Bailey) dealt with differences between males and females in multiple
intelligences, around which the present study has been conducted. Although the
present study and Fumham, Clark, and Bailey's study share the variable of
multiple intelligences, there are many differences in research methodology
between them which are discussed in more detail below.
In Bennet's study (1996), males tended to estimate their intelligences higher
than females did. And when asked to rate their parents' IQ, both males and
females rated their fathers' IQ higher than their mothers'. Consistent with
Bennet's fmdings, when students enrolled at higher institutions in Britain and
Singapore were asked to rate their intelligence, males rated their intelligence
higher than females did, but when their intelligence was psychometrically
measured by using Raven's Test of Intelligence (Fumham & Fong, 2000),
females scored higher than males. From the findings of the two studies above, it
seemed that girls had less confidence in their intelligence than boys did. To make
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER 79
certain that subjectivity in judging one's abilities was controlled, in the present
Study a psychometric measurement to measure the participants' intelligences was
administered.
Finally, in a similar study to the present one, Fumham, Clark and Bailey (1999)
reported that when their study participants were asked to rate themselves on
seven types of intelligence (Linguistic, Spatial, Musical, Logical/Mathematical,
Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal) defined by Gardner (1983),
the male participants showed higher ratings than the female participants did in
Logical/Mathematical and Spatial intelligence.
In this study, the same intelligences investigated in Fumham, Clark and
Bailey's study (1999) were investigated; however, the intelligences were
measured psychometrically by using an inventory developed by Teele (1997).
Another difference between the two studies is that the participants in the present
study were intemationai students leaming English as a second language (ESL) in
the United States of America, whereas the participants in Fumham, Clark and
Bailey's study were ordinary people who were interviewed at railway stations in
Britain. Hence, the purpose of this study was to investigate differences in
preferences of intelligences - as defmed by Gardner (1983) - between ESL males
and females hving in the USA by answering the following research questions:
1. What are ESL leamers' (living in the USA) preferences of intelligences
defined by Gardner?
2. Are there any significant differences between males' and females'
preferences of intelligences as defmed by Gardner?

METHOD

This was a descriptive comparative study. Mainly, it described participants'

preferences for the intelligences proposed by Gardner (1983). The description
was done at two levels. Level one is a description of all participants (males and
females) as one group. The second level is a description of the comparison
between the preferences of male and female leamers of Enghsh.

PARTICIPANTS
The participants were 90 leamers of English as a second language enrolled in
three ESL Centers at three higher education institutions in the United States of
America. Fourteen leamers were enrolled in intermediate and advanced classes
of English language at the Intemationai House at Yale University in New Haven,
Connecticut, 33 leamers were enrolled in advanced classes of English as a second
language offered by the Department of Foreign Languages at Texas Technical
University in Lubbock, Texas, and 43 students were taking classes in advanced
80 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER

English as a second language at Gateway Community College in New Haven,

Connecticut (see Table 1).

TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICIPANTS AMONG INSTITUTIONS

Institution Number of Students

Yale University 14
Gateway Community College 43
Texas Technical University 33

Upon completion of these courses, most, if not all of these students will pursue
their higher education in different majors at the same institutions. Their ages
ranged between 18 and 46 years old. The participants were divided into two
halves: 45 males and 45 females. These learners come from 25 different countries
located in 4 continents; Africa, Asia, Europe and South America (see Table 2).

TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY PARTICIPANTS BY GENDER AND COUNTRY OF CITIZENSHIP

Country Participants Total Number of Participants

Females Males
Brazil 2 0 2
Cambodia 0 2 2
Chile 0 1 1
China 6 g 14
Colombia 3 1 4
Cuba 0 1 1
Ecuador 5 8 13
El Salvador 1 1 2
France 1 0 1
Germany 1 0 1
Honduras 0 1 1
India 3 0 3
Italy 0 1 1
Japan 6 1 7
Korea 4 7 11
Malaysia 1 0 1
Mexico 2 3 5
Russia 4 2 6
Saudi Arabia 0 1 1
Spain 0 1 1
Sri Lanka 1 1 2
Sudan 1 2 3
Syria 0 1 1
Taiwan 2 2 4
Turkey 1 1 2
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER 81

