Food Toxicology

Learning Objectives
• Define food irradiation.
• Explore the background of ionizing radiation and its
application to food.
• Describe the various food irradiation processes.
Food Irradiation • List the benefits of food irradiation.
• List the food safety, food quality,
Food Toxicology and non-food concerns of
food irradiation.
Instructor: Gregory Möller, Ph.D.
• Explore the consumer opinions
University of Idaho of food irradiation.
• Explore the current food uses
and future of food irradiation.
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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation Ionizing Radiation

• Food irradiation is the exposure of food products to • Ionizing radiation is from X-rays or radioactive decay
ionizing radiation to destroy microorganisms, insects, – Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays
and parasites that cause disease and spoilage • Can cause chemicals reactions and alterations of
• Compare to non-ionizing radiation chemicals in tissues
– Cooking - IR – Can be toxic or fatal to humans in high dose
– Microwave ovens • Much of the reactivity in
organisms is with water.
• Produces:
– Superoxide radical (O2•-)
Hydroxyl radical (HO•)
Hydroperoxyl radical (HOO•)
and hydrogen peroxide.
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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Ionizing Radiation Radioactive Decay

Manahan
• Recall “oxidative stress” from free radicals
• The decrease in the amount
– Endpoints: lipid peroxidation, DNA strand breaks, enzyme
inactivation, covalent binding to nucleic acids, covalent of any radioactive material
binding to proteins. with the passage of time,
• Direct ionization of organic molecules can yield due to the spontaneous
carbonium ions CH3+ emission from the atomic
– Can alkylate DNA. nuclei of either alpha or beta
• Example: Radon, a noble gas particles, often accompanied
that emits alpha particles by gamma radiation.
– Results from the decay of U and
Ra in naturally occurring minerals.
– Accumulates in basements of 60Co → 60Ni + e- + νe
some homes
• Presents the most risk of any NC-DRP

5 element to humans. 6

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 Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Cobalt-60 Radioactive Decay Alpha Particle

60 Half-life • A positively charged particle ejected spontaneously
27Co 5.24 years from the nuclei of some radioactive elements.
0.31 MeV β – Low penetrating power and a short range.
60* • The most energetic alpha particle will generally fail to
28Ni penetrate the dead layers of cells covering the skin.
1.17 MeV γ • Alphas are hazardous when
an alpha-emitting isotope is
60* inside the body.
28Ni

1.33 MeV γ

60
7 28Ni 8 NC-DRP

Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Beta Particle Gamma Ray

• A charged particle emitted from a nucleus during • High-energy, short wavelength, electromagnetic
NC-DRP
radioactive decay. radiation (photon; a packet of energy) emitted from
– Mass equal to 1/1837 that of a proton. the nucleus.
– A negatively charged beta particle is identical to an – Gamma radiation frequently accompanies alpha and beta
electron; a positively charged beta particle is called a
positron. emissions and always accompanies fission.
– Ionizing radiation.
• Large amounts of beta
radiation may cause skin • Gamma rays are very penetrating
burns, and beta emitters and are best stopped or shielded
are harmful if they enter by dense materials, such as
the body. lead or uranium.
• Beta particles may be • Gamma rays are similar to
stopped by thin sheets X-rays: no mass or charge.
of metal or plastic.
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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Electromagnetic Spectrum Measurements of Radiation

Visible
0.4 0.7 • One gray (Gy) is the absorption of one joule of
radiation energy by one kilogram of matter
UV IR
Wavelength, μm
• 1 Gy = 1 J/kg
– Gray (Gy) = 100 rads
10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 – rad is older unit
• "radiation absorbed dose".
• Kilogray (kGy) = 1000 Gy

γ-Rays Ultraviolet Thermal IR Radio

X-Rays Near, Mid IR Microwave

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Lethal Doses Food Irradiation

• Vegetative bacteria - 0.5-10 kGy • Radiation energy applied to food; does not induce
• Bacterial spores - 10-50 kGy radioactivity
• People and animals - 0.005 - 0.01 kGy • Uses γ radiation (ionizing radiation from Co60 or Cs137
decay), X-rays (high energy photon from accelerated
• Insects - 0.1-1.0 kGy
e- colliding with W metal), or accelerated e- (e- beams
from accelerators)
• Passes through food w/o
generating intense heat
• Will disrupt some cellular
processes (i.e. DNA)
– Sprouting, microorganisms, etc.

