Information Security: Subject Lect. Tut. Pract. Hrs

Information Security
Subject Lect. Tut. Pract. Hrs.
Information Security 4 0 2 6
Syllabus
 1. Conventional Encryption: Conventional Encryption Model, Steganography, Classical Encryption
Techniques
 Simplified Des, Block Cipher Principles, Data Encryption
2. Conventional Encryption Techniques:
Standards, Differential And Linear Cryptography Principles, Block Cipher Design Principles,
Modes Of Operations, Algorithms Like Triple Des, International Data Encryption Algorithm,
Blowfish, Rc5, Cast-128, Rc2, Characteristics Of Advanced Symmetrical Block Cipher, Issues Of
Conventional Encryption LikeTraffic Distribution, Random Number Generation, Key Distribution
 3. Public Key Cryptography: Principles Of Public-Key Cryptography, RSA Algorithm, Key
Management, Elliptic Curve Cryptography, Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
 4. Number Theory: Prime And Relative Prime Numbers, Modular Arithmetic: Euler’s Theorem,
Euclid’s Algorithm, Discrete Logarithm Tics
2
BE(III)-SEM(VI)-GTU(SVMIT) INFORMATION SECURITY
Syllabus
 5. Message Authentication And Hash Functions:Authentication
Requirement, Functions, Message Authentication Code, Hash Functions, Security Of Hash Functions And
Macs, MD5 Message Digest Algorithm, Secure Hash Algorithm, Ripemd-160, Hmac
 6. IntroductionTo E-Commerce:
IntroductionTo E-Commerce,Transactions On E-Commerce, Requirement Of Security On E-Commerce
 7. Network Security:
Digital Signatures, Authentication Protocols, Digital Signature Standards, Application Authentication
Techniques Like Kerberos, X.509 Directory Authentication Services, Active Directory Service Of Windows
NT/Windows 2000 10
 8. IP Security E-Mail Security:
IP Security Overview, Architecture, Authentication Header, Encapsulation Security Payload, Combining
Security Association, Key Management, Pretty Good Privacy, S/Mime AndTypes
 9.Web Security:
Web Security Requirement, SSL And Transport Layer Security, Secure Electronic Transactions, Firewall
Design Principles,Trusted Systems
3
Books
 Text Book:
1) Cryptography And Network Security - Principles And Practice Fourth Edition, William
Stallings, Pearson Education
 References Books:
1) Cryptography & Network Security, Forouzan, Mukhopadhyay, McGrawHill
2) Cryptography and Network Security (2nd Ed.), Atul Kahate, TMH
3) Information Systems Security, Godbole, Wiley-India
4) Information Security Principles and Practice, Deven Shah, Wiley-India
4
Background
 Information Security requirements have changed in recent
times
 traditionally provided by physical and administrative
mechanisms
 computer use requires automated tools to protect files and
other stored information
 use of networks and communications links requires measures
to protect data during transmission
5
Definitions
 Computer Security - generic name for the collection of
tools designed to protect data and to prevent hackers
 Network Security - measures to protect data during their
transmission
 Internet Security - measures to protect data during their
transmission over a collection of interconnected networks
6
Security Trends
7
OSI Security Architecture
 ITU-T X.800 “Security Architecture for OSI”
 defines a systematic way of defining and providing security
requirements
 for us it provides a useful, if abstract, overview of concepts we
will study
8
Aspects of Security
 consider 3 aspects of information security:
 security attack
 security mechanism
 security service
9
Security Attack
 any action that compromises the security of information
owned by an organization
 information security is about how to prevent attacks, or
failing that, to detect attacks on information-based systems
 often threat & attack used to mean same thing
 have a wide range of attacks
 can focus of generic types of attacks
 passive
 active
10
Passive Attacks
11
Active Attacks
12
Security Service
 enhance security of data processing systems and information
transfers of an organization
 intended to counter security attacks
 using one or more security mechanisms
 often replicates functions normally associated with physical
documents
 which, for example, have signatures, dates; need protection from disclosure,
tampering, or destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be recorded or licensed
13
Security Services
 X.800:
“a service provided by a protocol layer of communicating open
systems, which ensures adequate security of the systems or of data
transfers”
 RFC 2828:
“a processing or communication service provided by a system to give a
specific kind of protection to system resources”
14
Security Services (X.800)
 Authentication - assurance that the communicating entity
is the one claimed
 Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of a
resource
 Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
 Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as sent by an
authorized entity
 Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of the
parties in a communication
15
Security Mechanism
 feature designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a security
attack
 no single mechanism that will support all services required
 however one particular element underlies many of the security
mechanisms in use:
 cryptographic techniques
 hence our focus on this topic
16
Security Mechanisms (X.800)
 specific security mechanisms:
 encipherment, digital signatures, access controls, data integrity,
authentication exchange, traffic padding, routing control,
notarization
 pervasive security mechanisms:
 trusted functionality, security labels, event detection, security audit
trails, security recovery
17
Model for Network Security
18
Model for Network Security
 using this model requires us to:
1. design a suitable algorithm for the security transformation
2. generate the secret information (keys) used by the algorithm
3. develop methods to distribute and share the secret information
4. specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the
transformation and secret information for a security service
19
Model for Network Access Security
20
Model for Network Access Security
 using this model requires us to:
1. select appropriate gatekeeper functions to identify users
2. implement security controls to ensure only authorised users
access designated information or resources
 trusted computer systems may be useful to help implement this
model
21
Conventional Encryption Model
 In this section we will discuss,
1) Symmetric Encryption
2) Cryptography
3) Cryptanalysis
4) Classical Substitution Ciphers
1) Caesar Cipher
2) Monoalphabetic Cipher
3) Playfair Cipher
4) Hill Cipher
5) Polyalphabetic Ciphers
22
Continue...
6. Vigenère Cipher
7. One-Time Pad
8. Transposition Ciphers
9. Rail Fence cipher
10. Row Transposition Ciphers
11. Product Ciphers
12. Rotor Machines
13. Steganography
23
Symmetric Encryption
 or conventional / private-key / single-key
 sender and recipient share a common key
 all classical encryption algorithms are private-key
 was only type prior to invention of public-key in 1970’s
 and by far most widely used
24
Some Basic Terminology
 plaintext - original message
 ciphertext - coded message
 cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
 key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
 encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
 decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
 cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
 cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - study of principles/ methods of
deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
 cryptology - field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
25
Symmetric Cipher Model
26
Requirements
 two requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:
 a strong encryption algorithm
 a secret key known only to sender / receiver
 mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
 assume encryption algorithm is known
 implies a secure channel to distribute key
27
Cryptography
 characterize cryptographic system by:
 type of encryption operations used
 substitution / transposition / product
 number of keys used
 single-key or private / two-key or public
 way in which plaintext is processed
 block / stream
28
Cryptanalysis
 objective to recover key not just message
 general approaches:
 cryptanalytic attack
 brute-force attack
29
Cryptanalytic Attacks
 ciphertext only
 only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical, know or can
identify plaintext
 known plaintext
 know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext pairs
 chosen plaintext
 select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
 chosen ciphertext
 select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
 chosen text
 select plaintext or ciphertext to en/decrypt
30
More Definitions
 unconditional security
 no matter how much computer power or time is available, the
cipher cannot be broken since the ciphertext provides insufficient
information to uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext
 computational security
 given limited computing resources (eg time needed for calculations
is greater than age of universe), the cipher cannot be broken
31
Brute Force Search
 always possible to simply try every key
 most basic attack, proportional to key size
 assume either know / recognise plaintext
Key Size (bits) Number of Time required at 1 Time required at 106

