IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 26, NO.
5, SEPTEMBERfOCTOBER 1990
Selection Criteria for Sag Mill Drive Systems
Abstruct-The various options available for large horsepower mill
drive systems are examined, together with their impacts on mill design
and relative capital and operational costs. First a brief history of large
mill drive systems is given. Then state-of-the-art mill design and me-
chanical design considerations are discussed. A design for fixed-speed or
variable-speed operation is presented, and the capital and operational
cost factors that influence design are considered. The choice of a drive
system is dependent on the size of the mill, its critical speed, and the
horsepower required. Several areas of concern are outlined for each
drive system design. A criterion for selecting the best design for large
mills is developed.
I. INTRODUCTION
M ILLS have been increasing in size from the late 1930’s
to the present. Today we have ball mills that are from
24 X 40 ft with 6250-hp ratings, to 36-ft diameter semi-au-
togenous grinding (SAG) mills with horsepower to 16 OOO
hp. Mill manufacturers have recently quoted mills with gear-
less (ring) motors of 16 OOO hp.
Until the early 1980’s, the limiting factor on mill size was
the gear and pinion sets. In the early 1960’s, gear cutting
technology advanced to the point where motor horsepowers
of 2000-2500 could be accommodated on each drive pinion.
In the early 1970’s, Siemens and Canadian General Electric
began developing gearless drive systems. These early designs
were principally used on cement kilns. Also during this
period, the development of ac slow-speed synchronous motor
mill drive designs occurred. During the late 1970’s and early
1980’s, gear technology again advanced so that motor horse-
powers of 6000 hp per pinion became possible.
Today, the range of drives is as much as 12 OOO-16 OOO
hp with a gear and pinion set, and from 16 OOO to 20 OOO hp
with a gearless motor design. Gearless motor designs of 30
OOO hp are being contemplated.
Along with the development of motor technology, the
ability to alter the speed of the motor was developed. The use
of liquid rheostats or slip recovery with wound-rotor motors,
load-commutated inverters (LCI’s), and synchronous ma-
chines or gearless drives with cycloconverters have allowed
for mill designs with variable speeds.
The choices of drive systems have never been more varied
or complex than they are now. Choosing the best overall
match of mill, gear, motor, and drive control system is a
very difficult situation, and all design aspects must be care-
I fully coordinated and reviewed.
Paper PID 90-02,approved by the Mining Industry Committee of the
IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1989 Industry
Applications Society Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, October 1-5.
Manuscript released for publication February 5 , 1990.
The author is at 4600 Park Road, Suite IOOO, Charlotte, NC 28209.
IEEE Log Number 9037062.
oO93-9994/90/O9OO-0901$01.00
- ~~
90 1
11. MECHANICAL
DESIGNCONSIDERATIONS
Mill manufacturers have acknowledged the design of the
electrical drive system as an integral component of the mill
[l]. With the advent of gearless motors and larger pinion
drivers, the drive system exerts more influence over the
design of bearings, gear sets, and mill shells than most other
component. The need to design an integral systems has never
been greater, and the electrical engineer must understand all
aspects of the mechanical interface to ensure a mill with a
long useful life.
During startup, the gear set and mill shell, in the case of a
gearless motor, must have sufficient mechanical strength to
withstand repeated transient torque loading caused by varia-
tions in voltages, backlash, charge cascading, or damping, as
well as those caused by short circuits. The use of load-com-
mutated inverters imposes very high transient torques on the
gear interface during forced commutation (0- 10% speed).
The relationships of fatigue at the point of attachment of
gearless motors must be quantified. The engineer must be
able to predict the magnitude and frequency of these torques
and convey them in the engineering specifications to all
potential manufacturers.
The need for extremely high-quality gears is of paramount
importance to the life of the grinding mill system. The advent
of much larger gear diameters and associated horsepowers
has required an intense commitment to the gear system in
relation to other components of the mill. The selection of the
gear supplier is unquestionably critical in the evaluation of
the mill cost and degree of reliability. The single largest
maintenance investment in the mill, in terms of spare parts
and/or downtime, is centered on the gear system. The aver-
age cost of a pinion and ring gear set for a 34-ft diameter mill
is in the order of $900 OOO-1 OOO OOO. The mill manufac-
turer will normally recommend a spare gear and pinion set to
ensure that minimum downtime is experienced if a gear fails.
AGMA 10 quality gears are being manufactured today.
