Musicæ Scientiæ © 2010 by ESCOM European Society

Special issue 2010, 89-111 for the Cognitive Sciences of Music

Musical Parameters
and Children’s Images of motion

ZOHAR EITAN NURIT TUBUL

School of Music, Tel Aviv University

• ABSTRACT
Eitan & Granot (2006) investigated, using a visuokinetic imagery task, how adult
listeners associate changes in musical parameters with bodily motion in physical
space. Their results indicate that musical parameters significantly affect several
dimensions of motion imagery. For instance, pitch contour affected imagined
motion along all three spatial axes (not only verticality), as well as velocity and
“energy.” In addition, surprising directional asymmetries were found, as a musical
change in one direction often evoked a significantly stronger spatial analogy than
its opposite (e.g., the association of pitch direction and verticality applies mostly to
pitch falls, rather than rises).
This study examines whether Eitan & Granot’s findings also apply to children,
replicating their experiment with sixty 6 and 11 years old participants. As in the
earlier study, participants were asked to associate melodic stimuli with imagined
motions of a human character, and to specify the type, directions, energy level and
pace change of these motions. The musical stimuli, selected from those in Eitan and
Granot, consisted of pairs of brief musical figures, one member of a pair presenting
an “intensification” in a specific musical parameter, the other an “abatement”
(e.g., crescendo vs. diminuendo, accelerando vs. ritardando). Musical parameters
manipulated included dynamics (loudness), pitch contour, and attack rate (IOI).
Comparison of results with those of non-musician adults in Eitan and Granot
suggests that several music-motion associations (expectedly, dynamics and
distance, pitch and verticality, IOI and speed) were shared by adults and children.
In addition, some of the asymmetries reported for adults were also found for
children. However, unlike adults, children of both age groups relate sound and
motion primarily through changes in loudness. Loudness is associated not only with
distance, but with verticality, speed, and energy. In contrast, pitch contour and IOI
evoke fewer and weaker spatio-kinetic associations in children, as compared to
adults.

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 BACKGROUND

The association of music with movement is ubiquitous and universal (Clarke 2001,
2005; Eitan & Granot, 2006; Shove & Repp, 1995). Music is usually produced by
movement, and often evokes movement, either spontaneously (as in moving or
tapping in entrainment to a musical beat) or in accord with socially-sanctioned
patterns (e.g., dances, ritual movements, military marches). Correspondingly, music-
related language is steeped with terms related to physical motion, such as pitch “rise”
and “fall,” andante, or cadence (from the Latin cadere, falling).
A systematic empirical investigation of music-motion relationships should,
among other things, examine whether changes in basic musical (and auditory)
parameters, such as pitch rise and fall, crescendo and diminuendo, or accelerando
and ritardando, are consistently related to aspects of bodily motion, such as
movement directions (up or down, forward or backward, right or left) or speed. For
instance, do listeners actually associate “rise” and “fall” in pitch with spatial rise and
fall? Are changes in pitch height associated with other spatio-kinetic dimensions,
which (unlike the height dimension) are not codified by language and musical
notation? Is spatial height associated with auditory dimensions other than pitch
“height”, like loudness or tempo?
Eitan and Granot (2006) survey perceptual and cognitive research and theory
pertaining to interactions of musical and spatio-kinetic dimensions, and proceed to
examine these interactions systematically, using a music-induced imagery paradigm.
In two experiments, they asked participants (musically trained and untrained adults)
to associate melodic stimuli with imagined motions of a human character, and to
specify, in a forced-choice questionnaire, the type, direction, energy level and pace-
change of these motions, as well as the forces affecting them. Pairs of brief melodic
figures were used as stimuli, one member of each pair presenting an “intensification”
in a musical parameter, the other – an “abatement” (e.g., rise vs. fall in pitch,
crescendo vs. diminuendo, accelerando vs. ritardando). The musical parameters
manipulated included dynamics, pitch contour, pitch intervals (increasing or
decreasing in size), attack rate, and articulation (staccato-legato).
Eitan and Granot’s results suggest a picture of music-motion mappings that is
more complex than hitherto assumed. They present one-to-many and many-to-one
relationships between auditory and spatio-kinetic dimensions, such that most
musical parameters are significantly related to several dimensions of motion imagery,
while each motion imagery dimension is associated with several musical parameters.
For instance, pitch contour associated with motion along all three spatial axes (not
only verticality), as well as speed change and the energy level ascribed to the imagined
character. Likewise, speed changes attributed to the imagined movement were related
not only to tempo changes, as expected, but also to changes in loudness and pitch
direction, such that equidurational ascending melodic pattern, and equidurational
repeated tone in crescendo, both elicited “speeding” responses. Another surprising
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finding of Eitan and Granot’s study is that musical-spatial analogies are often
asymmetrical, as a musical change in one direction evokes a significantly stronger
spatial analogy than its opposite. Such asymmetries include even the entrenched
association of pitch change and spatial verticality, which applies mostly to pitch falls,
but only weakly to rises.