INSTRUMENTS
The Teele Inventory for Multiple Intelligences (TIMI) developed by Sue Teele
(1997) was used to identify the intelligences preferred by the participants of this
study. The inventory includes books containing 58 numbered pictures and answer
sheets for participants using the inventory to record their choices of activities
representing each of the seven intelligences proposed by Gardner (1983). Scores
are given to the choices made by the participants. These scores are tallied and,
based on the total for each of the seven intelligences, the three most dominant
intelligences are determined.
The TIMI has been used in more than 450 different public and private schools
throughout the United States and in other countries throughout the world (Teele,
1997). Teele claimed high test-retest reliability for this instrument. For the
purpose of this study, a test-retest reliability of .84 was obtained by correlating
the responses of 30 leamers of English at Gateway Community College other
than those who participated in the main study in two settings in which the
inventory was administered to them.
The TIMI has been used in many studies (Diaz-Lefebrve, 2001; Elfers-Wygand
& Seitz, n.d.; Femandes, 2001; Mills; 2001). Effers-Wygand and Seitz used TIMI
to get information about the intellectual ability areas of 14-15 year old learning-
disabled students in order to match their areas of strengths to appropriate
instructional methodologies. In the study done by Femandes, the TIMI was used
with 154 first-grade students from four ethnic groups (African-American, Asian,
Caucasian-American and Latino) to answer the question of whether or not
ethnicity is associated with dominance in a particular intelligence type defmed by
Gardner (1983). Mills' study investigated musical intelligence by using the TIMI
as one of her instmments for collecting data on musical ability of students
enrolled in three classes in a Central Florida Multiple Intelligences (MI) school.
The last study was conducted by Diaz-Lefebrve with 500 students enrolled at
Glendale Community College in Phoenix, Arizona to determine their dominant
mode of leaming.
In all the studies above as well as in this study, for the reliability and validity
of the TIMI researchers depended on the results obtained by Teele (1997).

PROCEDURES
The TIMI was administered to the participants in their regular classrooms. The
researcher explained to the participants the purpose and the importance of their
participation in this study. In addition, the researcher assured the participants of
the confidentiality of their responses and that their responses would be used only
for research purposes. Then, the answer sheets were distributed and the
participants were asked to fill in the infonnation needed. After that, the question
booklets were distributed and instructions were given to the participants on how
82 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER

to answer them. Approximately 30 minutes were taken to complete the test in

each setting. The participants' responses were scored by the researcher and were
entered into the computer for statistical analysis. For each intelligence, a score of
8 points was the highest and a score of 0 was the lowest. The data were analyzed
using the SPSS package. The results were discussed and suggestions for
instructional and research purposes were made.

RESULTS

The mean scores of the participants' selections on the TIMI are presented in
Table 3. The highest mean score of preferences of intelligences was 4.98 for
Interpersonal Intelligence, suggesting that these leamers of English as a second
language in the United States preferred to Ieam English through leaming
activities requiring the involvement of a group of students rather than individuals
to accomplish them. Their second highest mean score was 4.31 for
Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, suggesting that again all students preferred
leaming by being involved in activities requiring solving logical and
mathematical problems. The third highest mean of preferences was 4.14 for
Linguistic Intelligence, suggesting that using verbal and nonverbal language is a
good method of acquiring knowledge and skills for these leamers. The fourth
highest mean score was 4.08 for the Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence, suggesting
that these leamers of English preferred leaming activities which involve body
movements while acquiring the new language. The least preferred intelligence
was Intrapersonalintelligence (X=2.66), suggesting that these leamers prefer not
to work alone while leaming the target language. They prefer to share leaming
with each other. The second least preferred intelligence was Musical (X=3.84)
followed by Spatial (X=3.96).