However, the ability to obtain this quality gear lies in the
ability of the owner and mill vendor to assess the quality of
the gear adequately during manufacture. In some cases, this
includes full-time inspection at the gear manufacturing facil-
ity. For SAG mill duty, a minimum of AGMA 6 quality gear
sets is required for drives above 4000 hp/pinion [l].
Gear and pinion interface and fit play an important role in
the optimum design of the mill and the electrical system.
Backlash and uneven gear wearing patterns cause problems
for the electrical system. By the same token, the electrical
system can impose conditions on the gears that may lead to
uneven wear, spoiling, or heavy wear and must be addressed
when specifying the gear. A paper presented by Sabaski [l]
0 1990 IEEE
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1
902 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 26. NO. 5 . SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1990

concerning grinding mill drives, particularly the gear pinion and mechanical systems. For constant-speed applications, the
interface, has been invaluable in giving criteria for specifying following systems were evaluated:
large mill drive gear sets.
wound-rotor motors with liquid rheostats,
111. GEARLESS
DRIVEMECHANICAL
INTERFACE CGE Quadramatic drives,
While gearless drives have been used in the cement indus- other synchronous slow-speed drive systems
try since 1974, the first gearless semi-autogenous drive sys- Variable-speed applications for SAG mill drives were also
tems for the mineral industry are presently in the startup investigated. These include:
phase. One ball mill has been in operation in Kirkenes for
approximately five years. While it is somewhat early to wound-rotor motors with liquid rheostats,
determine the full impact of this technology, it is apparent wound-rotor motors with slip recovery drives,
that the gearless motor is the leading contender for mills dc motors,
above 12 000 hp. These mill drive systems impose very CGE Quadramatic I1 drives,
complex mechanical conditions on the mill and mill designer. synchronous motor drives with load-commutated in-
The mill shell must be sufficiently rigid to provide a com- verter controls,
pletely cylindrical shape to mount the rotor poles on the gearless (ring) motor systems.
shell. Careful attention must be paid to the attachment of the
rotor mounting flange which must be machined to a tolerance Each of these drive systems has distinct advantages and
of +1.5 mm radially. This must then be reduced to an disadvantages. No single drive system has a distinct advan-
absolute runout of +0.5 mm during installation and alignment tage that would preclude all other drive systems from being
of the field pole segments [2]. These requirements, along evaluated. The advantages and disadvantages of each system
with the problems of contamination, elongation, thermal will be listed, and then a conclusion for a particular size of
growth, and fatigue, present a unique challenge to both the mill will be reached.
electrical and mechanical engineers.
The bearing system for the gearless motor design favored A . Fixed-Speed Systems
by the mill manufacturers is a four-segment 120" shoe bear- I ) Wound-Rotor Induction Motors with Liquid
ing. The main difference in this bearing system and others Rheostats: The first drive considered is a wound-rotor
that have been supplied in SAG mills is the addition of induction motor drive with liquid rheostats. This design is the
hydraulic jacks to maintain properly the air gap in the motor most prevalent system in use for mill drives and was basi-
and to assist the bearing and race to remain circular. Each of cally the only available system prior to 1969-1970. The
the four pads can be adjusted independently to make sure that usual configuration for this drive is a 600-720-r/min
uniform bearing pressure is applied and to aid in keeping the wound-rotor motor with a speed-reducing gear between the
bearing race circular. This is the same concept that was used motor shaft and pinion driving the ring gear. The main
on the Kirkenes ball mill presently in operation and on the reason for using a wound-rotor induction motor is that high
mills for Codelco at Chuquicamata. starting currents are not imposed during starting, and the use
of liquid rheostat control gives linear torque control of the
IV. OTHERMECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS mill during startup. This allows for a relatively low inrush
In view of the complexity of the design of the drive system current on the power system and limits the torque transmitted
and mechanical interface, it is strongly recommended that to the pinion. It was also not feasible until the mid 1970's to
torsional analysis be performed by the mill vendor selected to make two synchronous motors share the load because of their
supply the SAG mill [l]. This torsional analysis should inherent stiff torque versus the displacement angle character-
predict the compatibility of the mechanical and electrical istics, discussed later.
interface for the duty encountered. An analysis of both Wound-rotor motors are induction machines with slip rings
steady-state and transient startup of the complete drive sys- on the rotor for control of the torque/ampere requirement
tem should be performed for any SAG mill drive system and during the starting operation. The liquid rheostat is used to
any mill above 5000 hp/pinion. This torsional analysis will vary the impedance of the rotor, hence allowing a relatively
identify torque excursions that could be at gear mesh fre- low inrush during the starting of the motor. Since a wound
quencies close to a natural frequency of the mill system. rotor motor follows the induction motor slip characteristics,
Prior to serious consideration of a load-commutated inverter average load sharing is achieved within the inherent slip;
system, a complete transient torsional analysis at all speeds therefore, no additional control elements are required.