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

The present study replicates parts of Eitan and Granot’s (2006) experiments,
performed with adult participants, with two groups of children, aged 6 and 11. It
compares children’s and adults’ mappings of musical and spatio-kinetic dimensions,
aiming to track developmental aspects of the cognitive mappings of music and
motion.
The three age groups compared – 6- and 11-year-old children and adults – differ
in aspects of their cognitive, kinesthetic, and musical development that may
significantly bear upon their music-motion mappings. These differences concern
how the relevant musical dimensions (pitch height, tempo and loudness) are
perceived at different stages of development, and how cross-modal perception and
conceptualization concerning these dimensions (for instance, the propensity to
associate, verbally or nonverbally, pitch height with vertical position in space)
develops.
Though changes in loudness (Fassbender, 1996), tempo (Papousek, 1996; Pouthas,
1996) and pitch contour (Trehub et al., 1984, 1997) are well discriminated already in
infancy, these dimensions are not equally salient for children. Loudness seems to be the
most conspicuous, readily available aspect of music for preschool children (Andrews &
Deihl, 1970; Schwarzer, 1997). Overall tempo (slow vs. fast) also serves centrally in
preschoolers’ music conceptualization (Young, 1982). In contrast, pitch contour is
referred to infrequently in children’s descriptions of music. Moreover, studies involving
children as old as 12 reveal difficulties in discriminating pitch direction (Hair, 1977,
1987a, 1987b; Scott, 1979; VanZee, 1976), seemingly at odds with research suggesting
that the perception of pitch contour develops already in infancy. Importantly, results
were particularly poor in verbal tasks (even when children could choose their own
verbal tags to pitch direction, rather than use established terms such as “rise” and “fall”;
Webster & Schlentrich, 1982), suggesting that it is the verbal mode of response, rather
than lack of perceptual discrimination, that hinders children’s performance. Nevertheless,
children as young as 5 years old were able to discriminate pitch direction beyond
chance level, even when verbal response was required, given appropriate tasks,
including proper pre-test demonstrations, training, feedback, and ecologically valid
stimuli (Stalinski et al., 2008).
Children express music-motion analogies through movement well before their
verbal metaphors mapping music and motion are established. Children as young as
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three reveal an understanding of musical tempo and dynamics, as expressed in their
locomotive movements such as running and walking (Moog, 1976; Sims, 1988;
McDonald & Simons, 1989; Metz, 1988). Energetic movements are a response to
loud sounds, while movements showing low energy levels are typically a response to
softer sounds (Gorali-Turel, 1997; Gluschankof, 2005). 4th grade subjects in a study
by Andrews & Deihl (1967) evidenced changes in their overt movements in response
to short musical excerpts which contained a change in tempo or loudness. Note,
however, that changes in pitch were not reflected in the children’s physical movement
responses.
A recent study conducted by our group (Kohn & Eitan, 2009) suggests that
when asked to react to changes in musical parameters through bodily movement,
children indeed reveal consistent musical-motional mappings. In the study, children
aged 5 and 8 heard short musical stimuli involving bi-directional changes in pitch,
loudness and tempo, and were asked to move to each excerpt in an “appropriate
way.” Results indicate that different musical parameters tend to activate different
motion dimensions: pitch changes are mainly associated with vertical motion,
loudness change with both muscular energy and vertical motion, and tempo change
with speed and muscular energy. The direction of change in each musical parameter
was significantly associated with the direction of change in motion dimensions, e.g.,
increase in loudness is associated with increasing speed, increase in muscular energy,
and spatial rise. Notably, while there was no age effect on the choices of movement
dimensions, age did affect the choice of directions within these dimensions,
particularly regarding the movement in vertical plane: though 5-year-old children,
just like older children, tended to react to pitch changes through motion in the
vertical plane, the direction (up or down) of their vertical motion was not correlated
with pitch contour.
Verbal mappings of musical dimensions onto movement dimensions seem,
particularly at pre-school ages, less secure and consistent than movement responses.
Both kindergarten children (Van Zee, 1976) and fourth graders (Andrews & Deihl,
1970) tended to use terms such as high/low, large/small fast/slow and loud/soft
interchangeably for different musical dimensions. This “confusion” may reflect
sensitivity to amodal features such as intensity, that associate states of higher (high
pitch, loud volume, fast pace) and lower intensity in different musical dimensions
(Eitan, 2007; Eitan & Granot, 2007).
Young children find it particularly confusing to apply height terms (high/low,
rise/fall) to pitch and pitch change. Pre-school children, though able to discriminate
pitch registers, rarely use the terms “high” and “low” to describe pitch (Hair, 1981).
Moreover, the cross-domain connotations of the terms “high” or “low” seem to
impair Englishspeaking children’s ability to describe pitch verbally, as compared to
children who speak French and Spanish, where the terms describing pitch register
(“aigu” and “grave” in French; “agudo” and “grave” in Spanish) are not derived from
the verticality domain (Abril, 2001; Costa-Giomi & Descombes, 1996; Flowers &
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Costa-Giomi, 1991). Note that in contrast to children’s difficulties in correlating

pitch and height verbally, implicit, non-verbal pitch/height mappings have been
reported for infants (Wagner et al., 1981; Walker et al., in press) and 3- to 5-year-old
children (Marcus & Eitan, 2009).
The studies surveyed above suggest, then, that young children, particularly when
responding verbally (as in the present study), would map dynamics and tempo more
consistently than pitch into motion features. They also suggest that young children,
who may mix metaphors for the description of different musical domains (such as
loud and high) may apply one-to-many mappings to musical variables (particularly
dynamics) – perhaps even more so than adults.

