ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported me
during my training Process.

I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to Mr.
SAMEER SHARMA , CDE(PE-C&I) of the NTPC NOIDA, without the wise
counsel and able guidance, it would have been impossible to complete the report in
this manner.

I am very grateful to the Maharishi Markandeshwar university, Engineering

College for providing this opportunity to carry out the six weeks industrial
training at National Thermal Power Corporation, Noida.

My deepest thanks to Mr. NIKHIL PRABHAKAR, the guide of the project for
guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention and care. He has
taken pain to go through the project and make necessary correction as and when
needed.

I would like to thank my HOD and my class MENTOR (NIDHI MAM) and
other faculty of Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering of
MMEC for their intellectual support throughout the course of this work

Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any
respect during the completion of the project.

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 INDEX
TOPIC PAGE NO.

1.INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 8

2. POWER STATION INSTRUMENT 9

2.1 INDICATOR
2.2 RECODER

3. SELECTION OF INSTRUMENT 10

4. INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM 12

5. TRANSDUCER 13

5.1 DEFINITION
5.2 EFFICIENCY
5.3 SELECTING FACTORS OF TRANSDUCERS
5.4 REQUIREMENT OF GOOD TRANSDUCER

6. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER 15

6.1 BASED ON PHYSICAL PHENOMENON 16

6.1.1 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
6.2 BASED ON THE POWER TYPE 18
6.2.1 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
6.2.2 ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
6.3 BASED ON THE TYPES OF OUTPUT 21
6.3.1 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS
6.3.2 DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

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 6.4 BASED ON ELECTRICAL PHENOMENON 23
6.4.1 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
6.4.2 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
6.4.3 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
6.4.4 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
6.4.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCERS
6.5 BASED ON TRANSDUCTION PHENOMENON 31
6.5.1 TRANSDUCERS AND INVERSE TRANSDUCERS

7. PRESSURE 32
8. METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 33
8.1 HYDROSTATIC METHOD
8.1.1 PISTON
8.1.2 LIQUID COLUMN
8.2 ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSOR 35
8.2.1 PIEZORESISTIVE STRAIN GAUGE
8.3 MAGNETIC METHOD 36
8.3.1 OPTICAL
8.3.2 POTENTIOMETERIC
8.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY METHOD 38
8.4.1 PIRANI GAUGE RANGE
8.4.2 ION GAUGE
8.4.2.1 ION GAUGE CONNECTION LEADS
8.5 WIDE RANGE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 44

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY

NTPC, India's largest power company, was set up in 1975 to accelerate power
development in India. It is emerging as an ‘Integrated Power Major’, with a
significant presence in the entire value chain of power generation business.

Fig. 1

NTPC ranked 317th in the ‘2009, Forbes Global 2000’ ranking of the World’s
biggest companies. With a current generating capacity of 32,194 MW, NTPC has
embarked on plans to become a 75,000 MW company by 2017.

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VISION

A world class integrated power major, powering India's growth with

increasing global presence .

MISSION

Develop and provide reliable power, related products and services at

competitive prices, integrating multiple energy sources with innovative and
eco-friendly technologies and contribute to society.

Fig. 2

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 CORE VALUES – BCOMIT

Business Ethics

Customer Focus

Organisational & Professional Pride

Mutual Respect & Trust

Innovation & Speed

Total Quality for Excellence

EVOLUTION

1975

NTPC was set up in 1975 with 100% ownership by the Government of India. In
the last 30 years, NTPC has grown into the largest power utility in India

1997

In 1997, Government of India granted NTPC status to the Board of "Navratna"

being one of the nine jewels of India, enhancing the powers of Directors .

2004

NTPC became a listed company with majority Government ownership of 89.5%.

NTPC becomes third largest by Market Capitalization of listed companies.

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 2005
The company rechristened as NTPC Limited in line with its changing
business portfolio and transforms itself from a thermal power utility to an
integrated power utility.

2008

National Thermal Power Corporation is the largest power generation

company in India. Forbes Global 2000 for 2008 ranked it 411th in the world .

2009

NTPC- received the international Gold Star Award for Quality

on 26th October, 2009 at International Quality Convention Geneva
2009 in recognition of outstanding commitment to Quality
contributing towards the success for India in the business world .