where forced commutation occurs with an LCI drive system Wound-rotor motors, having the inherent induction motor
should be done to ensure that no operating sequence of the characteristics, operate at a lagging power factor that varies
LCI drive system will aggravate the natural frequencies of considerably with the load presented to the motor. At full
the mill system. load, the power factor is relatively high, but as load de-
creases, the power factor falls off dramatically. Power factor
V. ELECTRICAL DRIVESYSTEMS correction might be required if operated at less than full load.
This paper addresses both constant- and variable-speed Since brushes are required for round-rotor motors, the
applications for SAG mill drives and their effects on the mill maintenance factor on the motor is relatively high when
 GREER: SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SAG MILL DRIVES
compared to other drive systems. The wound-rotor motor is a
higher speed machine, and motor life is usually less than a
slow-speed synchronous machine. This is due to many fac-
tors including bearing wear and the possibility of dust buildup
in the rotor area during operation. Particular attention should
be paid to the brush configuration within the machine and to
the brush life of the machine in view of the temperature/
humidity factors at most mine facilities.
In both Europe and Japan, the wound-rotor motor has been
the preferred system for driving large mills. The torsional
characteristics of wound-rotor motors with liquid rheostats
have been analyzed on large mill drive systems and do not
seem to present a problem as long as liquid rheostat control is
used for starting. The greatest disadvantage of the wound-ro-
tor motor is the losses developed when compared to a
synchronous machine. These losses are due mainly to the
requirement for a speed reducer gear which introduces
3-3.5% additional losses to the system.
2) Synchronous Motor Drives: For constant-speed ap-
plication, two types of synchronous motor drives have been
developed: high-torque motors and low-torque motors. The
distinction between these two types of motors is in the
starting torque requirements and the power line current drawn
during motor starting. Both motor types are salient-pole
synchronous motors designed to start as an induction motor.
The high-inrush motor can require load-starting torques from
150% to even 300%. The low-inrush motor may not have
enough torque to start the load directly without the aid of a
disconnecting clutch to enable the motor to start unloaded.
Low-torque motors usually have starting torques in the range
of 70-130%, depending on the design of the motor. These
differences play an important part in the design system
chosen for starting the SAG mill.
High-torque salient-pole synchronous motors have suffi-
cient starting torque to start the mill without clutches or other
devices to uncouple the load. The main disadvantage in using
high-inrush motors is that both motors for a mill must be
started at the same time. This requires a very large available
short circuit duty of the transmission and generation facility
to allow starting 12 OOO hp across the line at one time. This
drive system was used at Hibbing Taconite on the 36-ft
diameter mills supplied by Allis-Chalmers. The motors are
subjected to more severe stresses during the starting process,
and the per-unit kVA needed during starting is 9-12 times
the full-load kVA requirement. The torque during starting
can be 200-300% of the full-load torque. However, the
motor can be designed to match approximately the torque
needed for starting [3].
Low-torque motor designs depend on supplying 70- 130%
of the normal running torque during the starting load. The
per-unit power requirement is on the order of 2-3 times the
full-load requirement. This provides much lower inrush re-
quirements for the power system than the high-torque mo-
tors. Since the low-inrush motors can only accommodate part
of the torque requirements during starting, a method of
uncoupling the motors from the load during starting is nor-
mally required. In their patented starting system Quadramatic
I, CGE uses a pair of air clutches to disengage the mill load
I
I-
903
during the starting of the motors. This allows the motors to
be started individually and brought up to full speed before
engaging the mill load. This system also allows the clutch to
change the load angle, and eliminates the requirement of a
stator shifting device or vernier couplings to accomplish
electrical alignment for synchronous machines.
Prior to 1968-1969, synchronous machines were not par-
alleled on a common gear due to the displacement angle
problem outlined earlier. For the machines to share the load
exactly, the displacement angle between the rotor and the
stator in each machine must be exactly the same. This is
accomplished inherently in induction motors through the slip
characteristics of the motors. However, in a synchronous
machine that is doubly fed, stator and rotor, the addition of
magnetizing current on the rotor causes the location of the
rotor to be much more critical relative to the stator position.