METHOD

Participants. 60 elementary school children from central Israel took part in the
experiment: 30 1st grade (aged 6-6.8; 14 males, 16 females) and 30 6th grade students
(aged 11-11.7; 18 males, 12 females). Children were mostly from a lower middle
class socio-economic background. All children but one (who nevertheless had an
early exposure to Hebrew) were native speakers of Hebrew, though some were bi-
lingual. The 1st grade children had no formal music training. The 6th grade children
have participated in music appreciation classes at school. Half of them (15) played a
musical instrument at a rudimentary level (<3 years of playing).
Musical materials. The musical stimuli consisted of four pairs of brief melodic
figures. One member of each pair presented an “increase” (intensification) in a
specific musical parameter, while the other presented a “decrease” (abatement) — for
instance, crescendo versus diminuendo, or accelerando versus ritardando. Other
parameters were held constant for each pair. Parameters investigated were dynamics,
pitch contour (ascending vs. descending), and inter-onset intervals (IOI or attack
rate). To minimize the effects of tonal implications, all stimuli were tonally
ambiguous.
Figure 1 presents the stimuli used (BPM = 160). Six of the stimuli were selected
from Eitan & Granot (2006, Experiment 1). Stimuli 1 and 2 are a crescendo and
diminuendo over a repeated pitch. Stimuli 3 and 4 present ascending and descending
chromatic melodic sequences (in the musical sense of the term). Stimuli 5 and 6
present an accelerando and a ritardando over a repeated note. In Stimuli 7 & 8
(selected from Eitan & Granot, 2009) a chromatic melodic sequence exhibits
noncongruent pitch & loudness: pitch fall, increasing in loudness (Stimulus 7), and
pitch rise, decreasing in loudness (Stimulus 8).
Stimuli were created through Sibelius 1.2 music software, using the software’s
Grand Piano sound, with the software’s “expression” and rubato features turned off.
They were recorded onto an audio CD using two identical tracks (i.e., a monophonic
recording).
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 Figure 1.
Musical stimuli used in the experiment.
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Task and procedure. Participants were asked to visualize an animated (“cartoon”)

human character of their choice (choices of character were unrestricted, and no
specific suggestions were made by the experimenter). They then heard brief melodic
figures, and for each figure had to visualize their character moving in an imaginary
animated film shot, the melody serving as its “soundtrack.” For each melodic figure,
participants specified their character’s imagined motion in a forced-choice
questionnaire as follows:
1. Motion type: specified categories included walking, running, jumping, crawling,
and falling/sliding (however, participants could mark and describe any other
motion, not only locomotion types)
2. Vertical direction: ascending, descending, or level
3. Change of (virtual) distance from spectator: approaching, moving away, or
neither
4. Direction on the horizontal plane: motion to the right (relative to the spectator),
left, or neither
5. Change of the character’s pace: acceleration, deceleration, or motion in a constant
pace
6. Whether an external force (excluding gravity) interferes with the imagined
motion
7. Whether this force supports, opposes, or sidetracks the imagined motion.
8. The character’s “energy” level for each motion (on a 1-7 scale)
In addition, participants could supply a brief free description of the imagined
motion for each stimulus.
For the older (6th grade) children, procedure followed that in Eitan & Granot
(2006). Stimuli were presented in a monophonic recording through two loudspeakers.
Participants were seated at a roughly equal distance from both loudspeakers. They
heard the stimuli in groups of 5-8 people, in a single session of 45-50 minutes.
Stimuli were presented to each group in a different quasi-random ordering (6
randomizations were produced), such that opposite stimuli (e.g., stimuli 1 & 2) were
never presented in immediate adjacency.
After instructions were read to the participants and each participant had chosen an
imaginary character, participants heard each stimulus three times in succession, with
approximately 5 seconds of pause between presentations; responses (filling the
questionnaire) started following these three presentations. Each Stimulus was presented
again, as a reminder, after a 1-minute interval. Participants were given approximately
3 minutes to complete the task for each stimulus. Questionnaires were presented in
Hebrew, the participants’ native language, on a paper form. The order of questions and
the order of forced-choice options in each question was randomized.
For the younger (1st grade) children, who couldn’t yet read or write, the task was
presented aurally and individually. After instructions were read and participants
chose a cartoon character, they heard a stimulus three times in succession, and then
supplied the free description of his character’s movement to the music. Following
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that, the experimenter read each question and its forced choice response options, and
the participant chose an appropriate answer (the order of questions and of the forced
choice options within each question was randomized among subjects). Following
each three questions, the stimulus was played again.
Note that the experimental procedure for the two age groups differed (oral versus
written instructions; individual versus group testing). Such differences in test
administration, of course, complicate comparisons between these two groups.
However, by opting for a written, group procedure for the older children group we
equated their experimental procedure with that of adults in Eitan & Granot (2006),
thus enhancing the validity of comparison between those two groups.

RESULTS

DATA CODING AND ANALYSIS

Answers to the ordered multiple choice items (questions 2-7; see method section)
were coded as –1 or 1 (for opposing answers), and as 0 for a neutral answer (e.g., in
the verticality item, “ascending” is +1, “descending” is -1, and “level” is 0). Item 8
(level of energy) was analyzed as a continuous variable.
Much of the statistical analysis is based on differences between the coded answers
to paired musical motives representing an intensifying figure and its corresponding
abating figure (e.g., no. 1, a crescendo, as compared to no. 2, a diminuendo). Paired
comparisons for each question were carried out using the Wilcoxon test on the
differences in the coded answers to the two members of each pair of motives. For
questions with opposing answers, chi-squared tests were used for each motive
separately, to test the hypothesis that non-neutral responses favored one of the two
directions (e.g., right vs. left motion).
The question on motion type (q. 1) was analyzed as a categorical response
variable, using the McNemar test for correlated proportions to compare the
proportion of subjects who chose specific answers in the intensifying motives as
compared to the abating motives.
Binomial tests were used to examine asymmetries between opposite musical
motives, the null-hypothesis being that, with regard to each of the questions with
opposing answers, participants who supplied a “+” response to a motive would
supply a “-” response to the opposite motive (e.g., in q. 2,”ascending” for the
crescendo motive and “descending” for the diminuendo motive, or vice verse).
Mann-Whitney tests compared responses of the two age groups (6-7 and 11-12),
and were also used to compare each of the two groups with adult non-musician
participants in Eitan & Granot (2006, 2009).
In all analyses, the false discovery rate procedure (Benjamini & Hochberg, 1995)
was used to account for multiple testing.
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MUSICAL PARAMETERS AND MOTION FEATURES