TABLE 3
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVUTIONS OF PARTICIPANTS' SELECTIONS

Intelligences M SD

Linguistic 4.14 1.67

Logical/Mathematical 4.31 2.00
Spatial 3.96 1.49
Musical 3.84 1.82
Bodily-Kinesthetic 4.08 1.64
Intrapersonal 2.66 1.66
Interpersonal 4.98 1.61

The standard deviations in Table 3 show that the responses of individuals

participating in this study were slightly different in their selections of the
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER 83

intelligences of Linguistic (5D=1.67), Bodily-Kinesthetic (5D=1.64),

Intrapersonal (SD=1.66), and Interpersonal (SD=1.61) intelligence - whereas,
there was a great difference among individuals' selections of
Logical/Mathematical (5D=2.00), and Musical (5D=1.82) Intelligence. The least
difference among individuals' selections was in Spatial (5£)=1.49) Intelligence.
To assess whether the preferences of the male participants would differ from
those of the female participants a comparison of the mean scores on the TIMI was
made. A set of f-tests was conducted on the data, and the results are presented in
Table 4.

TABLE 4
t-TESTS RESULTS FOR MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS' PREFERENCES OF
INTELLIGENCES

[ntelligence Males Females

M SD M SD t P
Linguistic 4.22 1.677 4.07 .671 .441 .660
Logical/mathematical 4.91 1.893 3.71 .938 2.972 .004
Spatial 3.73 1.338 4.18 .614 1.422 .159
Musical 3.64 2.013 4.04 .609 1.041 .301
Bodily-Kinesthetic 4.09 1.535 4.07 1.750 .064 .949
[ntrapersonal 2.16 1.551 3.16 1.623 2.988 .004
[nterpersonal 5.22 1.580 4.73 1.629 1.445 .152

Significant gender differences were found for both Logical/Mathematical and

Intrapersonal Intelligences. The mean Logical/Mathematical Intelligence for
females was 3.71 (S£>=1.94), and the mean score for males was 4.91(5Z)=1.89),
a difference significant at the .01 level (t=2.91). This result indicates that these
female ESL students in the United States have less preference for leaming
involving logical and mathematical activities. On the contrary, their male
counterparts hold a higher preference for leaming activities involving logical and
mathematical abihties.
As far as Intrapersonal Intelligence is concemed, the mean score for females
was 3.16 (5D=1.62), and the mean score for males was 2.16 (SD=1.55), a
difference significant at the .01 level (f=-2.99). This result indicates that female
leamers possess a higher preference for individual-work type leaming activities,
whereas the male leamers prefer more group-work type leaming activities.
There were no gender differences in the participants' preferences for
Linguistic, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic and Interpersonal Intelligence.
This result indicates that both male and female ESL students in the U.S.A. prefer
leaming activities that involve verbal or written language, graphs and puzzles.
84 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER

musical instruments or products or words that rhyme, movement, acting and

dancing and cooperative tasks and presentations.