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Historical Historical
• 1895 - X-rays discovered • Cost and scarcity of radiation sources reduced
• 1896 - suggested use in food preservation industry interest
• 1903 - process patented by US and France • Adverse sensory attribute were a problem
– Destruction of Trichinella in pork • Military research continued
– Stable field rations

Röntgen
Radiograph
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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Historical Historical
• 1962 - Army research facility in Massachusetts • 1958 - FDA ruled irradiation sources as food additives
• Demonstrated meat shelf-life in years w/o • Part of Food Additives Amendment
refrigeration • Delayed commercialization
• Performed many safety studies • Industry lost interest
– Basis for much toxicology data • Late 1960s - FDA approved
irradiation of potatoes
(sprout inhibition)
and grains
(reduce insect infestation)

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Historical Food Irradiation Processes: Categories

• 1965 - Surgeon General announced irradiated foods • Rad-urization
were safe and wholesome • Rad-icidation
• NASA adopted for space program • Rad-apperization
• 1991 - First US commercial irradiation plant
– Vindicator of Florida, Inc. • Based on radiation dose

NASA

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Radiation Processes Strawberries, 1 KGy, 25 Days @ 3 ºC

• Radurization: (0.75-2.5 kGy)
• Inhibit sprouting, delay ripening, insect disinfestations
and shelf-life extension
• Mimics pasteurization

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Radiation Processes Radiation Processes

• Radicidation: (2.5-10 kGy) • Radapperization: (10-50 kGy)
• Eliminate spoilage microorganisms and non-spore- • Reduction of microorganisms to the point of
forming pathogens sterility
• Problem - food will not spoil but still may contain – 12D process for C. botulinum (30-45 kGy)
some pathogens • 12 log cycle spore reduction: 99.9999999999%
• Not approved for general use
on food
• Diets for immuno-deficient
• Military and NASA operations

Listeria
monocytogenes
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60Co γ Facility X-Ray Facility

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

e- Beam Facility Food Irradiation: Benefits

• Reduce foodborne disease
• Reduce food spoilage/increase food supply
• Reduce insect infestations
• Prevent spouting/delay ripening
• Reduce use of
fumigants
• Cheaper than freezing
and refrigeration

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Safety Concerns: FDA
• Radiological safety
• Toxicological safety
– Free radicals, URPs
• Microbiological safety
• Nutritional adequacy
FDA Food Safety Concerns: Radiological Safety
• No concern
• Approved radiation sources too low energy to produce
radioactive products

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FDA Food Safety Concerns: Toxicological FDA Food Safety Concerns: Toxicological
• Bureau of Foods, Irradiated Foods Committee • Irradiation above 1 kGy
• Reviewed all toxicology data • Chemi-generic clearance concept
• No toxicity studies required • Foods of the same class produce similar
products when irradiated
– 1 kGy or below doses
– e.g. carbohydrate solutions
– Low consumption foods in diet (apple juice) and increased
• Higher doses on malondialdehyde (MDA)
case-by-case basis • Toxicity studies from one
muscle food could serve as
source of data for others
– e.g. chicken for
red meat or fish

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

FDA Food Safety Concerns: Free Radicals FDA Food Safety Concerns
• Free radicals also formed by - URPs
Unique Radiolytic Products
– Exposure to sunlight • Similar compounds occur in all cooked foods at
– Frying, baking, grinding, drying various levels
• Disappear in most foods • Occur at very low levels (ppb)
within msec • All toxicity studies are
• Fewer changes than cooking negative
• Toxicity studies show • Alkyl-cyclobutones
no adverse effects may be marker

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

FDA Food Safety Concerns: URPs FDA Food Safety Concerns: Microbiological
• FDA makes two assumptions • Can irradiation mutate microbes and produce more
– URPs are formed in irradiated food virulent pathogens?
– 1-kGy dose = 3 mg URPs/kg food (much higher that actual) • Will irradiation reduce spoilage microbes and reduce
– Maximum concentration of URPs is then 3 PPM competition for pathogens?
• Basis for acceptance of
irradiated food up to 1-kGy
without animal testing

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FDA Food Safety Concerns: Microbiological
• No evidence of radiation-induced increased virulence
• More evidence for decreased virulence
• FDA requires proof the process reduces target
microbes w/o allowing Clostridium botulinum growth
FDA Food Safety Concerns: Microbiological
• Major food spoilage bacteria in meat are Gram-
negative psychrotrophs that are virtually eliminated by
1 kGy radiation
• Gram-positive spoilage bacteria are quite resistant up
to 5 kGy

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

FDA Food Safety Concerns: Nutritional
• Does irradiation reduce nutritional quality of food?
• Is the food irradiated a significant source of an
affected nutrient?
FDA Food Safety Concerns: Nutritional
• No effect on trace elements/minerals
• Proteins, carbohydrates and fats not affected
up to 10 kGy
• Macronutrient losses small up to 50 kGy

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

FDA Food Safety Concerns: Nutritional Irradiated Food Safety: WHO

• Vitamins are most sensitive • No adverse toxicological effects on human health
• Very dependent on dose, temperature atmosphere • No increased microbiological risk
and food type • No adverse effects on nutritional status
• Low temperature and no oxygen are best • Irradiated foods are safe and wholesome at any
• Enhanced nutrition in case of radiation dose
water soluble vitamins
• Conclusion = Not likely to
have vitamin deficiency from
eating irradiated foods

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Food Quality Concerns: Sensory Food Quality Concerns: Sensory

