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Information Security 4 0 2 6
Syllabus
1. Conventional Encryption: Conventional Encryption Model, Steganography, Classical Encryption
Techniques
Simplified Des, Block Cipher Principles, Data Encryption
2. Conventional Encryption Techniques:
Standards, Differential And Linear Cryptography Principles, Block Cipher Design Principles,
Modes Of Operations, Algorithms Like Triple Des, International Data Encryption Algorithm,
Blowfish, Rc5, Cast-128, Rc2, Characteristics Of Advanced Symmetrical Block Cipher, Issues Of
Conventional Encryption LikeTraffic Distribution, Random Number Generation, Key Distribution
3. Public Key Cryptography: Principles Of Public-Key Cryptography, RSA Algorithm, Key
Management, Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
4. Number Theory: Prime And Relative Prime Numbers, Modular Arithmetic: Euler’s Theorem,
Euclid’s Algorithm, Discrete Logarithm Tics
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Syllabus
5. Message Authentication And Hash Functions:Authentication
Requirement, Functions, Message Authentication Code, Hash Functions, Security Of Hash Functions And
Macs, MD5 Message Digest Algorithm, Secure Hash Algorithm, Ripemd-160, Hmac
6. IntroductionTo E-Commerce:
IntroductionTo E-Commerce,Transactions On E-Commerce, Requirement Of Security On E-Commerce
7. Network Security:
Digital Signatures, Authentication Protocols, Digital Signature Standards, Application Authentication
Techniques Like Kerberos, X.509 Directory Authentication Services, Active Directory Service Of Windows
NT/Windows 2000 10
8. IP Security E-Mail Security:
IP Security Overview, Architecture, Authentication Header, Encapsulation Security Payload, Combining
Security Association, Key Management, Pretty Good Privacy, S/Mime AndTypes
9.Web Security:
Web Security Requirement, SSL And Transport Layer Security, Secure Electronic Transactions, Firewall
Design Principles,Trusted Systems
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Books
Text Book:
1) Cryptography And Network Security - Principles And Practice Fourth Edition, William
Stallings, Pearson Education
References Books:
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Background
Information Security requirements have changed in recent
times
traditionally provided by physical and administrative
mechanisms
computer use requires automated tools to protect files and
other stored information
use of networks and communications links requires measures
to protect data during transmission
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Definitions
Computer Security - generic name for the collection of
tools designed to protect data and to prevent hackers
Network Security - measures to protect data during their
transmission
Internet Security - measures to protect data during their
transmission over a collection of interconnected networks
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Security Trends
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OSI Security Architecture
ITU-T X.800 “Security Architecture for OSI”
defines a systematic way of defining and providing security
requirements
for us it provides a useful, if abstract, overview of concepts we
will study
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Aspects of Security
consider 3 aspects of information security:
security attack
security mechanism
security service
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Security Attack
any action that compromises the security of information
owned by an organization
information security is about how to prevent attacks, or
failing that, to detect attacks on information-based systems
often threat & attack used to mean same thing
have a wide range of attacks
can focus of generic types of attacks
passive
active
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Passive Attacks
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Active Attacks
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Security Service
enhance security of data processing systems and information
transfers of an organization
intended to counter security attacks
using one or more security mechanisms
often replicates functions normally associated with physical
documents
which, for example, have signatures, dates; need protection from disclosure,
tampering, or destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be recorded or licensed
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Security Services
X.800:
“a service provided by a protocol layer of communicating open
systems, which ensures adequate security of the systems or of data
transfers”
RFC 2828:
“a processing or communication service provided by a system to give a
specific kind of protection to system resources”
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Security Services (X.800)
Authentication - assurance that the communicating entity
is the one claimed
Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of a
resource
Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as sent by an
authorized entity
Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of the
parties in a communication
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Security Mechanism
feature designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security
attack
no single mechanism that will support all services required
however one particular element underlies many of the security
mechanisms in use:
cryptographic techniques
hence our focus on this topic
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Security Mechanisms (X.800)
specific security mechanisms:
encipherment, digital signatures, access controls, data integrity,
authentication exchange, traffic padding, routing control,
notarization
pervasive security mechanisms:
trusted functionality, security labels, event detection, security audit
trails, security recovery
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Model for Network Security
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Model for Network Security
using this model requires us to:
1. design a suitable algorithm for the security transformation
2. generate the secret information (keys) used by the algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the
transformation and secret information for a security service
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Model for Network Access Security
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Model for Network Access Security
using this model requires us to:
1. select appropriate gatekeeper functions to identify users
2. implement security controls to ensure only authorised users
access designated information or resources
trusted computer systems may be useful to help implement this
model
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Conventional Encryption Model
In this section we will discuss,
1) Symmetric Encryption
2) Cryptography
3) Cryptanalysis
4) Classical Substitution Ciphers
1) Caesar Cipher
2) Monoalphabetic Cipher
3) Playfair Cipher
4) Hill Cipher
5) Polyalphabetic Ciphers
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Continue...