DISCUSSION

The main objective of this study was to find out whether or not there were any
gender differences in intelligence preferences. Upon analyzing the data, the
results showed that these male and female ESL students in the United States of
America differ significantly in some of their preferred intelligences. This finding
is in concurrence with the findings of Jorm, Anstey, Christensen and Rodgers
(2004) who concluded that their male participants tended to do better on some
measures of some intelligences, whereas the female ones did better on other
measures of other types of intelligences. In fact most of the literature indicates
that overall both males and females have the same IQ scores; however,
differences are shown only in their performances on the subscales (Nicholson,
1993).
Males showed slightly higher preference for logical/mathematical intelligence.
This result was consistent with the results of studies done by Bowd and Brady
(2003), Delgado and Prieto (2003), Fumham, Clark and Bailey (1999), and
Royster, Harris, and Shoeps (1999). These studies found that males rated
themselves higher than females on the logical/mathematical intelligence scale
(Fumham, Clark and Bailey), had more positive attitudes towards mathematics
(Royster, Harris & Schoeps), showed more enjoyment in studying mathematics
(Bowd & Brady), and were slightly better at geometry (Delgado & Pieto) than
females.
The literature reviewed in this study provides us with some explanation as to
the differences between the two genders in their preferences for mathematical
and logical activities. One likely explanation is the claim that the educational
system does not encourage females to do better in mathematics and to major in it
in their higher educational studies. The discouragement gets greater as schooling
progresses causing females to have a less positive attitude towards mathematics
and to perform poorly in mathematical examinations (Bowd & Brady, 2003).
Because of this, girls see no future in leaming mathematics, resulting in their loss
of motivation towards leaming mathematics and poor achievement in
mathematics (Seward & Seward, 1980). This could be caused by the shortage in
the number of female teachers of mathematics in junior and senior high schools
as role models to female students and by female students being in the same class
with males who receive more constmctive feedback - especially from
mathematics and science teachers (Bowd & Brady, 2003; Shapka & Keating,
2003). In sexually segregated educational systems, this phenomenon is rarely
observed. In fact, it is this author's impression that in his native country of
 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER 85
Bahrain, female students in public schools usually have more positive attitudes
toward mathematics and do better at mathematics and science than males do.
This might be tme in other similar environments. With regard to this. Singleton
(1986) said that "Sex differences in mathematical achievement vary considerably
from country to country, and some of these differences may be attributed to the
opportunities the students have to Ieam mathematics" (p. 69).
Another difference between males and females participating in this study was
in their preferences for activities involving the use of intrapersonal intelligence
(males' mean score = 2.16 and females' mean score = 3.16). The difference in
means was in favor of female participants. This finding is supported by the
results of the study carried out by Honigsfeld and Dunn (2003). In their study of
high school students from five countries, the researchers found that female
students tended to prefer leaming alone, whereas male students preferred to work
with a peer or in a group while leaming. With regard to research carried out on
differences between the two genders in intrapersonal intelligence or leaming in
groups versus alone, the literature reviewed in this study has cited only the study
mentioned above. Obviously, more research in this regard is needed. However,
the obvious explanation for this result is that the sex roles of the two genders in
the society are determined by the ways of raising males and females. In many
societies, girls are raised in more restrictive environments than are boys
(Guastello & Guastello, 2003). The type of environment molds the individual's
social behaviors. It has been found that girls have been influenced by their
parents' attitudes. As a result, they end up preferring fewer friends to socialize
with, whereas boys prefer to socialize with a larger number of people (Colley,
1986; Newson & Newson, 1986).
On the other hand, the findings of this study contradicted the findings of
Fumham, Clark and Bailey (1999). Their study showed that males were superior
to females in spatial intelligence, whereas the present study indicated that no
significant difference in spatial intelligence between the two genders existed.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the discussion of the results, the following recommendations are

made:
1) More research should be done to investigate the effect of gender on
intrapersonal intelligence.
2) Females should be encouraged to participate in leaming activities tailored
around logical/mathematical abilities.
3) Students should be segregated during mathematics classes.
4) Students should be provided with appropriate feedback without
discrimination between males and females.
86 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GENDER

5) Workshops should be conducted to enhance students' personalities.

6) The use of cooperative leaming in teaching in general and in teaching
English in particular should be encouraged.
7) In-service workshops for teachers should be conducted to make them aware
of gender differences and to train them on how to develop curricular
activities to enhance leamers' strengths and remedy their weaknesses.
8) Workshops should be conducted for parents to make them aware of the
influence of their parenting styles in their children's success in academic,
social and professional life.
9) The least restrictive environments should be created for girls in order to
make it possible for them to experience more outside-of-school learning of
mathematics and science.
10) Female children should be encouraged to participate in group leisure
activities more often.

CONCLUSION

This study investigated the possibility of the effect of gender on preferences for
intelligences (Linguistic, Spatial, Logical/Mathematical, Musical, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal and Interpersonal) suggested by Gardner (1983)
among leamers of English as a foreign language. Upon analyzing the data
statistically, differences between the two genders in Logical/Mathematical and
Intrapersonal Intelligences were found. These results were discussed and recom-
mendations were made to improve the educational environment in order to
provide a healthier environment for students in general and female students in
particular.

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