The torque characteristics are much stiffer, and unless the
position of the rotor relative to the stator is the same for both
machines, the synchronous machine will not share the load.
When synchronous machines are run as generators, this is
accomplished by synchronizing the generator to the line.
When used as a motor, this synchronization must take place
by changing the magnetic flux distribution of the rotor rela-
tive to the stator. Several different methods have been devel-
oped to obtain this change [4].
In the Quadramatic I system, a quadrature winding is
placed around the rotor at 90” to the normal magnetizing
flux. A “Q Bus Regulator” is used to produce flux in the
tangential direction-that is, 90” from the main flux-to
modify the angle of the main flux and thus develop load
sharing between the machines. This allows the magnetic flux
within the machine to be changed to match load characteris-
tics without affecting the rotor field current [4].
Other manufacturers use different methods to obtain the
same approach. Siemens-Allis has used a cross-coupled stator
in the Hibbing Taconite mills and accomplished much the
same as CGE does with the quadrature axis field adjustment
[3]. Westinghouse adjusts the main field current in the rotor
circuit to compensate for load imbalances [ 5 ] .
The load imbalances that the motor sees during steady-state
operation are from several different sources. Power line
instability as well as gear pinion tooth mismatch, pitting, or
meshing and backlash problems cause some upsets to occur
to the system that must be compensated for, and the eccen-
tricity of the mill load itself causes a large amount of upset to
occur when trying to share loads between two motors. To
compensate for the variations in load, all three systems have
been used and shown to work relatively well. No single
system can be regarded as the best system to use. However,
for most projects the low-inrush motors provide a much
lower burden on the power system and should be considered
over high-inrush motors.
The use of low-torque motors requires an uncoupling
device. CGE uses air clutches, and except for the systems
provided to Thompson Creek, the clutches have been of a
shoe and drum brake type. The Thompson Creek clutches are
a disk type. The particular type of clutch used depends on the
application and size of the drive system. However, the ability
I I

904 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL 26, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1990

to slip at a value above full-load torque is necessary to limit For these reasons, other systems are technically better
short-circuit damage. when viewed on an overall basis. The major disadvantage is
the inefficiency of this system when compared to others.
B. Variable-Speed SAG Mill Drive Systems 2) Wound-Rotor Motors with Slip Recovery Systems:
The wound-rotor motor system with a solid-state slip recov-
Where a need exists for variable-speed 'peration Of the ery system is similar to the liquid rheostat system except that
SAG mills, several systems are also available. The two basic efficiency is greatly improved by the use of a slip recovery
fixed-speed drive systems described can be adapted device. This device recovers the losses in the rotor circuit
for variable-speed applications with some additional capital and reimposes them on the utility line. This increases the
cost and work. TO date, the methods of providing efficiency of the wound-rotor motor system, particularly when
speed to SAG mills have been limited to wound-rotor motors it is operated at less than full speed. The system is composed
with liquid rheostats or dc drives. Several cement mills, one of a standard wound-rotor motor with an electronic system
large and two SAG have been equipped with that provides the needed change in impedance both during
gearless motor drive systems. These systems have been in startup and when operating at less than full speed. Instead of
use with a fair degree of success since early 1972. burning up the excess energy in a resistor as the liquid
The third method that be discussed is rheostat system does, the excess energy is reinstated on the
mutated inverter systems. However, no SAG mill drives to utility line and thus reduces the losses in the drive system.
date have been provided with L c I technology. This system The major disadvantages to this drive system are
has been used for many other applications with similar
characteristics, e.g., paper mill drives, steel mill drives, and
fan and pump applications. This technology is not new and
.. the system is untested in this application,
relatively high cost when compared to the liquid rheostat
has been developed in industries other than the mining indus-
try. DC motors for this application have been used in the
past. The pricing of dc motor technology has been higher
. and LCI systems,
a speed-reducing gear box is required between the motor
and pinion and associated losses.
than comparable fixed-speed alternatives; however, the cost
and flexibility of the dc system relative to some of the others The use of this device keeps the power factor of the drive
have renewed interest in it. system relatively high and, except for base loading correc-
The variable-speed drive systems studied are tion, no additional power factor correction should be needed.