2010

India"s Largest power company,NTPC has been conferred with the conveted
Maharatna status by the government of India for our outstanding
achievements over the years.

Ranked as the No.1 Independent Power Producer in Asia and one of the top 2
in the world as per the prestigious Platt"s Top 250 Global Company
Rankings, NTPC continues to serve the nation by providing quality power.

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 1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

Control and instrumentation in any process industry,can be compared to the nerve

system in the human being.The way the nerve system controlling the operation of
various limbs of human being.

C and I in the same way controlling and operating various

motors,pumps,dampers,valves etc. and helping us to achieve our targets.

Control and Instrumentation,as the name indicates,is a branch in engineering which

deals with various measurement,indication,transmission and control in different
technical fields.The latest development made in the area of instrumentation are so
wide that it has become humanly impossible to master over all the system
individually.Even in the instrumentation there are further subgroups now.The term
instrument means "A device or combination of devices used directly or indirectly
to measure and display a variable."

Instrumentation is a measurement if various parameters with comparison to set

standards.We have been using for ages different instruments suck as weights,yard
stick,scales,measuring tapes,standard container for liquid measurement e.g Litre,
gallons etc.Each of these equipments is an instrument.Similarly ,in industries and
process plants,Instrumentation makes use of various measuring components
designed to suit the process and the purpose.As some of the big industries and
process plants needs to control different process variable from a remote distance
control room,the further measuring,transmitting indicating,Recording,abnormality
alarm system and innovated.The process of innovation is marching ahead in fast
rate.In the near future,we are certainly to enter in towards more and more
sophistication n C and I stream.

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2. POWER STATIONS INSTRUMENTS

TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS

This discussion is only on the process instrumentations measuring the physical

quantities such as temperature, pressure ,level flow etc. The other types of
instruments are the Electrical Instruments measuring electrical quantities such as
current , voltage etc. The different Types of instruments normally in used are given
below.

2.1 INDICATORS

indicators are of two categories local and remote. Local indicators are self
contained and self operative and are mounted on the site . The remote indicators
are used for telemeter purposes and mounted in the centralized control room and
control panel. The indicators both local and remote are sometimes produced with
signaling contacts where ever required .The remote indicators depends on electrical
,electronics ,pneumatic or hydraulic system for their operations .And accordingly
they are named .The indicators are classified as analog and digital on the basis of
final display of the reading.

2.2 RECORDERS

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Recorders are necessary wherever the operating history is required for analysing
the trends and for any future case studies or efficiency purposes.Recordes can be of
single point measuring a single parameter or multi-point measuring a number of
parameters by single instrument.

Multi-point recorders are again categorized as multipoint continuous or multipoint

dot recorders .The multipoint dot recorders select the point one after the other in
sequence where as the continuous recorders measure simultaneously all the points.

3. SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS

Instruments engineer are required to work in close association with the system
design as well as the equipment design engineers in selecting instruments and
sensing system .After deciding the capacity of Thermal Power Station the designs
of boller turbine and auxiliary equipments such as mills,pumps,fans,deaerator,feed
heaters etc. are taken up.

Based on the design of the main and the auxiliary equipments,the parameter values
for efficient and economic operation determined load are specified.The instrument
and system design engineers decide the location for the measurement of various
parameters such as level , pressure , flow , differential pressure , temperature and
other parameters based on the system design and layout conditions.

Then , the instrument engineers select the appropriate instruments influenced by :

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(1) Required accuracy of measurement.

(2) Range of measurement.

(3) The form of final data display required.

(4) Press media.

(5) Cost

(6) Calibration and repair facilities required.

(7) Layout restriction.

(8) Maintenance requirement/availability.

4. INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
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A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

i SENSOR OR INPUT DEVICE

ii SIGNAL PROCESSOR
iii RECEIVER OR OUTPUT DEVICE

Most modern analogue equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20 mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar

Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V. Increasingly the instruments are digital

with a binary digital encoder built in to give a binary digital output.

Pneumatic signals are commonly used in process industries for safety especially
when there is a risk of fire or explosion.

The advantage of having a standard range or using digital signals is that all
equipment may be purchased ready calibrated.