Since (rather surprisingly) results in the two age groups were mostly similar (see pp.
14-15 below), we compiled the data for all participants to examine the relationships
between musical parameters and motion imagery features. Results are presented in
Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 is based on Wilcoxon tests, comparing responses to each
forced-choice question in contrasting pairs of motives. Thus, the table indicates
which musical and motional parameters are significantly associated. Table 2 presents
results of chi-square tests, indicating differences between opposing answers (e.g.,
right vs. left) for each motive separately. The information in Tables 1 and 2 is
complementary. For instance, while Table 1 generally indicates that pitch contour
significantly affects the vertical direction of the imagined motion, corresponding
chi-square results (Table 2) show that it is only fall, rather than rise, that is
significantly associated with verticality.
As Table 1 and 2 indicate, the effects of dynamics on motion features is strong
and wide-ranging, while those of pitch contour and tempo change are weaker and
more limited. Change in dynamics affects most of the movement parameters
examined: crescendo is associated with spatial rise, getting closer, and speeding up,

Table 1.
Comparing ratings in contrasting stimuli (all participants), Means (-1 to +1;
energy 1 to 3), (s.d.), and p-values (Wilcoxon: *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001)

Table 2.
Motion features associated with musical parameters (Chi-square), Comparing
frequency of + and - ratings for each stimulus. * p<.05 ** p<.01 *** p<.001

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while diminuendo is associated with their opposites. Crescendo is also associated
with a higher level of energy, as compared to diminuendo (Table 1) and (unlike
diminuendo) with the action of an external force.
Pitch contour is associated with spatial verticality, as expected (Table 1). However
(as noted), it is only pitch “fall” that associates significantly with spatial fall, while
pitch “rise” is not associated with spatial rise. Pitch rise, as compared to pitch fall,
also suggests a higher energy level (Table 1). While pitch rise is associated with
increase in speed as well (Table 2), pitch fall is not associated with speed decrease,
and there is no significant different concerning speed between pitch rise and fall
(Table 1). Pitch contour, unlike dynamics, does not affect the dimension of
distance.
Results concerning stimuli involving non-congruence of dynamics and pitch
contour (stimuli 7 and 8) further suggest that the effects of dynamics prevail over
those of pitch. A crescendo descending in pitch suggests getting closer and moving
faster (similarly to the effects of dynamic increase with no pitch change, as in
stimulus 1), while a diminuendo ascending in pitch suggests moving away and
slower (like a diminuendo with no pitch change, stimulus 2). Note that pitch rise
and fall do not even associate with spatial rise and fall – their culturally-sanctioned
connotation – when accompanied by noncongruent changes in dynamics.
Tempo was associated, expectedly, with speed. It was also related to energy, such
that accelerando conveyed a higher energy level, as compared to ritardando. In
addition, accelerando was associated with spatial fall (Table 2), and ritardando
conveyed interference by an external force.
Asymmetries. Binomial tests (followed by an FDR multiple tests correction)
examined the null hypothesis that participants supply opposite answers to opposite
motives (e.g., crescendo/rise → diminuendo/fall). Results reveal several asymmetries
concerning contrasting motives (p< .05). Notably, all asymmetries are related to
changes in speed or tempo, either in an independent dimension (musical tempo) or
in a dependent dimension (speed change of the imagined character):
• In crescendi, motion speeds up, while in diminuendi motion does not slow
down.
• When pitch rises, motion speeds up, while when pitch falls, motion does not slow
down.
• Motion descends in musical ritardandi, but also in accelerandi.

COMPARING YOUNGER AND OLDER CHILDREN

Mann-Whitney tests, comparing responses of the two age groups (6-7 and 11-12),
suggest that the older children exhibit stronger tendencies to associate some musical
and spatio-kinetic dimensions (Table 3). These differences, however, are limited to
few dimensions, and apply particularly to spatio-kinetic associations of loudness. In
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contrast, no significant age-related differences were found for pitch contour. In

particular, significant age-related differences concern the relationships of diminuendo
with slowing down and moving away, both significantly stronger for the older
children (p<.05 after FDR correction for multiple tests). Marginally significant
differences (p<.1 after FDR correction) are also shown for the associations of
crescendo with upward motion and with the presence of an external force. An
interesting, though marginally significant difference (p=0.08 after FDR), also
concerning loudness, is presented when loudness and pitch changes are in conflict,
such that rise in pitch is accompanied by a diminuendo, a combination that older
children interpret as descending (probably following the decrease in loudness) while
younger ones do not.