6. Vigenère Cipher
7. One-Time Pad
8. Transposition Ciphers
9. Rail Fence cipher
10. Row Transposition Ciphers
11. Product Ciphers
12. Rotor Machines
13. Steganography
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Symmetric Encryption
or conventional / private-key / single-key
sender and recipient share a common key
all classical encryption algorithms are private-key
was only type prior to invention of public-key in 1970’s
and by far most widely used
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Some Basic Terminology
plaintext - original message
ciphertext - coded message
cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/ methods of
deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
cryptology - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
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Symmetric Cipher Model
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Requirements
two requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:
a strong encryption algorithm
a secret key known only to sender / receiver
mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
assume encryption algorithm is known
implies a secure channel to distribute key
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Cryptography
characterize cryptographic system by:
type of encryption operations used
substitution / transposition / product
number of keys used
single-key or private / two-key or public
way in which plaintext is processed
block / stream
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Cryptanalysis
objective to recover key not just message
general approaches:
cryptanalytic attack
brute-force attack
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Cryptanalytic Attacks
ciphertext only
only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical, know or can
identify plaintext
known plaintext
know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext pairs
chosen plaintext
select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
chosen ciphertext
select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
chosen text
select plaintext or ciphertext to en/decrypt
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More Definitions
unconditional security
no matter how much computer power or time is available, the
cipher cannot be broken since the ciphertext provides insufficient
information to uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext
computational security
given limited computing resources (eg time needed for calculations
is greater than age of universe), the cipher cannot be broken
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Brute Force Search
always possible to simply try every key
most basic attack, proportional to key size
assume either know / recognise plaintext
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Caesar Cipher
earliest known substitution cipher
by Julius Caesar
first attested use in military affairs
replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
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Caesar Cipher
can define transformation as:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
DEF GHIJ KLM NOPQRSTUVW XYZABC
mathematically give each letter a number
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
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Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
only have 26 possible ciphers
A maps to A,B,..Z
could simply try each in turn
a brute force search
given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
do need to recognize when have plaintext
eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM“
What is congruent theory ?
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Affine Caesar cipher
One variation of Caesar cipher is Affine cipher, in which ciphertext
C = E ( [a,b], x ) = ( ax + b ) mod 26,
Where gcd (a,26) = 1, and 0< a, b < 26, here plaintext is x
For decryption x = a-1( C –b ) mod 26.
Problem 2.1 :
A basic requirement of any encryption algorithm is that it be one-to-
one. That is, if p ╪ q then E(k,p) ╪ E(k,q) Otherwise decryption is
impossible, because more than one plaintext character maps into the
same ciphertext character..
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Affine Caesar cipher (Cont.)
The affine Caesar cipher is not one-to-one for all values of a. for
example, for a =2 and b=3, then
E([a,b], 0) = E([a,b], 13) = ?
Example : plaintext = SV
ciphertext = en for a = 3 and b =2
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Monoalphabetic Cipher
rather than just shifting the alphabet
could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily
each plaintext letter maps to a different random ciphertext
letter
hence key is 26 letters long
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
D K V Q F I B J W P E S C X H T M Y A U O L R G Z N
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
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Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
with so many keys, might think is secure
but would be !!!WRONG!!!
problem is language characteristics
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Language Redundancy and Cryptanalysis
human languages are redundant
e.g. Wht is globalisation? Diana’s Death.
