WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

 @LF dgc @rtáfucm Fkghtáikfm

Fkghtáikfm
^`sms làskfms p`r` prmdufkr `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms

Hmrby Gstbgr Tmrrgerms` Okaëhgz 0

\mdmcim Tmrrgerms` Okaëhgz <

–Gc qug s`lg pghs`r

 pgrm hm s`lg gxprgs`r cm qug pkghs`
gstà gh gc aksam hkvgc dgc qug hm s`lg pghs`r .‑
.‑
(^grkfcgs)

Vgeÿh c` WHGVFM, gh c` Euá` p`r` c` \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms (0;26)

…"c` ikh`ckd`d gsghfk`c dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm gs fmauhkf`r cms rgsuct`dms dg

khvgstke`fkmhgs, kdg`s y dgl`tgs dg uh` a`hgr` fc`r`, fmhfks` y ikdgdkeh`: c`

 pulckf`fköh gs uhm dg cms aëtmdms khbgrghtgs `c tr`l`om fkghtáikfm. Gs prgfksm

gst`lcgfgr
gst`lcgfgr gstr`tgek`
gstr`tgek`s
s dg pulckf`fköh
pulckf`fköh lkgh gc`lm
gc`lmr`d`s
r`d`s y sgeukr fmh fmhmfkakght
fmhmfkakghtm
m

dg f`us`
f`us` uh` sgr
sgrkg
kg dg hmra`s
hmra`s `dg
`dgfu`
fu`d`s
d`s p`r` i`fkckt`
i`fkckt`rr gc khtgrf
khtgrf`al
`alkm
km ght
ghtrg
rg

0
 Dmftmr gh Dgrgfbm Whkvgrskd`d Gxtgrh`dm dg Fmcmalk`, Lmemtà. A`ekstgr gh Dmfghfk` Whkvgrskd`d dg C` V`ccg, Lmemtà.
A`ekstgr gh Fkghfk` ^mcátkf` ^mhtkikfk` Whkvgrskd`d O`vgrk`h`, Lmemtà. Dmfghtg Khvgstke`dmr` dgc Fghtrm dg Khvgstke`fkmhgs
Vmfkm Ourádkf` `dsfrktm ` c` I`fuct`d dg Dgrgfbm dg c` Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg, Lmemtà. Dkrgftmr` dgc erupm dg khvgstke`fköh?
Dgrgfbm Vmfkgd`d, y Gstudkms Khtgrh`fkmh`cgs. Gdktmr` dg c` \gvkst` Ygrl` Kurks. Khstktutm dg ^mser`dms, I`fuct`d dg
Dgrgfbm, Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg, Vgdg Lmemtà, D.F.

<

  Dmftmr gh dg
Whkvgrskd`d Vmfkmcmeá` Ourádkf`
Cms @hdgs. g Khstktufkmhgs
Dmfghtg Khvgstke`dmr^ÿlckf`s Gxtgrh`dm
dgc Fghtrm dg Fmcmalk`,
dg Khvgstke`fkmhgs Lmemtà.
Vmfkm A`ekstgr
Ourádkf` gh`Fkghfk`
`dsfrktm ^mcátkf`
c` I`fuct`d dg
Dgrgfbm dg c` Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg, Lmemtà.

0
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

fkghtáikfms
fkghtáikfms dg tmdms cms p`ásgs y rgdufkr ` prmpmrfkmhgs
prmpmrfkmhgs r`zmh`lcgs
r`zmh`lcgs gc khfrgaghtm

dgc vmcuagh dg pulckf`fkmhgs "

Gh cáhg` fmh cm `htgrkmr, gst` euá` d`r ` fmhmfgr gh imra` pràftkf`, c` cc`a`d`

agtmdm
agtmdmcme
cmeá`
á` dgc `rt
`rtáfu
áfucm
cm fkg
fkghtá
htáikf
ikfm:
m: gh gspgfk`
gspgfk`c,c, c`s p`rt
p`rtgs
gs qug fmhi
fmhimra`
mra`h
h uh

`rtáfucm y c` a`hgr` `dgfu`d` dg prgsght`rcm. Dg gstà imra` sgrà ÿtkc p`r`

ghtghdgr aàs iàfkcaghtg c`s pulckf`fkmhgs fkghtáikf`s, rg`ckz`r y rgd`ft`r `rtáfucms

dgst
dgstkh
kh`d
`dms
ms ` fmau
fmauhk
hkf`
f`rr cms
cms rgsu
rgsuctct`d
`dms
ms,, b`
b`cccc`z
`zem
emss y fmhf
fmhfcu
cusk
skmh
mhgs
gs dg c`s
c`s

khvgstke`fkmhgs.