Table 3.
Younger (6-7) vs. older children (Mann-Whitney+FDR correction)
Means (range +1 to -1), (s.d.), (*) p<.1, *p<.05

COMPARING CHILDREN AND ADULTS

As noted, design and stimuli of the present study are based on those used in previous
studies with adult population (Eitan & Granot, 2006, 2009). Using Mann-Whitney
tests, we compared (for stimuli used for both children and adults) responses of each
of the children’s age groups with those of non-musician adults in the above studies.
Tables 4 and 5 present the comparisons of adults with older (11—12) and younger
(6-7) children, respectively.
Surprisingly, differences between older children (11-12) and adults are larger and
more numerous than differences between adults and the younger group (6-7). Most
of the differences concern the motion correlates of loudness. The older children
strongly associate a crescendo with spatial rise, while adults do not (p<.001 after
FDR correction). Unlike adults, they also associate a crescendo with a higher level of
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 Table 4.
Adults (non-musicians) vs. older children (11-12) (Mann-Whitney+FDR correction).
Means, (s.d.), (*) p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01 , *** p<.001

energy (p<.05), and relate change in loudness to changes in speed of the imagined
character (p<.05); in particular, diminuendi are associated with decrease in speed.
Further differences are revealed by comparing the responses of older children to non-
congruent pitch and loudness changes with those of adults. While adults strongly
associate a descending pitch increasing in loudness with spatial descent, thus

Table 5.
Adults (non-musicians) vs. younger children (6-7) (Mann-
Whitney+FDR correction), Means, (s.d.), (*) p<.1, * p<.05, ** p<.01 , *** p<.001

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suggesting preference for pitch over loudness as a basis for this auditory-motional
mapping, children present no such association (p<.05). Comparably, rising pitch in
diminuendo is associated by adults with accelerating speed, while children associate
it with deceleration (p<.05). These differences add up to suggest a stronger reliance
of the older children group, as compared to adults, on loudness change as a basis for
analogy between sound and motion.
In contrast to results concerning the older children, few significant differences
between adults and younger (6-7 years old) children were found (Table 5). Young
children associated rise in pitch with motion toward them, while adults associated
rise in pitch with moving away (p<.05), and assigned accelerandi higher energy levels
than adults. Like the older children, they associated descending pitch increasing in
loudness with spatial rise, following the course of loudness change, in contrast to
adults, which correlated this non-congruent pattern with spatial fall, in accord with
the connotations of pitch direction (p<.001).
A complementary comparison of children and adults’ mapping of auditory
dimensions into spatial motion is featured in Table 6, which compares the results of
Wilcoxon tests for all children with those of adults. As the table indicates, in adults
pitch direction was significantly associated with multiple motion features, including
motion in the three spatial axes, speed and energy. In contrast, only one such
association – that of pitch direction and vertical motion -- is featured among
children. Furthermore, when pitch direction and loudness change conflict (rightmost
columns), they even out for adults, showing no significant tendencies either way. In
contrast, for children loudness prevails in two motion dimensions, distance and
speed (see also Table 1).

Table 6.
Spatio-kinetic features associated with musical parameters in adult subjects
(Eitan & Granot, 2006, 2009) and children (present experiment):
comparisons of contrasting stimuli (Wilcoxon signed ranks test)
● p<.05 ●● p<.01 ●●● p<.001 (adults) * p<.05 ** p<.01 *** p<.001 (children)

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 CONCLUSIONS

CORROBORATING PREVIOUS FINDINGS

This study examined, using a music-induced imagery task, how musical parameters
correlate with features of motion for children aged 6 and 11, and compared results
with those of similar studies involving adults (Eitan & Granot, 2006, 2009).
Though notable differences were discovered between children and adults, the
importance of the study lies foremost in corroborating new findings of our adult study,
while testing a very different population (though within a similar cultural and linguistic
background). First, children and adults alike apply one-to-many mappings of musical
parameters into motion features, associating a single auditory parameter with diverse
dimensions of motion (e.g., loudness changes with motion in the vertical plane,
distance change, speed change and energy). As Eitan & Granot (2006) suggest, such
one-to-many mappings may be based upon abstract coding of different dimensions in
terms of analogies of directional change (more or less of a parameter value).
Second, for both adults and children, mappings transcend entrenched associations
based on daily experience (loudness/distance, tempo/speed), or codified in language
(pitch/height), and include relationships not reported before, as between loudness
change and motion in the vertical dimension, or between loudness and speed change.
Another novel finding of our previous study, the directional asymmetries in
music-motion mappings, was also established in the present experiment. For both
adults and children, directional asymmetries were found in the mappings of loudness
into the speed of motion (crescendo accelerates, but diminuendo does not decelerate),
pitch contour and speed (rising pitch accelerates, but falling pitch does not
decelerate), as well as musical tempo and motion in the vertical plane. Moreover, in
accord with adults’ results, pitch fall associates significantly with spatial descent,
while pitch rise is not significantly associated with spatial ascent.
Altogether, these similarities suggest that the novel findings of Eitan & Granot
(2006) are robust and wide-ranging (though still in need of cross-cultural and cross-
linguistic corroboration). For children, as for adults, musical space is multi-
dimensional. For children and adults alike, auditory-motional mappings are more
diverse than hitherto assumed, and do not necessarily rely on either direct experience
or explicit verbal metaphors. Lastly, The directional asymmetries revealed for
children and adults alike suggest that that metaphorical space is not composed of
binary opposites, but of differences: accelerando and ritardando, or pitch rise and
fall, do not entail opposite connotations, but different ones – each applying to
different spatio-kinetic dimensions.