Alternative Keys decryption/µs decryptions/µs
32 232 = 4.3  109 231 µs = 35.8 minutes 2.15 milliseconds
56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours
128 2128 = 3.4  1038 2127 µs = 5.4  1024 5.4  1018 years
years
168 2168 = 3.7  1050 2167 µs = 5.9  1036 5.9  1030 years
years
26 characters 26! = 4  1026 2  1026 µs = 6.4  1012 6.4  106 years
(permutation) years
32
Classical Substitution Ciphers
 where letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by
numbers or symbols
 or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution
involves replacing plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit
patterns
33
Caesar Cipher
 earliest known substitution cipher
 by Julius Caesar
 first attested use in military affairs
 replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
 example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
34
Caesar Cipher
 can define transformation as:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
DEF GHIJ KLM NOPQRSTUVW XYZABC
 mathematically give each letter a number
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 then have Caesar cipher as:

c = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(c) = (c – k) mod (26)
35
Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
 only have 26 possible ciphers
 A maps to A,B,..Z
 could simply try each in turn
 a brute force search
 given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
 do need to recognize when have plaintext
 eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM“
 What is congruent theory ?
36
Affine Caesar cipher
 One variation of Caesar cipher is Affine cipher, in which ciphertext
 C = E ( [a,b], x ) = ( ax + b ) mod 26,
 Where gcd (a,26) = 1, and 0< a, b < 26, here plaintext is x
 For decryption x = a-1( C –b ) mod 26.
 Problem 2.1 :
A basic requirement of any encryption algorithm is that it be one-to-
one. That is, if p ╪ q then E(k,p) ╪ E(k,q) Otherwise decryption is
impossible, because more than one plaintext character maps into the
same ciphertext character..
37
Affine Caesar cipher (Cont.)
 The affine Caesar cipher is not one-to-one for all values of a. for
example, for a =2 and b=3, then
E([a,b], 0) = E([a,b], 13) = ?
a. Are there any limitations on the value of a and b? Explain why or

why not.
b. Determine which values of a are allowed.
Example : plaintext = SV
ciphertext = en for a = 3 and b =2
38
Monoalphabetic Cipher
 rather than just shifting the alphabet
 could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily
 each plaintext letter maps to a different random ciphertext
letter
 hence key is 26 letters long
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
D K V Q F I B J W P E S C X H T M Y A U O L R G Z N
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
39
Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
 now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
 with so many keys, might think is secure
 but would be !!!WRONG!!!
 problem is language characteristics
40
Language Redundancy and Cryptanalysis
 human languages are redundant
 e.g. Wht is globalisation? Diana’s Death.
hw ? N engl princes with n egypian byfrnd in a germn car drivn by a dutch
driver crashes in a French tunnel while bng chased by Italian paparazi on japans
bikes treated by Portuguese doc wth Brazilin medicin. (This redundancy is
also the reason we can compress text files)
 letters are not equally commonly used
 in English E is by far the most common letter
 followed by T,R,N,I,O,A,S
 other letters like Z,J,K,Q,X are fairly rare
 have tables of single, double & triple letter frequencies for various languages
41
English Letter Frequencies
42
Use in Cryptanalysis
 key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers do not
change relative letter frequencies
 discovered by Arabian scientists in 9th century
 calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
 compare counts/plots against known values
 if caesar cipher look for common peaks/troughs
 peaks at: A-E-I triple, NO pair, RST triple
 troughs at: JK, X-Z
 for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
 tables of common double/triple letters help
43
Example Cryptanalysis
 given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
 count relative letter frequencies (see text)
 guess P & Z are e and t
 guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
 proceeding with trial and error finally get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
P 13.33 M 6.67 X 4.17 A 1.67 J 0.83

Relative
Z 11.67 H 5.83 F 3.33 B 1.67 C 0.00 frequencies of
S 8.33 D 5.00 W 3.33 G 1.67 K 0.00 the Letters in
ciphertext (in
U 8.33 E 5.00 Q 2.50 Y 1.67 L 0.00
percentage)
O 7.50 V 4.17 T 2.50 I 0.83 N 0.00
44
BE(III)-SEM(VI)-GTU(SVMIT) INFORMATION SECURITY R 0.00
Playfair Cipher
 not even the large number of keys in a monoalphabetic cipher
provides security
 one approach to improving security was to encrypt multiple
letters
 the Playfair Cipher is an example
 invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but named after his
friend Baron Playfair
45
Playfair Key Matrix
 a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
 fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
 fill rest of matrix with other letters
 eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
46
Encrypting and Decrypting
 plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’, so that balloon
would be treated as ba lx lo on
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with letter to right
(wrapping back to start from end)
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each with the letter
below it (again wrapping to top from bottom)
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the letter in the same row and
in the column of the other letter of the pair
47
An Example
For e.g. plain text is MICHEL
M O N A R
Then,
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
1. MICHEL
2. MI CH EL
L P Q S T 3. AE HY LU
U V W X Z
So ciphertext is AEHYLU
Exercise: cipher text is -- PXAELDPMULIF

48
Security of Playfair Cipher
 security much improved over monoalphabetic
 since have 26 x 26 = 676 digrams
 would need a 676 entry frequency table to analyse (verses 26
for a monoalphabetic)
 and correspondingly more ciphertext
 was widely used for many years
 eg. by US & British military in WW1
 it can be broken, given a few hundred letters
 since still has much of plaintext structure
49
Hill Cipher
 Developed by Mathematician Lester Hill in 1929.
 Algorithm takes m successive plain text letters and substitutes m
cipher text letters.
 Mathematical notation is
C = E(K,P) = K P mod 26
P = D (K,C) = K-1C mod 26 = K-1KP = P
50
An Example (Wiki)
Consider the message 'ACT', and the key below (or GYBNQKURP in letters):
Since 'A' is 0, 'C' is 2 and 'T' is 19, the message is the vector:
Thus the enciphered vector is given by:
which corresponds to a ciphertext of 'POH'