The system produces harmonics that must be taken into
wound-rotor motors with liquid rheostats, account when analyzing the drive system, and some torsional
wound-rotor motors with slip recovery controls, spikes occur during operation at full speed and slightly less.
dc motor drives, These characteristics are fairly well-known and could be
Iow-sPeed synchronous drives With load-commutated in- evaluated in a torsional analysis if this system is considered.
verters, 3) Slow-Speed Synchronous Drive Systems: Without
gearless drives with cycloconverters. the use of an LCI, a synchronous drive system can only run
at constant speed. The LCI will reduce the speed of a
These systems provide a wide range Of and provide synchronous drive by reducing the frequency of the power
for the state-of-the-art in mill drives. going into the machine from 50 or 60 Hz to another fre-
1) Wound-Rotor Motors with Liquid Rheostats: To quency which is a linear proportion of the speed of the
date, the wound-rotor motor with liquid rheostat has been motor. This type of drive system will allow the motor to run
used to Provide to SAG with the exceP- from zero to any speed, even above the normal running speed
tion of a few mills since 1982. The problems associated with of the motor with equal ease. The system is relatively effi-
these drives are well-known and have been refined over the cient when to other and can start the mill
years so that little is unknown about this drive from zero speed. It has several other distinct advantages.
systern. Torsional analyses have been run on wound-rotor
motors with liquid. rheostats, and the equipment has per-
formed well in the field. The major drawbacks to the use of
. It is a low inrush starting device. The torque will not be
more than needed to start the mill and will even be less
this system are than for starting a low-inrush motor across the line.

the lower efficiency Of the system when

other variable-speed drive systems;
to . The electronics for the LCI are relatively simple.
The inverter is commutared by the motor, thereby sim-

the need for power factor correction if equipment is used

at other than full speed;
the requirement to cool the liquid rheostat medium when
Operating on the liquid rheostat for long periods of time;
the inherent lower efficiency of induction motors when
used at less than full speed;
the speed-reducing gear box required between the motor
and pinion drive.
. plifying the equipment required.
The LcI has been used in a wide variety of applications
and is relatively maintenance-free.
The inverter has two major disadvantages.
. From 0 to 10% speed range, the inverter must be
force-commutated.
The drive will produce harmonics.
GREER: SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SAG MILL DRIVES
During the 0-10% speed range, from zero to approximately
20 r/min in a low-speed drive, the motor does not produce
sufficient back EMF to commutate the load itself. During this
period, it is force-commutated with a separate power supply.
During that period of time when force commutation occurs,
there is a step torque impact on the rotor. This may cause
torsional excursions on the mill and can sweep through one
or two natural frequencies of the mill. CGE perceives this to
be a severe problem. However, other manufacturers feel that
the drive can be programmed to sweep through this speed
range relatively quickly and use the breakaway characteristic
of the mill in favor of being above the speed before the mill
cascades.
Prior to specifying a drive system with an LCI, a torsional
analysis of the complete system should be done. Several
vendors feel that they can provide sufficient methods of
changing spring constants within the drive to allow for LCI’s
to be used. CGE has included a clutch similar to their
Quadramatic motor design on an LCI design to alleviate the
self-commutation problem.
The LCI equipment is essentially two dc power rectifiers
connected together. The first rectifier converts ac to dc, and
the second rectifier inverts the dc back to ac. The back EMF
develops sufficient voltage to provide commutation for the
thyristor on the inverter. This an simple
solid-state machine to provide frequency change. The in-
verter eauiDment has been manufactured for a number of
1 1
years and has become extremely reliable. Therefore, very
little additional maintenance would be required for an LCI
drive than for a standard synchronous motor drive. On the
LCI, the motors are inherently tied together, and load sharing
is provided without any problem.
This provides a unique type of system. This system can
also be added relatively easily, provided the motors are
initiallv designed for load When svn-
‘2
chronous motors are used for load commutation, the resis-
tance of the machine must be altered.
4) Gearless Drives: Two major gearless drive systems
can be considered for SAG mills. A discussion of the motor
location and bearing systems was included earlier. This dis-
cussion will center strictly on motors and motor design.
The gearless motor design is the best from a maintenance
stacdpoint in that it removes a gear system and also is
relatively high in efficiency when compared to the conven-
tional wound-rotor motor with liquid rheostat. The drive
systems have been in operation on various mills and kilns
since the early 1970’s. The requirements and characteristics
of the motor are well-known, and the design of the motor
itself has been detailed and evaluated. The largest diameter
mill to date on which a gearless drive has been used is a 2 4 4
cement mill at 8700 hp. Two 8.2-MW mills have been
commissioned in Chile in the last three months, and another
11.2-MW mill will be placed in service early next year in
Chile.
The mill manufacturers have addressed the gearless design
parameters and have completely designs for a 34-36-ft mill.