Yksl`c `ikra` qug …–fu`hdm sg tr`t` gc tga` dgc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm, frgm khgcudklcg

dgfc`r`r gc hgxm qug cm uhg fmh gc prmfgsm dg khvgstke`fköh. Cm qug sg khvgstke` y 

hm sg gsfrklg, m sg gsfrklg y hm sg pulckf`, gqukv`

gqukv`cg
cg ` qug hm sg khvgstke` , gh t`c 

f`sm
f`sm sg pkgr
pkgrdg
dg c` fmh
fmhsk
skst
stgh
ghfk
fk`
` gh gc tkga
tkgapm
pm y gc f`ud
f`ud`c
`c dg kh
khim
imra
ra`f
`fkö
köh
h dg

khvgstke`dmrgs y fmcgftkvms fkghtáikfms. Gs pmfm prml`lcg qug dg uh` khvgstke`fköh

fmh dgikfkghfk`s agtmdmcöekf`s sg pugd` gsfrklkr uh lugh `rtáfucm. \gsuct` pmfm

irgfughtg qug uh` rgvkst` fkghtáikf` rgfb`fg uh `rtáfucm pmr prmlcga`s imra`cgs,

ëstms tkghgh `rrgecm: cm kapmrt`htg,

kapmrt`htg, tr`sfghdg
tr`sfghdghtg
htg g krrgvgrsklcg
krrgvgrsklcg smh cms prmlcga`s

dg fmhtghkdm y gstms ÿctkams smh f`us`dms, eghgr`caghtg, pmr uh a`c dksgðm

gxpgrkaght`c. ^grm uh` lugh` khvgstke`fköh pugdg hm fmhdufkr ` uh lugh `rtáfucm

sk hm sg fmhmfg gc amdm `dgfu`dm dg gc`lmr`rcm. Wh `rtáfucm a`c rgd`ft`dm pugdg

<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

d`rr `c tr
d` tr`s
`stg
tg fmh
fmh gc rgsuc
rgsuct`
t`dm
dm dg uh
uh`
` lugh`
lugh` kh
khvg
vgst
stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh,
h, sk hm gs
gstà
tà lk
lkgh
gh

 prgsght`dm. (0;;7) (Vulr`ym)

C` WHGVFM, gh su Euá` aghfkmh` qug sg dglgh `pckf`r cms trgs prkhfkpkms

iuhd`aght`cgs dg c` rgd`ffköh fkghtáikf`, ` s`lgr:

^\GFKVKMH

L\GYGD@D FC@\KD@D

Eràikfm gc`lmr`dm pmr c` `utmr` tghkghdm gh fught` c` Euá` p`r` c` \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfm
Fkghtáikfmss dg c` WHGVFM (0;26)

6
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^rgeuht`s fc`vg ` tghgr gh fught` `htgs dg gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm

"Gc bmalrg dg fkghfk`

qug tkghg p`rgfg
bmy `cemsgr
quggc dgfkr,
ÿhkfm
y gc ÿhkfm
qug hm s`lg fmam dgfkrcm"

Vkr O`ags L`rrkg

 @htgs dg khkfk`r gc tr`l`om, gc `utmr dglg b`fgrsg uh`s prgeuht`s qug skrv`h p`r`

gslmz`r su pc`h dg tr`l`om, pmhgr gh lc`hfm y hgerm sus kdg`s y b`fgr gc prkagr 

pc`h qug tr`fg uh` cáhg` fmhduftmr` p`r` su tr`l`om: ` fmhtkhu`fköh, aghfkmh`ams

y rgfmaghd`ams uh dgfàcmem dg prgeuht`s qug pugdg (y dglg) b`fgrsg gc `utmr 

dg uh `rtáfucm dg khvgstke`fköh.

Gst` bgrr`akght` sgrvkrà p`r` ghimf`r, mre`hkz`r y dgckakt`r su gsfrktm.