CHILDREN VERSUS ADULTS

Similarities across ages notwithstanding, children’s music-motion analogies differ
from adults’ at least in one way: loudness, rather than pitch, is the main source of
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their spatio-kinetic mappings of music. Mappings of loudness into dimensions of

motion are significantly stronger and more consensual for children, as compared to
adults. In contrast, pitch is associated by children (mostly older ones) with the
vertical dimension alone, while for adults significant mappings of pitch involve
almost all the motion dimensions investigated.
The importance of loudness relationships in children’s descriptions of music, on
the one hand (Andrews & Deihl, 1970; Schwarzer, 1997) and their difficulties in
accounting verbally or symbolically for pitch contour on the other (Hair, 1977,
1987a, 1987b; Scott, 1979; VanZee, 1976) are well documented. The present study
reveals the dominance of loudness over pitch for metaphorical accounts of music
based on spatial and movement analogies, and suggests that this dominance persists,
and even increases, for children as old as 12.
Children’s ease in mapping loudness into spatio-kinetic dimensions may stem
from their concrete experience with sound perception and production. The
acoustically-based mappings of loudness into distance (Blauert, 1997) and energy are
not difficult to account for, given the importance of these mappings for localization
and auditory scene analysis in general. The mappings of loudness change into
vertical motion (crescendo → up, diminuendo → down) and speed (crescendo →
increasing speed, diminuendi → decreasing speed) are less obvious. For the child,
however, these mappings may rise from direct bodily experience of sound production.
In hitting a surface, or clapping hands, children may learn that larger and faster
movements (gaining more kinetic energy) would generate a more forceful impact,
and thus a louder sound. Hence, both the speed of movement and its magnitude
(which itself correlates with height) are embodied into the percept and concepts of
loudness.
While Children’s spatio-kinetic mappings of loudness may be based on tangible
experience, associating pitch (as adults do) with dimensions such as laterality, speed
or distance may demand a higher degree of abstraction. The relationships of
ascending pitch with increasing distance and speed, or of pitch descent with leftward
motion, found for adults in Eitan & Granot (2006), cannot be easily derived from
direct experience with sound. Rather, they may be related to an abstract scheme,
mapping different parameters onto a quantitative scale (Eitan & Granot, 2007;
Eitan, 2007). Even the entrenched verticality metaphor was used by children more
consistently for loudness than for pitch, perhaps due to the concrete relationships of
loudness with larger physical dimensions. Importantly, higher pitch is associated
with small physical dimensions (Eitan & Timmers, 2010), perhaps another impeding,
confusing factor in children’s mapping of pitch onto spatial height.

YOUNGER VERSUS OLDER CHILDREN

Older, as compared to younger children, present stronger, more consistent music-
motion mappings. Surprisingly, most of these stronger mappings concern loudness
– which has been shown to be a primary musical dimension for young children
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(Andrews & Deihl, 1970; Schwarzer, 1997) – rather than pitch (Table 4). The higher
consensus in older children’s matching of music parameters and motion may stem in
particular from difficulties of the younger children in performing verbal tasks
concerning music. As noted above (pp. 92-93), the demand to describe musical
phenomena verbally posits considerable difficulties for young children. Even when
their discrimination of musical stimuli is good, their relevant vocabulary is lacking
and insecure (Zimmermann & Sechrest, 1968). In the free response part of this
experiment, children often confused terms such as high/low, soft (quiet)/loud, fast/
slow, relating them interchangeably and inconsistently to different musical parameters
(as observed in previous studies, e.g., Andrews & Deihl, 1970). Children’s task in the
present experiment demanded a complex combination and correlation of several
cognitive and perceptual demands: auditory discrimination, auditory-spatial
mapping, and accurate verbal expression of that mapping. Apparently, this
combination of tasks hindered performance for some of the younger children,
creating as a result a high degree of variability in their responses and thus possibly
obscuring further age-related differences.
Surprisingly, differences between older (11-12) children and adults are stronger,
and apply to more dimensions, than those between adults and younger (6-7)
children. These results would seem to suggest, paradoxically, that 6 years olds are
more similar to adults in their music-motion associations than 11 years old. How can
this seeming paradox be accounted for? Possibly, the enhanced, more secure verbal
skills of the older children enabled them to express more clearly and unequivocally
their associations of audition and movement. Yet these enhanced abilities allowed
them to express mappings that differ from those of adults – mappings that largely
rely on changes in loudness, rather than pitch. It seems, then, that the central role of
loudness in shaping musical expression (and correspondingly, the marginal role of
pitch relationships) is not confined to a very young age. Children on the verge of
adolescence, many with considerable music appreciation background and fair
acquaintance with musical notation, still revert to the most elemental of musical
dimensions when imagining musical space and motion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks are due to the pupils and teachers of Ha’Maapilim elementary school
in Yahud, Israel, who participated in the experiments. We also thank David Steinberg
and Ilana Galenter for assistance in statistical analysis. Research was supported by an
Israel-USA Binational Science Foundation (BSF) Grant no. 2005-524 to the 1st
author and Lawrence E. Marks. Results were first presented at the 8th Conference of
the Society for Music Perception and Cognition (SMPC), Montreal, Canada, August
2007, and reported in the 2nd author’s MA thesis (Tubul, 2007).