For analogue systems the minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure
and so on ) is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is
represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar.

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 5. TRANSDUCER

5.1 DEFINITION :

A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. The

conversion can be to/from electrical, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, photovoltaic, or any other form of energy. While the term transducer
commonly implies use as a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can
be considered a transducer.

5.2 EFFICIENCY :

Efficiency is an important consideration in any transducer. Transducer efficiency is

defined as the ratio of the power output in the desired form to the total power input.
Mathematically, if P represents the total power input and Q represents the power
output in the desired form, then the efficiency E, as a ratio between 0 and 1, is
given by:

E = Q/P

If E% represents the efficiency as a percentage, then:

E% = 100Q/P

No transducer is 100 percent efficient; some power is always lost in the conversion
process. Usually this loss is manifested in the form of heat.
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5.3 Factor to be Considered While Selecting the Transducer

• It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to

avoid loading effect.
• It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.
• It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.
• Preferably small in size.
• It should be able to work n corrosive environment.
• It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc..
• It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
• Selected transducer must be free from errors.

5.4 Requirements of Good Transducers :

• Smaller in size and weight.

• High sensitivity.
• Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
• Low cost.

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 6.Classification of transducers

1. Based on the physical phenomenon,

• Primary transducer
• Secondary transducer

2. Based on the power type

• Active transducer
• Passive transducer

3. Based on the type of output,

• Analog transducer
• Digital transducer

4. Based on the electrical phenomenon,

• Resistive transducer
• Capacitive transducer
• Inductive transducer
• Phiezoelectric transducer
• Photovoltaic transducer

5. Based on the transduction phenomenon,

• Transducer
• Inverse transducer
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Based on the physical phenomenon

PRIMARY TRANSDUCER & SECONDARY TRANDUCER

Definition:
The first transducer which converts physical phenomenon into displacement,
pressure, velocity etc. which is to be accepted by next stage is known as
“Primary Transducer”.
The output of the primary transducer is converted subsequently into usable
output by a device called “Secondary Transducer”

For eq. LVDT

Fig 3

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of

electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has

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three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end around a tube. The center coil is the
primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic
core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis
of the tube.

An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be

induced in each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary.
The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz .

As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced
in the secondaries to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the
output voltage is the difference (hence "differential") between the two secondary
voltages. When the core is in its central position, equidistant between the two
secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils, so the
output voltage is zero.

When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the
other decreases, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum.
This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage. When the core moves in the
other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its
phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is
proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is
why the device is described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the
direction of the displacement.

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6.2 BASED ON THE POWER TYPE

6.2.1 PASSIVE TRANSDUSERS :

Definition : Passive Transducers derive the power required for transduction from a
auxiliary power source.

They also derive part of the power required for conversation from the physical
quantity under measurement .

They are also known as “externally powered transducers ” .

Examples : resisitive ,inductive and capactive transducers .

A typical example of a passive transducers is a “POT” which is used for

measurement of displacement . A “POT” is a resistive transducer powered by a
source voltage ei as shown below . This “POT” is used for measurement of linear
displacement xi .

Fig 4

Suppose L is the total length of potietiometer whose total resistance Rt. The input
displacement is Xi .

Output voltage Eo = (Xi/L)Ei

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 Xi = (Eo/Ei)L

6.2.2 ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS :

Definition : Active Transducers are those which do not require an auxiliary power
source source to produce their output.

They are also known as “self generating type” as they develop their own voltage
or current output.

Velocity ,temperature ,light intensity and force can be transduced with the help of
active transducers .

For example : piezo electric crystal

Fig 4

The property of piezo-electric crystals is that when a force is applied to them, they
produce output voltage .The mass exerts a certain force on account of accerlation
on the crystal due to which a voltage is generated .The accerlation is applied to the
base ,due to which the mass produces a force .The mass being fixed ,the force is

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proportional to accerleration .The voltage output is proportional to force and hence
is proportional to accerlation .

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6.3 BASED ON THE TYPE OF OUTPUT

6.3.1 ANALOG TRANSDUCERS :

Definition : These Transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output
which is a continuos function of time .

Thus a strain gauge , an LVDT ,a thermocouple or a thermistor may be called as

“Analog Transducers ”.