51
An Example
Taking the previous example ciphertext of 'POH', we get:
which gets us back to 'ACT'
52
Inverse of a matrix
53
Polyalphabetic Ciphers
 polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
 improve security using multiple cipher alphabets
 make cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to guess and
flatter frequency distribution
 use a key to select which alphabet is used for each letter of the
message
 use each alphabet in turn
 repeat from start after end of key is reached
54
Vigenère Cipher
 simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
 effectively multiple caesar ciphers
 key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
 ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
 use each alphabet in turn
 repeat from start after d letters in message
 decryption simply works in reverse
55
The Modern Vigenère Tableau
56
Example of Vigenère Cipher
 write the plaintext out
 write the keyword repeated above it
 use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
 encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
 eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: w e a r e d i s c o v e r e d s a v e y o u r s e l f
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
57
Security of Vigenère Ciphers
 have multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter
 hence letter frequencies are obscured
 but not totally lost
 start with letter frequencies
 see if look monoalphabetic or not
 if not, then need to determine number of alphabets, since then can
attach each
58
Kasiski Method
 method developed by Babbage / Kasiski
 repetitions in ciphertext give clues to period
 so find same plaintext an exact period apart
 which results in the same ciphertext
 of course, could also be random fluke
 eg repeated “VTW” in previous example
 suggests size of 3 or 9
 then attack each monoalphabetic cipher individually using
same techniques as before
59
Autokey Cipher
 ideally want a key as long as the message
 Vigenère proposed the autokey cipher
 with keyword is prefixed to message as key
 knowing keyword can recover the first few letters
 use these in turn on the rest of the message
 but still have frequency characteristics to attack
 eg. given key deceptive
key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA
60
One-Time Pad
 if a truly random key as long as the message is used, the cipher
will be secure
 called a One-Time pad
 is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no statistical relationship
to the plaintext
 since for any plaintext & any ciphertext there exists a
key mapping one to other
 can only use the key once though
 problems in generation & safe distribution of key
61
Transposition Ciphers
 now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers
 these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
 without altering the actual letters used
 can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution as
the original text
62
Rail Fence cipher
 write message letters out diagonally over a number of rows
 then read off cipher row by row
 eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
 giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
63
Row Transposition Ciphers
 a more complex transposition
 write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of
columns
 then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off
the rows
Key: 3421567
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
ostpone
duntilt
woamxyz
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
64
Product Ciphers
 ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not secure
because of language characteristics
 hence consider using several ciphers in succession to make
harder, but:
 two substitutions make a more complex substitution
 two transpositions make more complex transposition
 but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new much
harder cipher
 this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers
65
Rotor Machines
 before modern ciphers, rotor machines were most common
complex ciphers in use
 widely used in WW2
 German Enigma, Allied Hagelin, Japanese Purple
 implemented a very complex, varying substitution cipher
 used a series of cylinders, each giving one substitution, which
rotated and changed after each letter was encrypted
 with 3 cylinders have 263=17576 alphabets
66
Hagelin Rotor Machine
67
Steganography
 an alternative to encryption
 hides existence of message
 using only a subset of letters/words in a longer message marked in
some way
 using invisible ink
 hiding in LSB in graphic image or sound file
 has drawbacks
 high overhead to hide relatively few info bits
68
Summary
 have considered:
 classical cipher techniques and terminology
 monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
 cryptanalysis using letter frequencies
 Playfair cipher
 polyalphabetic ciphers
 transposition ciphers
 product ciphers and rotor machines
 stenography
69

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Information Security

Subject Lect. Tut. Pract. Hrs.

1) Cryptography & Network Security, Forouzan, Mukhopadhyay, McGrawHill

2) Cryptography and Network Security (2nd Ed.), Atul Kahate, TMH

3) Information Systems Security, Godbole, Wiley-India

4) Information Security Principles and Practice, Deven Shah, Wiley-India

Key Size (bits) Number of Time required at 1 Time required at 106

 then have Caesar cipher as:

a. Are there any limitations on the value of a and b? Explain why or

P 13.33 M 6.67 X 4.17 A 1.67 J 0.83

Exercise: cipher text is -- PXAELDPMULIF

Thus the enciphered vector is given by:

which corresponds to a ciphertext of 'POH'

Taking the previous example ciphertext of 'POH', we get:

which gets us back to 'ACT'

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