Several mill vendors have done a large number of torsional
905
analyses on various mills and mill designs and have con-
cluded that the only location for a mill drive is on the shell.
The cycloconvertor power supply system has been in exis-
tence for many years and is well-known and proven in the
field. It is somewhat more complicated than an LCI. How-
ever, fault diagnostics makes maintaining the system rela-
tively simple [ 5 ] .
Two other concerns must be evaluated with a gearless
design. The motor installation must be completed in the field
by factory-trained personnel. Both the rotor and stator clo-
sures must be made by factory craftsmen trained in the
manufacturing process and insulating techniques required for
motors. In addition, the rotor and stator are shipped in four
segments. Problems may exist in transportation from the
dock to the mine location. The motor segments must remain
vertical at all times and will be 22-28 ft above the trailer
bed.
5) Other Electrical Considerations: All variable-speed
drive systems except the wound-rotor motor with liquid
rheostat depend heavily on modem electronics which, after
an initial period of infantile failures, have a very long life and
require a minimum of additional maintenance provided that
careful attention is paid to the following points.
All systems, including the liquid rheostat system, should
be instal1ed in a positively
Air conditioning and/or heat will be required for the
housing
Air for the motor drives must be ‘lean-
* Humidity in the electronics rooms should be kept rela-
tively
Space requirements for the equipment must be allowed
even if not included in the initial purchase.
Additional cooling capacity must be provided for a
liquid rheostat if it is used for other than starting pur-
poses.
Careful attention to these items will ensure that the elec-
tronics work well and for a long period of time without
damage. However, it cannot be overstressed that the environ-
ment of this equipment must be controlled and must be dust-
and dirt-free.
OF SAGMILLDRIVESYSTEMS
VI. EVALUATION
The procedure for the evaluation of the SAG mill drive
systems is similar to the evaluation done in the paper by
Bassarear and Thomas [4]. However, losses are capitalized
for a period to ensure that all systems are evaluated on an
equal basis.
A . Economic Evaluation of Drive Systems
The economic comparison of the system costs is presented
in Table I. These costs are based on estimates given for mills
manufactured by two vendors for specific drive designs. The
drive system prices were obtained from CGE, Siemens,
Siemens-Allis, and Westinghouse. The comparison is made
in a similar manner to the paper presented at the September
906 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 26, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1990

TABLE I
SAG MILLDRIVE
SYSTEMECONOMIC
COMPARISON
Fixed-Speed Adjustable Speed
Twin Wound-Rotor Twin Slow-Speed Twin Wound-Rotor
Twin Slow-Speed Induction Motor with Gearless Synchronous Motor with Induction Motor
Synchronous Motor Liquid Rheoslat Drive System with LCI Liquid Rheostat Twin DC Drive
Vender 1 Vender 2 Vender I Vender 3 Vender I Vcndcr 3 Vender I Vender 2 Vender I Vender 3 Vendor 2

Overall power
factor 0.9 lead 0 . 9 lead 0.84 lag 0.85 lag 0.88 lag 0.89 lag I .o I .o 0.78 lag 0.78 lag 0.95 lag
Overall efficiency' 94.5% 94.5% 92.2% 92.5% 92.3% 93. I % 94.5/91.2% 94.5/92.2% 92.2/86.7% 92.5 /86.6% 94.5%
KW Losses at
100% load 52 I 52 1 757 73 I 709 618 55 I 533 797 770 52 I
Cost of losses at $2084000 $2 084 000 $3 028 400 $2 924 000 $ 836 000 $2 473 000 $2 205 000 $2 I34 000 $3 I88 000 $3 080 000 $2 084 000
$4000/kW
Cost of Drive
System $1 824 525 $ I 755 000 $1 586 250 $1 714 500 $3 923 100 $4 382 100 $3 002 400 $3 375 000 $2 029 400 $2 387 400 $3 386 000

Tolal cost of
drive
system including
capitalized losses $3 908 525 $3 839 000 $4 614 650 $4 638 500 $6 759 100 $6 855 100 $5 207 400 $5 509 000 $5217400 $5 467 400 $5 470 000
Cost of millb $3 165 750 $4 370 000 Y 3 550 500 $4216000 $2 913 300 $4 030 000 $3 165 750 $4216000 $3 550 500 $4216000 $3 165 750
Cost of inching
drive $200 000 $200 000 $200 000 $200 000 $200 000 $200 000 $200 000 $200 000
~~~~~ ~

Total mill and

drive cost $7 247 275 $8 409 000 $8 365 150 $9 054 500 $9 672 400 $10 885 1 0 0 $8 573 150 $9 925 000 $8 967 900 $9 883 400 $8 635 750

"Efficiencyis taken at 100%load for fixed-speed drives. 95% of critical speed for gearless and a 20% requirement for variable speed on the WR and
LCI systems.
bCost of mill liners not included.