Fig 5

The output of a Analog Transducers is a continuos function of time means at any

time we a certain output acc. to that time.

Eg: LVDT, thermocouple etc.

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6.3.2 DIGITAL TRANSDUCER :

Definition : These Transdcers convert the input quantity into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses .

As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and 1 . It can be easily represented
by opaque and transparent areas on a glass scale or non conducting and
conducting areas on a metal scale .

Fig 6

CE-D Series Intelligent Transducer with Digital Display

　　　　　

CE-D Series Intelligent Transducer functions Led real time digital display,
electrical perameters measuring ,standand analog output and switching value
output .User can easily set the input threshold for output switching value, return
difference and delay time to deny input action after a switching value output acted
as your requirement. It makes the features of high cost performance and good

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stability.The CE-D series intelligent transducer is an economic and practical
instrument for measuring and display of electrical parameters .

6.4 Based on the electrical phenomenon

6.4.1 Resistive Transducer :

Definition : This method involve the change in the measurement of resistance.The

resistance of the metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation that involves a
physical quantity.

The relationship is:

R= ρ L/A

Where R=resistance(ohm)

L=length of conductor(metres)

A=cross-sectional area of conductor(metre x meter)

ρ =Resistivity of conductor material (ohm-metre)

The Translational and rotational potentiometers which works on the basis of

change in the value of resistance with change in length of the conductor can be
used for the measurement of Translational or Rotatary displacements .

Strain Gauges work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor or a semi-
conductor changes when strained .This property can be used for measurement of
displacement ,force and pressure . The resisitivity of materials changes with
change of temperature thus causing a change of resistance .

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Hence,this property may be used for measurement of temperature. Thus electrical
resistance transduer have wide field of application.

6.4.2 CAPACTIVE TRANSDUCER :

Definition : The principle of operation of capactive transducers is based upon the

familiar equation for capacitiance of a parral plate capacitor.

C= εr ε0 A/d

Where A = overlapping area of plates (meter x meter)

d= distance between two plates (meter)

ε = εr εo = permittivity of medium (F/m)

εr =relative permittivity

εo = permittivity of free space

A Parral plate capacitors is shown in figure below :

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 Fig 7

The capactive transducers work on the principle of change of capacitance which

may be caused by :

1. Change in overlapping area “A”

2. Change in the distance “d” between the plates.
3. Change in the dielectric constant

These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement , force and
pressure . The change in capacitance may be caused by change in dielectric
constant as is the case in measurement of liquid or gas levels .

The capacitance may be measured with bridge circuits . The output impedance of a
capacitive transducer is

Xc = 1/ 2 πFC

Where C= capacitance
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 f= Frequency of excitation in hertz

The output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high .

The capacitive Transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear

displacement.These transducers use the following effects:

I. Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.

II. Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.

6.4.3 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER

Definition : The inductive transducers work on the principle of the magnetic

induction of magnetic material. Just as the resistance of the electric conductor
depends on number of factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends on a
number of variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of
the magnetic material, and the permeability of the flux path.
There are two common type inductive transducers :

1.simple inductance type

2.Two-coil mutual inductance type

Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers :

In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is
used as the transducer. When the mechanical element whose displacement is to
be measured is moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path generated by
the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and the corresponding
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 output. The output from the circuit is calibrated directly against the value of the
input, thus it directly gives the valve of the parameter to be measured.
The figure below shows the single coil inductive circuit

Fig 8

Two-Coil Mutual Inductance Type Inductive Transducer

In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the first coil the
excitation is generated by external source of the power and in the second coil the
output is obtained. The output is proportional to the mechanical input.

As shown in figure 9, A is the excitation coil and B is the output coil. The
inductance of the output coil changes due to change in position of the armature
which is connected to the mechanical element whose motion is to be measured. As
the armature position changes, the air gap between the fixed magnetic material and
the armature changes.

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 Fig 9

6.4.4 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

Definition :
A Piezo electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across
certain surfaces of a crystal if a dimenstion of the crystal are changed by the
application of a mechanical force. This potential is produced by a displacement of
charges .The effect is reversible that is conversely,if a varying potential is applied
to the proper axis of a crystal,it will change the dimenstions of a crystal thereby
deforming it .This effect is known as piezo electric effect.