0. ½Puë gsfr
sfrklm
lm=
=
<. ½^
½^`r
`r`
` quë
quë gs
gsfr
frkklm=
lm=
6. ½P
½Puë
uë gs cm qugqug ttgh
ghemem qug dgfkdgfkr=
r=
4. ½F
½Föa
öam m cm
cm vvmy
my ` dgf
dgfkrkr=
=
7. ½Pu
½Puë
ë khim
khimra`
ra`fkö
fköhhg gxks
xkstgtg sml
smlrg rg gc tga`=
tga`=
9. ½Y
½Y`c
`cg
g gc gsi
gsiug
ugrzm
rzm dg g gsf
sfrk
rklk
lkrc
rcm=
m=
5. ½Fu
½Fuàc
àc gs gc iimra`
mra`tm tm m c` gs
gstru
truftu
ftur`
r` `dgfu`d
`dgfu`dmm (m gxk
gxkekd
ekd`
` pmr gc
gv`cu`dmr m gc gdktmr=
2. ½^`
½^`r`
r` qukëh
qukëh ggsfr
sfrklm
klm== (½Pukë
(½Pukëh h gs ak dgs
dgstkh
tkh`t`
`t`rkm
rkm=)
=)
;. ½F
½Fuà
uàcc gs c` `ud
`udkg
kghfhfk`
k` gsp
gspgr gr`d`
`d`== (½Fuàc
(½Fuàc gs
 gs ak pÿlckfm=
0>. ½Fuàc gs c` gdkt
gdktmrk`c
mrk`c `prmpk`d`
`prmpk`d` p`r` su pulc pulckf`fk
kf`fköh=
öh=

4
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Fmh rgspgftm ` c` prkagr` prgeuht`? ½Puë gsfrklm= gs kapmrt`htg fmhmfgr, ghtghdgr,

dkigrghfk`r y dgikhkr sk gsfrklm uh `rtáfucm: gh f`sm `ikra`tkvm, pmdgams ghtghdgr cm

skeukghtg?

½Puë gs uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm=

Vgeÿh D`y gc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm sg pugdg dgikhkr fmam uh khimrag gsfrktm y

pulckf`dm qug dgsfrklg rgsuct`dms mrkekh`cgs dg uh` khvgstke`fköh (<.>>7, p. 2). Gc

`rtáfucm fkghtáikfm dglg sgr fc`rm p`r` qug cms khtgrgs`dms y dgstkh`t`rkms rgfkl`h gc

aghs`og fmhfrgtm qug sg qukgrg tr`saktkr.

Gh gstg sghtkdm, c` Euá` p`r` c` \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms ^ulckf`dms

(WHGVFM,
(WHGVFM, 0;26) sgð`c` fmam ikh`ckd`
ikh`ckd`d
d gsghfk`c dg uh `rtáfuc
`rtáfucm
m fkghtái
fkghtáikfm
kfm c` dg

fmauhkf`r cms rgsuct`dms dg khvgstke`fkmhgs, kdg`s y dgl`tgs dg uh` a`hgr`

fc`r`, fmhfks` y ikdgdkeh`. (@cmhsm-Vmcgr, ^kðgkrm-Vuàrgz, <>>5, pp.59-20).

Gh rgsuagh, gc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm?


Gs uh khimrag smlrg rgsuct`dms dg uh` khvgstke`fköh fkghtáikf`.
 Fmauhkf` (pmr prkagr` vgz) cms rgsuct`dms dg uh` khvgstke`fköh.
 Vg rgikgrg ` uh prmlcga` fkghtáikfm.
 Cms rgsuct`dms dg c` khvgstke`fköh dglgh sgr vàckdms y
ikdgdkehms.
 Gc khimrag dglg sgr fc`rm y fmhfksm.

7
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Tkpms dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms y @f`dëakfms, Mtrms.

^`r` a`ymr fc`rkd`d pmdgams rgsuakr gh gc skeukghtg fu`drm cms tkpms dg `rtáfucms

fkghtáikfms (y mtrms) y sus prkhfkp`cgs f`r`ftgrástkf`s.

Tkpm dg @rtáfucm F`r`ftgrástkf`s

@rtáfucm dg Dmfu
fuaaghtm qug prg rgssght` dgt
dgt`cc`d
`d`
`aghtg
htg cms
Khvgstke`fköh rgsuct
rgsuct`dms
`dms mrke
mrkekh`
kh`cgs
cgs dg prmygft
prmygftms
ms dg khvgst
khvgstke`
ke`fkö
fköh
h
fkghtáikf` y tgrakh`dms.
tgfhmcöekf`
C` gstruftur` eghgr`caghtg gs?
 Khtrmduffköh,
 Agtmdmcmeá`,
 \gsuct`dms y
 Fmhfcuskmhgs.

@rtáfucm dg rgicgxköh Dmfuaghtm prgsght` rgsuct`dms dg khvgstke`fköh smlrg

uh tga`, dgsdg uh` pgrspgftkv` `h`cátkf`, khtgrprgt`tkv`
m frktkf`: `fudkghdm ` c`s iughtgs mrkekh`cgs.