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ZOHAR EITAN & NURIT TUBUL

Address correspondence to:

Zohar Eitan,
School of Music, Tel Aviv University,
Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
E-mail: zohar44@yahoo.com,
zeitan@post.tau.ac.il
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 • Parámetros Musicales en las Imágenes de Movimiento Infantiles

Eitan y Granot (2006) investigaron, mediante una tarea de imaginación cinética y

visual, cómo los oyentes adultos asocian cambios en los parámetros musicales con
el movimiento corporal en el espacio físico. Sus resultados indican que los
parámetros musicales afectan de manera significativa varias dimensiones de la
imágenes mentales evocadas por el movimiento. Por ejemplo, el contorno melódico
tuvo un efecto sobre el movimiento imaginado a lo largo de los tres ejes espaciales
(no sólo el vertical), así como la velocidad y la “energía”. Además se encontraron
asimetrías direccionales sorprendentes, debido a que el cambio musical en una
dirección, a menudo evocaba una analogía espacial mucho más fuerte que su
opuesto (por ejemplo, la asociación de la dirección de tono (pitch) y verticalidad
aplica más en las inflexiones hacia abajo que en las inflexiones hacia arriba).
Este estudio examina si estos hallazgos son también aplicables a los niños,
replicando su estudio con sesenta participantes de 6 y 11 años de edad. Al igual
que en el estudio anterior, se pidió a los participantes asociar estímulos melódicos
con movimientos imaginarios de carácter humano, y especificar el tipo, direcciones,
nivel de energía y cambios de ritmo de estos movimientos. Los estímulos musicales,
seleccionados entre los de Eitan y Granot, consistió en pares de figuras musicales
breves, un miembro del par presenta la “acentuación” de algún parámetro musical
específico, y la otra una “reducción” (por ejemplo, crescendo vs. diminuendo,
accelerando vs. ritardando). Entre los parámetros musicales manipulados se incluye
la dinámica (volumen), afinación (pitch contour), y el ataque (attack rate –IOI-).
La comparación de resultados entre los adultos no músicos en Eitan y Granot
sugiere que varias asociaciones entre movimiento y música fueron similares en
adultos y niños (esperados en dinámica y distancia, altura y verticalidad, y el IOI y
velocidad). Además, algunas de las asimetrías reportadas por los adultos también
se encontraron en los niños. Sin embargo, a diferencia de los adultos, los niños de
ambos grupos de edad relacionaron sonido y movimiento principalmente a través
de cambios en el volumen. Este se asocia no sólo con la distancia, sino con la
verticalidad, velocidad y energía. En contraste, el contorno melódico y el IOI
evocaron pocas y débiles asociaciones espacio-cinéticas en los niños en comparación
con los adultos.

• I parametri musicali e le immagini infantili di movimento

Eitan & Granot (2006) hanno studiato, usando un compito di immaginario visivo-
cinetica, come ascoltatori adulti associano i cambiamenti nei parametri musicali con
il movimento corporeo nello spazio fisico. I loro risultati indicano che i parametri
musicali influenzano significativamente diverse dimensioni dell’immaginario
motorio. Ad esempio, il contorno dell’altezza tonale influenzava il movimento
immaginato in tutti i tre assi spaziali (non solo verticalmente), cosí come la velocità
e l’”energia”. Inoltre, sono state riscontrate sorprendenti asimmetrie direzionali, in
quanto un cambiamento musicale in una direzione spesso evocava un’analogia
spaziale significativamente piú incisiva rispetto al suo opposto (ossia l’associazione
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tra la direzione dell’altezza tonale e la verticalità si applicava principalmente ai

movimenti tonali verso il basso piuttosto che a quelli verso il basso). Questo studio
esamina se tali risultati si applicano anche ai bambini, replicando lo studio
precedente con sessanta partecipanti tra i 6 e gli 11 anni di etá. Cosí come nello
studio precedente, ai partecipanti veniva richiesto di associare gli stimoli melodici
con i movimenti immaginari di un personaggio fittizio, nonché di specificare il tipo,
le direzioni, il livello di energia e il cambiamento di velocità di questi movimenti. Gli
stimoli musicali, selezionati tra quelli di Eitan e Granot, consistevano di coppie di
brevi figure musicali, una presa dal gruppo di coppie che illustravano una
“intensificazione” di un parametro musicale specifico, l’altra un “abbassamento”
(ad esempio, un crescendo contro un diminuendo, un accelerando contro un
ritardando). I parametri musicali manipolati includevano la dinamica (l’intensitá), il
contorno delle altezze tonali e la velocità di attacco (IOI). Il confronto di questi
risultati con quelli ottenuti con adulti non musicisti in Eitan e Granot suggerisce che
diverse associazioni musica-movimento (secondo le aspettative, dinamica e
distanza, altezza tonale e verticalità, IOI e velocità) erano condivise dagli adulti e
dai bambini. Inoltre, alcune asimmetrie riportate per gli adulti sono state trovate
anche nei bambini. Comunque, diversamente dagli adulti, i bambini di entrambi i
gruppi di etá collegavano il suono e il movimento soprattutto tramite i cambiamenti
di intensità sonora. L’intensitá viene associata non solo alla distanza, ma anche alla
verticalità, alla velocità e all’energia. Al contrario, il contorno delle altezze tonali e
l’IOI evocano associazioni spazio-cinetiche piú rare e deboli nei bambini rispetto
agli adulti.