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 Fig 10
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of
returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts
the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is
basically a piece of polarized material with electrodes attached to two of its
opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized
molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles
within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of
molecules will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is
known as electrostriction.
6.4.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCER

Definition :
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the
photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar
panels comprising a number of cells containing a photovoltaic material.

Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline

silicon, polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
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indium selenidesulfide.Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources,
the manufacture of solar cells andphotovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in
recent years

Fig 11

The photovoltaic effect is the creation of a voltage (or a corresponding electric

current) in a material upon exposure to light. Though the photovoltaic effect is
directly related to thephotoelectric effect, the two processes are different and
should be distinguished. In the photoelectric effect, electrons are ejected from a
material's surface upon exposure to radiation of sufficient energy. The photovoltaic
effect is different in that the generated electrons are transferred between different
bands (i.e. from the valence to conduction bands) within the material, resulting in
the buildup of a voltage between two electrodes.

In most photovoltaic applications the radiation is sunlight and for this reason the
devices are known as solar cells. In the case of a p-n junction solar cell,
illumination of the material results in the creation of an electric current as excited
electrons and the remaining holes are swept in different directions by the built-in
electric field of the depletion region .
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6.5 Based on the transduction phenomenon

6.5.1 TRANSDUCER AND INVERSE TRANSDUCERS:

An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-

electrical quantity.It is a precision actuator which has an electrical input and a low
power non-electrical output.A piezoelectric crystal acts as an inverse transducer
because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, it changes its dimenstion
causing a mechanical displacement .

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A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is also an inverse transducer
because a current carried by it is converted into a force which causes translational
or rotational displacement.Many data indicating and recording devices are inverse
transducers.An analog ammeter or voltmeter converts current into mechanical
displacement

However,such devices which include instruments like indicating instruments,pen

recorders,oscilloscopes that converts the electrical signal to a mechanical
movement are placed at the output stage(data presentation stage) are called output
transducers.

The most useful application of inverse transducer is in feedback measuring

system.In the measuring system ,the output quantity(usually electrical in nature) if
converted to a non electrical form suitable for comparison with quantity to be
measured(non – electrical form).

NOTE: Generally a Inverse Transducer is a output transducer

Example: Indicating Instruments, Pen Recorders, Oscilloscope.

6. PRESSURE

Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are

independent of direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies
additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having
little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component
of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument
facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures;
this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic
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pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a
differential pressure.

While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on

pipe walls, Dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed.
Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between
instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example
perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the
measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its
shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.

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8. METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

8.1 HYDROSTATIC METHOD

Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to

the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic
gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can
be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.

8.1.1 PISTON

Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a

spring. Another name for piston gauge is deadweight tester. For example, dead-
weight testers used for calibration or tire-pressure gauges .

8.1.2 Liquid column

Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends
are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in
equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. A very
simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid , one side of which is
connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be
the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in
liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of
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fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure
equation, P = hgρ. Therefore the pressure difference between the applied
pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by
solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. If the fluid being measured is significantly dense,
hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving
surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure
measurement is desired.

Fig 12

The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the

pressure difference.

Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534
g/cm3) and low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences well above the
vapour pressure of water, water is commonly used (and "inches of water " is a
common pressure unit). Liquid-column pressure gauges are independent of the
type of gas being measured and have a highly linear calibration. They have poor
dynamic response. When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate
and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring
liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid must isolate the liquids to
prevent them from mixing. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures

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ranging from a few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately
1,000,000 Pa)

8.2 ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSOR

8.2.1 Piezoresistive Strain Gage

Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain
due to applied pressure.

PIEZORESISITIVE EFFECT

The piezoresistive effect describes the changing resistivity of a semiconductor

due to applied mechanical stress. The piezoresistive effect differs from
the piezoelectric effect . In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive
effect only causes a change in electrical resistance it does not produce an electric
potential.