• Early trials produced undesirable sensory qualities, • Radiolytic products cause oxidation of myoglobin
especially in meat and fat in meat
– Burnt, metallic, bitter, cheesy, goaty, wet dog-like – Off-odor and off-flavor compounds
• Problems with doses as low as 1.5 kGy • Mostly controlled by irradiating in low temperature,
• Higher doses produce more sensory effects oxygen-free atmosphere

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Quality Concerns: Sensory Food Quality Concerns: Packaging

• Some products not suitable for irradiation
• Causes softening in some fruits and changes in
aroma and texture
– Grapefruit, oranges, pears, avocado, cantaloupe, plum
• Dairy products - off-odors
• Irradiation of packaging films can release gases,
low MW hydrocarbons and halogenated polymers
• FDA must approve all packaging material
• 21 CFR 179.45

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation: Regulation Food Irradiation Regulation: Labeling

• 1970 - International Joint Experts Committee on Food • Wholesale –
Irradiation “Treated by irradiation, do not irradiate again”
– Irradiation at 10 kGy was safe • Retail - “Treated with irradiation” or “Treated by
• 1970 - FDA approved 1 kGy dose irradiation” along with international radura symbol
– Food treated at 1 kGy had negligible URPs • Other statements permitted about purpose of
– Protected some food spoilage irradiation and type
organisms - spoil before toxins
developed
• Currently under FDA review
– “Cold pasteurization” rename?

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Food Irradiation Regulation Food Irradiation Regulation: Specific Foods

• 1983 - 30 kGy level approved for spices • 1963 - 0.5 kGy - wheat/wheat flour
– Because of problems with infestation – Insects
– Comprise < 0.1% of diet • 1964 - 0.15 kGy - white potatoes
– Chemical fumigants were banned – Sprouting
– No other practical way of treatment • 1985 - 1 kGy - pork -
– Trichinella
• 1986 - 1 kGy - fresh fruit
– Ripening delay, infestation

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation Regulation: Specific Foods Food Irradiation:

• 1990 - 3 kGy - poultry Consumer Acceptance - 1995
– Microbial control • 72% aware of process
• 1995 - 44 kGy - packaged, • 82.5% did not know much about it
frozen meat • 45% would buy
– Microbial control, only NASA • 19% would not buy
• 1997 - 4.5 kGy – frozen, • 36% did not know
chilled meats
– Microbial control
• World-wide 50 routinely
irradiated foods
– 36 countries
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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation Food Irradiation Regulation: Problems

Consumer Acceptance - 1995 • Hard to tell if product is irradiated
• Most were more worried about food additives, • Many of the same changes occur by other methods of
pesticides, animal drugs, hormones, and bacteria preservation
• Willing to pay 0.81 cents/meal more to avoid • Cannot assess dose of irradiation
food borne illness
– 10X the cost of irradiation
• 92% favor labeling

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Food Irradiation: Detection Food Irradiation: Detection-Chemical

• Chemical • Lipids and DNA most sensitive
• Physical • 2-alkly-cyclobutone from irradiated fatty acids
• Histological • 99% detection in 134 samples
• Morphological • DNA changes show promise
– Single/dbl strand breaks
and crosslinking
– Harder to tell from other
processing effects

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation: Detection-Physical Food Irradiation: Detection-Histological

• Detection of membrane damage • Viability of seeds in fruit
• Electrical impedance • Cell structural damage
– Potatoes – Time consuming; may not be practical
• Electron spin resonance (ESR) • Ratio of G-positive/G-negative bacteria
– Bone-containing food, shellfish
• Thermal and near-IR analysis
spices

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Food Toxicology Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation: Detection-Best Candidates Food Irradiation Concerns: Non-Food Related

• Lipid foods - hydrocarbons, alkylcylobutones • Radiation hazards to workers or public
• Bone-containing - ESR • Increased risk of nuclear accidents
• Spices - thermoluminescence • Add to nuclear wastes
• Only a use for radioactive wastes
• No one technique for all foods • Radiation resistant microbes
• Effect on environment
and ground water

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Food Irradiation Concerns: Non-Food Related Food Irradiation Concerns: Non-Food Related
• Radiation hazards to workers • Add to nuclear waste
– Processes are very controlled – Cobalt pencils are negligible to total nuclear waste
– Only incidents involve violation of safety procedures (2.68 million cubic ft/yr)
– Safety equated to being electrocuted in plant that uses – Actually would help utilize low level waste not good for
electricity medical use
• Increased nuclear accidents • Radiation resistant microbes
– No effluents – Exist in some nuclear plants
– Cobalt pencils can be stored on site - 5.3 yr half life – Not competitive
– No possibility of meltdown - energies too low – Not very viable
• Groundwater
– Co60 not water soluble

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Food Toxicology

Food Irradiation: The Future

• Implementing irradiation in meat and poultry
processing industries
• Develop suitable packaging
• Develop methods to detect irradiated foods
• Education of public
• Additional research

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