• Paramètres musicaux et imagination infantile du mouvement

Eitan & Granot (2006) ont étudié, par le biais de tâches d’imagerie visuo-cinétique,
comment des auditeurs adultes associent des changements de paramètres musicaux
à des mouvements corporels dans l’espace physique. Leurs résultats indiquent que
les paramètres musicaux affectent de manière significative plusieurs dimensions de
l’imagination du mouvement. Par exemple, la contour de hauteur affecte le
mouvement imaginé sur les trois axes de l’espace (et non seulement la simple
verticalité), ainsi que les notions de vélocité et d’« énergie ». En outre, de
surprenantes asymétries directionnelles ont été mises en évidence : un changement
musical dans certaines directions évoquent une analogie spatiale de manière plus
forte que dans la direction opposée (par exemple, l’association de la direction de
hauteur et de la verticalité s’applique davantage aux chutes de hauteurs qu’aux
phases de montée).
L’étude présente examine l’applicabilité de ces résultats aux enfants, par
l’intermédiaire d’une réplication sur des participants âgés de 6 et 11 ans. Fidèle à
l’étude antérieure, il a été demandé aux participants d’associer les stimuli
mélodiques à des mouvements imaginaires de personnages humains, et d’en
spécifier leurs types, directions, niveaux d’énergie et changements de rythme. Le
stimulus musical, sélectionné parmi ceux de Eitan et Granot, consistent en des
paires de figures musicales brèves, l’une présentant une « intensification » d’un
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paramètre musical spécifique alors que l’autre présente au contraire une « réduction »
(par exemple, crescendo et diminuendo, accelerando et ritardando). Les paramètres
musicaux manipulés incluent la dynamique (nuances, volume sonore), le contour
de hauteur et le type d’attaque (considéré ici du point de vue des intervalles
temporels entre notes successives).
Une comparaison de ces résultats avec ceux des adultes non-musiciens dans l’étude
de Eitan et Granot suggère que plusieurs associations musique / mouvement
(comme prévu, dynamique et distance, hauteur et verticalité, intervalle temporel et
vitesse) sont partagées par les adultes et les enfants. En outre, une part des
asymétries détectées chez les adultes a été retrouvée chez les enfants. Toutefois, à
la différence des adultes, les enfants des deux groupes d’âge associent son et
mouvement en premier lieu à travers le changement de dynamique, de nuance. Le
volume sonore est associé non seulement avec la distance, mais aussi avec la
verticalité, la vitesse et l’énergie. À l’opposé, les contours de hauteur ainsi que les
intervalles temporels évoquent une part moindre, aussi bien en nombre qu’en
intensité, d’associations spatio-cinétiques chez les enfants, en comparaison avec les
adultes.

• Musikalische Parameter und ihr Zusammenhang

mit Bewegungsvorstellungen bei Kindern

Eitan & Granot (2006) untersuchten mittels einer visuell-kinetischen Aufgabe, wie
erwachsene Hörer Änderungen von musikalischen Parametern mit bestimmten
Körperbewegungen im Raum verbinden. Die Ergebnisse der Autoren zeigten, dass
musikalische Parameter verschiedene Dimensionen der Bewegungsvorstellung
maßgeblich beeinflussen. Zum Beispiel beeinflusste die Tonhöhenkontur vorgestellte
Bewegungen auf allen räumlichen Achsen (nicht nur auf der vertikalen), ebenso
wie dies auch die Parameter Geschwindigkeit und subjektiv erlebte „Energie“
taten. Darüber hinaus wurden überraschende Richtungs-Asymmetrien gefunden,
wenn zum Beispiel ein musikalischer Wechsel in einer Richtung eine signifikant
stärkere räumliche Analogie hervorrief als der entgegengesetzte Richtungswechsel
(d. h. bei fallender Tonhöhe ist die Assoziation von Tonhöhenwechsel mit
empfundener Vertikalität häufiger als bei steigender Tonhöhe). Um zu untersuchen,
ob Eitan & Granots Ergebnisse auch bei Kindern gelten, wurde deren Studie mit
sechs- und elfjährigen Probanden repliziert. Wie in der früheren Studie wurden die
Teilnehmer gebeten, Melodie-Stimuli mit vorgestellten Bewegungen eines
Menschen zu assoziieren und die Art, die Richtung, das Energieniveau sowie die
Geschwindigkeitsänderung dieser Bewegungen anzugeben. Die Stimuli, die von
Eitan & Granot übernommen wurden, bestanden aus Paaren kurzer musikalischer
Figuren, bei denen jeweils die eine eine „Intensivierung“ und die andere eine
„Abschwächung“ des musikalischen Parameters erfuhr (z. B. crescendo vs.
diminuendo, accelerando vs. ritardando). Die veränderten musikalischen Parameter
umfassten auch die Dynamik (Lautstärkeänderung), Tonhöhe und Anschlagshäufigkeit
(IOI). Der Vergleich der vorliegenden Ergebnisse von Kindern mit denjenigen
erwachsener Nichtmusiker führt zu der Annahme, dass einige Assoziationen
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zwischen Musik und Bewegung bei Kindern und Erwachsenen vorkommen (so
zwischen Dynamik und Entfernung, Tonhöhe und Vertikalität sowie zwischen
Anschlagshäufigkeit und Geschwindigkeitseindruck). Einige der Asymmetrien, die
bei Erwachsenen vorkommen, können auch bei Kindern beobachtet werden.
Anders jedoch als Erwachsene verbinden Kinder Klang mit Bewegung in erster Linie
durch eine Änderung der Lautstärke. Lautstärke wird nicht nur mit Entfernung,
sondern auch mit Vertikalität sowie mit Geschwindigkeit und Energie in Verbindung
gebracht. Demgegenüber erzeugen Tonhöhenverläufe und Anschlagshäufigkeiten
bei Kindern im Vergleich zu Erwachsenen weniger und schwächere Raum-
Bewegungs-Assoziationen.

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