MECHANISM

In semiconductors, changes in inter-atomic spacing resulting from strain affects

the bandgaps making it easier (or harder depending on the material and strain) for
electrons to be raised into the conduction band. This results in a change in
resistivity of the semiconductor. Piezoresistivity is defined by

Where ∂ρ = Change in resistivity

ρ = Original resistivity
ε = Strain
Piezoresistivity has a much greater effect on resistance than
a simple change in geometry and so a semiconductor can be

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 used to create a much more sensitive strain gauge . though
they are generally also more sensitive to environmental
conditions (esp. temperature).
8.3 MAGNETIC METHOD

Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance

principle .

Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit measuring the induced electric

voltage compared to the rate of change of the electric current in the circuit. This
property also is called self inductance to discriminate it from mutual inductance,
describing the voltage induced in one electrical circuit by the rate of change of the
electric current in another circuit.

The quantitative definition of the self inductance L of an electrical circuit

in SI units (webers per ampere known as henries) is

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 Fig 13
where v denotes the voltage in volts and i the current in
amperes. This is a linear relation between voltage and current
akin to Ohm's law, but with an extra time derivate. The simplest
solutions of this equation are a constant current with no voltage
or a current changing linearilly in time with a constant voltage.

Fig 14

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 Inductance is caused by the magnetic field generated by electric currents
according to Ampere's law. To add inductance to a circuit electronic
components called inductors are used, typically consisting of coils
ofwiretoconcentrate the magnetic field and to collect the induced voltage.
The SI unit of inductance is the henry(H),

8.3.1 Optical
Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due applied pressure.

8.3.2 Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused
by applied pressure.

8.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY METHOD

Generally, as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase

in pressure- its ability to conduct heat increases. In this type of gauge, a
wire filament is heated by running current through it. A thermocoupleor Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the
filament. This temperature is dependent on the rate at which the filament loses heat
to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common
variant is the Pirani gauge which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated
element and RTD. These gauges are accurate from 10 Torr to 10−3 Torr, but they
are sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases being measured.
Vacuum pressure measurement is broadly dividedinto two categories: high and low
vacuum.Many of the different techniques used to measure these categories have an
overlap some point in the pressure range. By combining several different types of
gauge it is possible measure system pressure from 10 mbar down to 10-11 mbar.
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For measuring in the low vacuum range (30 mbarto 10-3 mbar) we offer a range
of Pirani gauges;for pressures below this (10-3 mbar to 10-11mbar) we offer a
range of ionisation gauges.

Fig 15

8.4.1 Pirani Gauge Range

Introduction to the Pirani Gauge Range

The Pirani gauge is a roughing pressure vacuum gauge. It uses the thermal
conductivity of gases to measure pressure. VG Scienta has two differenttypes of
Pirani gauge measuring slightly different pressure ranges; they are both availablein
a variety of styles with a range of mountingflange.

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 Fig 16

Principles of Operation :

The Pirani gauge head is based around a heatedwire placed in a vacuum system,
the electrical resistance of the wire being proportional to its temperature.
At atmospheric pressure, gas molecules collide with the wire and remove heat
energy from it (effectively cooling the wire). As gas moleculesare removed (when
the system is pumped down)there are less molecules and therefore less
collisions.Fewer collisions mean that less heat isremoved from the wire and so it
heats up. As itheats up, its electrical resistance increases. A simple circuit utilising
the wire detects the changein resistance and, once calibrated, can directly correlate
the relationship between pressure andresistance.

This effect only works in the pressure regionfrom atmosphere to approx 10-3
mbar. Therefore other types of gauge have to be used to measurepressures lower
than this.
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The VG Scienta range of Pirani gauges is dividedinto two types: constant current,
and constant resistance. The name refers to how the electricalmeasurement of the
wire is controlled.

The constant current type has a power supplythat gives a constant current all the
time tothe filament. Therefore the filament resistancechanges are measured.
The constant resistance type has a power supplythat changes the current supplied
to keepthe resistance of the filament the same. It has aslightly larger pressure range
but requires morecomplicated electronics to control it.

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8.4.2 Ion Gauges

Introduction to Ion Gauges :

When operating below the Pirani gauge range,an ion gauge can be used to
measure pressure.There are a range of gauge heads and filamentmaterials to cover
specific pressure ranges and Vacuum requirements in this region.