Symposium with two major exceptions. The costs of the
drive system and mill were separated because the pricing
differences between mill vendors were significant and did not
allow a true comparison of the drive system. The other
difference in the study is the cost of losses which was used to
make the evaluation. The mill design compared in Table I is
a 34 x 16-ft SAG mill with 12 500 hp. This is a typical mill
design in use today. It is also the minimum horsepower size
for a gearless drive system to be competitive. The cost of
losses for the drive system was evaluated at $4OOO/kW. This
is the equivalent of $0.06/kWh for a continuous seven-year
period. This is a commonly accepted method of calculating
capitalized losses for comparison with present value and
discounted cash flow type analyses. The seven-year limit on
the losses coincides with the standard depreciation allowance
for most capital equipment items at present and represents the
end at which operating capital normally has a large influence
on discounted cash flow models. Table I shows clearly that
the least expensive fixed-speed system is the slow-speed
synchronous motor drive. An analysis of the adjustable-speed
drive system indicates that the twin low-speed synchronous
drive with an LCI or dc drive is comparable when capitalized
losses are included. The losses for adjustable speed in Table I
were compared on a maixmum of 20% operation at variable
speed and 80% operation at fixed speed since it appears that
most mines with variable-speed capability seem to operate at
close to full speed most of the time. The table in the paper by
Bassarear and Thomas [4] was compared at 50% fixed and
50% variable speed for the adjustable-speed drives. We
chose 20% as the variable-speed operation point because it
was felt that 50% variable-speed operating was excessive,
and the 20% operating case would tend to favor the least
costly system (wound rotor drive). Even in the 20% case,
however, the cost of the wound-rotor drive system is at least
$500 OOO more than the synchronous drive system. The more
variable speed is needed, the lower the total cost will be for a
synchronous motor drive system since the efficiency at vari-
able-speed operation for the wound-rotor system is 86 % , and
the efficiency of a slow speed synchronous is 91-92% with
an LCI. In each case, except for the gearless drive, a separate
inching device was provided. The gearless motor drive sys-
tem is at least $1 200 OOO more than for the other systems
studied for variable-speed operation. This would indicate a
definite premium for the system at the 12 000-hp range. The
cost of a spare gear set was not deducted from the gearless
drive system. Even with half the cost of a gear set deducted
from the gearless drive, there is still an $800 OOO premium.
However, at horsepowers above 12 OOO hp, the gearless
drive is an obvious choice.
B. Maintenance, Reliability, and Eficiency Evaluation
Table I1 shows the evaluation of the different fixed- and
variable-speed drive systems evaluated for maintenance, reli-
ability, and efficiency. This table represents the maintainabil-
ity, reliability, and electrical efficiency in a ranked order with
1 being the best and 5 being the worst. Since the fixed-speed
systems are also used for variable-speed applications, the
table only indicates the ranking for variable speed. In this
case, the fixed-speed choice would be the same as for a
variable-speed system.
Based on the evaluation from maintainability, reliability,
and efficiency, the gear motor is the best choice for a mill
drive system. It has the best maintainability since the gear
GREER: SELECTION CRITERIA FOR SAG MILL DRIVES 907

TABLE I1
MAINTENANCE,
RELIABILITY,
AND EFFICIENCY
FACTORS
Maintenance Reliability Electrical Comments
Wound-rotor induction 3 2 5 (88) additional cooling for
liquid rheostatSynchronous motor
High inrush 5 5 4 (91 .O) possible starting
problems, less than
optimum impedance for
consideration
Low inrush 2 3 3 (91.2) redundancy is present;
torsional considerations
Dc 4 4 2 (91.5) no additional power
loss
Gearless 1 1 1 (92.3) untested in large mills.Mechanically most
attractive; air gap,
flexing, motor sealing
remains unproven;
transport logistics.
Bearing design not
optimized
a80% of critical speed 100%of time.

system is eliminated, and the cycloconverter has some builtin
redundancy capabilities. From a reliability standpoint, the
gearless motor has been proven in the field to be the best
compared to other drive systems, e.g., application to kiln,
ball mills, and cement mill drives. For overall variable-speed
applications, the gearless motor also has the best electrical
efficiency.