hw ? N engl princes with n egypian byfrnd in a germn car drivn by a dutch
driver crashes in a French tunnel while bng chased by Italian paparazi on japans
bikes treated by Portuguese doc wth Brazilin medicin. (This redundancy is
also the reason we can compress text files)
letters are not equally commonly used
in English E is by far the most common letter
followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
have tables of single, double & triple letter frequencies for various languages
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English Letter Frequencies
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Use in Cryptanalysis
key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers do not
change relative letter frequencies
discovered by Arabian scientists in 9th century
calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
compare counts/plots against known values
if caesar cipher look for common peaks/troughs
peaks at: A-E-I triple, NO pair, RST triple
troughs at: JK, X-Z
for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
tables of common double/triple letters help
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Example Cryptanalysis
given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
count relative letter frequencies (see text)
guess P & Z are e and t
guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
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Playfair Key Matrix
a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
fill rest of matrix with other letters
eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
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Encrypting and Decrypting
plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’, so that balloon
would be treated as ba lx lo on
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter to right
(wrapping back to start from end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the letter
below it (again wrapping to top from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter in the same row and
in the column of the other letter of the pair
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An Example
For e.g. plain text is MICHEL
M O N A R
Then,
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
1. MICHEL
2. MI CH EL
L P Q S T 3. AE HY LU
U V W X Z
So ciphertext is AEHYLU
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Hill Cipher
Developed by Mathematician Lester Hill in 1929.
Algorithm takes m successive plain text letters and substitutes m
cipher text letters.
Mathematical notation is
C = E(K,P) = K P mod 26
P = D (K,C) = K-1C mod 26 = K-1KP = P
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An Example (Wiki)
Consider the message 'ACT', and the key below (or GYBNQKURP in letters):
Since 'A' is 0, 'C' is 2 and 'T' is 19, the message is the vector:
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Inverse of a matrix
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Polyalphabetic Ciphers
polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to guess and
flatter frequency distribution
use a key to select which alphabet is used for each letter of the
message
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after end of key is reached
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Vigenère Cipher
simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
effectively multiple caesar ciphers
key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after d letters in message
decryption simply works in reverse
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The Modern Vigenère Tableau
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Example of Vigenère Cipher
write the plaintext out
write the keyword repeated above it
use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: w e a r e d i s c o v e r e d s a v e y o u r s e l f
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
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Security of Vigenère Ciphers
have multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter
hence letter frequencies are obscured
but not totally lost
start with letter frequencies
see if look monoalphabetic or not
if not, then need to determine number of alphabets, since then can
attach each
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Kasiski Method
method developed by Babbage / Kasiski
repetitions in ciphertext give clues to period
so find same plaintext an exact period apart
which results in the same ciphertext
of course, could also be random fluke
eg repeated “VTW” in previous example
suggests size of 3 or 9
then attack each monoalphabetic cipher individually using
same techniques as before
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Autokey Cipher
ideally want a key as long as the message
Vigenère proposed the autokey cipher
with keyword is prefixed to message as key
knowing keyword can recover the first few letters
use these in turn on the rest of the message
but still have frequency characteristics to attack
eg. given key deceptive
key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA
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One-Time Pad
if a truly random key as long as the message is used, the cipher
will be secure
called a One-Time pad
is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no statistical relationship
to the plaintext
since for any plaintext & any ciphertext there exists a
key mapping one to other
can only use the key once though
problems in generation & safe distribution of key
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Transposition Ciphers
now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers
these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
without altering the actual letters used
can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution as
the original text
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Rail Fence cipher
write message letters out diagonally over a number of rows
then read off cipher row by row
eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
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Row Transposition Ciphers
a more complex transposition
write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of
columns
then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off
the rows
Key: 3421567
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
ostpone
duntilt
woamxyz
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
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Product Ciphers
ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not secure
because of language characteristics
hence consider using several ciphers in succession to make
harder, but:
two substitutions make a more complex substitution
two transpositions make more complex transposition
but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new much
harder cipher
this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
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Rotor Machines
before modern ciphers, rotor machines were most common
complex ciphers in use
widely used in WW2
German Enigma, Allied Hagelin, Japanese Purple
implemented a very complex, varying substitution cipher
used a series of cylinders, each giving one substitution, which
rotated and changed after each letter was encrypted
with 3 cylinders have 263=17576 alphabets
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Hagelin Rotor Machine
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Steganography
an alternative to encryption
hides existence of message
using only a subset of letters/words in a longer message marked in
some way
using invisible ink
hiding in LSB in graphic image or sound file
has drawbacks
high overhead to hide relatively few info bits
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Summary
have considered:
classical cipher techniques and terminology
monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
cryptanalysis using letter frequencies
Playfair cipher
polyalphabetic ciphers
transposition ciphers
product ciphers and rotor machines
stenography
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