Fig 17

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The VG Scienta ion gauge heads all operateusing the same principle. Subtle
differences indesign and construction determine the pressurerange and robustness
of the different gauges.
Principles of Operation

Fig 18

The ion gauge consists of three distinct parts;the filament, the grid, and the
collector. The filament produces electrons by thermonic emission. A positive
charge on the grid attracts the electrons away from the filament; they
circulatearound the grid passing through the fine structure many times until
eventually they collide withthe grid. Gas molecules inside the grid may collide
with circulating electrons. The collision canresult in the gas molecule being
ionised. The collector inside the grid is negatively charged andattracts these

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positively charged ions. Likewise they are repelled from the positive grid at
thesame time. The number of ions collected by the collector is directly proportional
to the numberof molecules inside the vacuum system. By this method, measuring
the collected ion currentgives a direct reading of the pressure.

The above is a simplification of what happens. The above is a simplification of

what happens.
The design of the gauge head affects how efficientlyelectrons are produced, how
long they survive, and how likely they are to collide witha molecule. These factors
combine together to result in the gauge sensitivity. As a general rule,the higher the
sensitivity, the more efficient the operation of the gauge.There are other factors
which determine the lowest pressure that a gauge head can measure.One of these
limiting factors is the X-ray limit.When an electron collides with the grid, thereis a
probability of a photoelectron being produced.Once generated, there is also a
chancethat the photoelectron will hit the collector andproduce an electron.
Unfortunately, the collectordoes not know the electrical difference between
collecting a positive charge or losing a negativecharge. This means that every time
an electron isknocked off the collector, the electronics measureit as receiving a
positive ion instead. This effect is very small and depends on the design ofthe
gauge head. It normally generates a current measured in the picoamp range. At 10-
10 to 10-11mbar, however, this is also the current producedby the gauge head
itself. If pressure is plottedagainst current, the graph can be seen to tail offas this
X-ray current becomes the dominant effect. The X-ray current therefore limits the
lowest pressure that the ion gauge can measure.

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8.4.2.1 Ion Gauge Connection Leads

A lead is required to connect an ion gauge head to a controller. Leads are available
in both bakeable

Fig 19

and non-bakeable materials. The advantage of a bakeable lead is that the gauge can
still be operated (and pressure monitored) whilst the system is being baked (as long
as it does not exceed the temperaturelimit of the lead). It also means that the
gaugehead can be degassed whilst the system is still hot. Our standard lead length
is 3 metres; we make special length leads of up to 10 metres (the longest we
recommend that you use).

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8.5 Wide Range Pressure Measurement

Introduction to the Wide Range Gauge

Fig 20

VG Scienta wide range gauge display control unit is designed for use with the
ZPGSH and ZPGSU standard version wide range gauges,and the ZPGCH compact
version wide range gauge .
The display unit is capable of being rack mounted. The display unit will
allow continuous pressure measurement fromatmosphere to UHV, control the
degas of gauges and has up to six setpoints available.

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Display and Control System

Measuring Accuracy ±25 % (10 to 10-2 mbar)

±15 % (10-2 to 10-8 mbar)

Analogue Signal l 0 to 10 V logarithmic:

U= 0.625 V x log
(p/10-12 mbar)

Operating Voltage 24V DC +/- 10 %

Current Normal operation 0.4 A
max, 0.9 A degas max

Input Power Normal operation 10 W

max, 22 W degas max

Cathode Material Yttria-coated iridium

Emission Current 25 μA and 2 mA: degassing

20 mA

Grid Potential 240 V, 400 V degas

Ambient Temp 40 ºC max

Setpoint One set point available

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Specification and Options :

Line Voltage 230 or 115 VAC(switchable by voltageselector on main

input)

Fuses Slow-blow fuses of250 mA (230 V)/500 mA(115 V)

Outputs Analogue pressure signalof the connectedwide range gauge

(24v/1A max)

Weight 1.5 kg

Size 128 mm x 142mm x 170 mm (H x W x D)

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.ntpc.co.in
2. www.transducersdirect.com
3. www.google.com
4. www.lesker.com/newweb/menu_gauges.cfm
5. www.wisegreek.com/what-are-transducers.html
6. www.ndt-ed.org/transducertypes.html
7. www.omega.com/pressure.html

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