The synchronous motor drive is the second best from a
maintenance standpoint since no brushes are used in the drive
system, thus eliminating a large maintenance burden and the
reliability of modem electronics after the infantile mortality
period (first thousand hours of operation). The system should
require the fewest hours of maintenance after the infantile
mortality period. The synchronous motor drive system is the
third most efficient system when run full time on an L C I . If
variable speed is needed 50% of the time, it would be rated
the second most efficient system.
From a reliability standpoint, the low-torque motor was
rated third, mainly because the clutch needed to start the
drive unloaded provides an additional maintenance reliability
factor into the system.
The maintenance factor for the dc machine is fourth best,
mainly due to the need for brushes for commutation of the
system and the dc conversion equipment reliability. With a
synchronous motor package, it is possible to start and run at
full speed when the LCI requires maintenance. With the dc
machine, the rectifier system must be operable at all times.
This also was a major factor in the reliability criteria assessed
against the dc system which placed it as the fourth most
reliable system. The dc motor does provide the second
highest electrical efficiency when run full time at variable
speed. However, at 50% variable speed the synchronous
motor has a higher electrical efficiency.
The wound-rotor induction motor with liquid rheostat has a
high maintenance factor gained over many years. The biggest
single factor against a wound-rotor motor is the electrical
efficiency. At variable speed, this is fifth out of the five
systems rated and accounts for the synchronous motor drive
being preferred over the wound-rotor motor.
While it is recognized that the ranking is somewhat subjec-
tive, the method is presented to allow the development of a
systematic approach to selecting the best drive system for a
given application and also the best economic alternative.
C. Inching Drive System
For all drives except the gearless drive, a separate inching
drive should be incorporated into the systems. The reasoning
for this is as follows.
No power should be applied to the mill drive during
liner replacement unless fail-safe speed control is avail-
able. The gearless drive is the only system that can be
made fail-safe.
Use of the LCI system may produce very high torque
excursions from 0 to 20 r,/min-the inching speed range.
Only one inching drive should be needed, and it can be
shared with the ball mills with minor modification (gear
change).
The increased cost of providing inching capability on a
liquid rheostat is about $200 OOO.
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper has reviewed the various drive systems avail-
able for large mills. It is obvious that the electrical engineer’s
responsibility as part of the mill design team is more involved
today than ever before. He must understand the intricacies of
mill design and their effect on the electrical system as well as
the effect of the electrical system on mill design. No longer
can the engineer simply specify the horsepower of the mill.
He must be conversant with the effects of harmonics, tran-
sients, fatigue, and torsional analysis. All aspects of opera-
tional characteristics must be quantified and simulated to
ensure that no premature failures occur.
908 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 26, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1990
A method of evaluating the economic and maintainability
factors of drives has been presented. With this type of
analysis, an engineer may be assured that the best overall
selection can be made.
REFERENCES
R. E. Sabaski, “Grinding mill drives: Systems, challenges, considera-
tions,” Mining Eng.,pp. 43-47, Jan. 1983.
Technical literature, Siemens.
L. V. Van Laanen, “Torque equalization for synchronous motor mill
drives,” presented at the Cement Industry Tech. Conf. IEEE Ind.
Appl. Soc., Roanoke, VA, 1976.
J. H. Bassarear and P. F. Thomas, “Variable speed drives for
semiautogenous mills,” presented at the SME-AIME Annu. Meeting,
New York, NY, Feb. 24-28, 1985.
T. Salzmann and W . Schultz, “Cycloconverters and their reactions on
supply systems,” A.Z.M., Liege, Cired 1975.
Stephen A. Grew (M’71-SM’86) received the
B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, in 1969 and has
done graduate work in business administration and
electrical engineering.
He has worked as a Consulting Engineer for the
firm of Zumwalt & Vinther on projects ranging
from large industrial plants, central power plants,
the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport to the Emory Uni-
versity Graduate School Library. For the past sev-
eral years, he has concentrated on projects associ-
ated with mining, tunneling,. conveying, and mineral pr&essing. Major
projects have included the Los Bronces and El Soldado Copper Expansion
Projects, Warm Springs Dam, Kerkoff I1 Pumped Storage Project, Cerrjon
Coal Project Port Facilities, and various other mining projects. He is
currently President of Greer & Associates and continues to provide consult-
ing services.
Mr. Greer is a member of the Mine Safety Standards Committee and is a
Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.