@rtáfucm dg \gvksköh Dmfuaghtm qug prgsght` rgsuct`dms dg uh`

khvgstke`fköh tgrakh`d`, smlrg uh tga` dg fkghfk` m
tgfh
tgfhmc
mcmeá
meá`,
`, fmh
fmh gc pr
prmp
mpösk
ösktm
tm dg am
amst
str`r
r`r `v`hf
`v`hfgs
gs y
tghdghfk`s dg dgs`rrmccm.

 @h`ckz`, skstga`tkz` m khtger` cms rgsuct`dms dg mtr`s

khvgstke`fkmhgs (pulckf`d`s m hm).

^rgsght` uh` fukd`dms` rgvksköh lklckmeràikf`. (Aáhkam

7> rgigrghfk`s).

@rtáfucm Fmrtm Dmfuaghtm lrgvg qug prgsght` rgsuct`dms mrkekh`cgs

(prg
(prgckckak
akh`
h`rg
rgss m p`p`rf
rfk`
k`cg
cgs)
s) dg uh`
uh` khvg
khvgst
stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh
h
fkghtáikf` m tgfhmcöekf`.

9
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Tkpm khimrag m F`r`ftgrástkf`s

dmfuaghtm

\gpmrtg dg F`sm Dmfuaghtm qug prgsght` rgsuct`dms dg uh` sktu`fköh

p`rtkfuc`r.

D` ` fmhmfgr gxpgrkghfk`s tëfhkf`s m dg agtmdmcmeá`

`pckf`d`s `c f`sm.

Khfcuyg
Khfcuyg uh` rgv
rgvksk
ksköh
öh skstga
skstgaàtk
àtkf`
f` y fma
fmaght
ght`d`
`d` sml
smlrg
rg
dmfuaghtms dg f`sms `hàcmems.

\gvksköh dg Tga` Dmfuaghtm qug prgsght` gc rgsuct`dm dg uh` rgvksköh

frátkf` dg c` cktgr`tur` gsfrkt` smlrg gc tga`.

F`rt`s dgc Gdktmr  Dmfuag

Dmfu aght
htms
ms qu
qug
g prgs
prgsgh
ght`
t`h
h pm
pmsk
skfk
fkmh
mhgs
gs frát
frátkf
kf`s
`s,,
`h`
h`cá
cáttkf`s
kf`s m kht
khtgrpr
grprgt
gt`t
`tkv
kv`s
`s sm
smlr
lrgg dm dmfu
fua
agh
ghttms
pulckf`dms.

Gh fmhskdgr`fköh dgc rgspgftkvm Fmaktë Gdktmrk`c smh uh

`pmrtg kapmrt`htg gh gc tga`, pmr p`rtg dg c`
fmauhkd`d fkghtáikf`.

Gdktmrk`c Dmfuaghtm gsfrktm pmr gc Gdktmr, akgalrm dgc Fmaktë

Gdktmrk`c m khvgstke`dmr khvkt`dm.

^rgsght` mrkght`fkmhgs tgaàtkf`s dg c` rgvkst`.

Tr`duffköh Dmfuaghtms qug prgsght`h tr`duffkmhgs dg tgxtms

fcàskfms, dg `ftu`ckd`d, tr`hsfrkpfkmhgs dg dmfuaghtms
bkstörkfms m dg khtgrës p`r` gc tga` dg c` rgvkst`.

Dmfuaghtm dg Dmfuaghtm gh gc qug gc @utmr prgsght` su gxpgrkghfk`,

\gicgxköh (hm fmhmfkakghtms y su pgrfgpfköh smlrg gc tga`.
rgsuct`dm dg
khvgstke`fköh)
\gsgð` Lklckmeràikf` Fmaght`rkm frátkfm y `h`cátkfm qug gxpmhg y dkiuhdg gc
fmhtghkdm dg dmfuaghtms gsfrktms (cklrms, `rtáfucms,
rgvkst`s, gtf.)

5
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Mre`hkz`fköh dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm

Wh (…) –`rtáfucm fkghtáikfm, pmr dgikhkfköh, gs uh tkpm gspgfk`c dg dmfuaghtm qug

fmhtkghg fkgrt`s fc`sgs dgtgrakh`d`s dg khimra`fköh, gh uh mrdgh gst`lcgfkdm

(KA\[D).‑ (D`y, p. 00)

Khkfk`caghtg c`s pulckf`fkmhgs gr`h dgsfrkptkv`s (fmam c`s f`rt`s `ftu`cgs), pgrm `

agdk`dms dgc skecm RKR, er`fk`s ` ^`stgur y Jmfb, (qug fmhikra`rmh c` tgmrá`

akfrm
akfrmlk
lkmcö
mcöek
ekf`
f` dg c`s
c`s gh
ghig
igra
ragd
gd`d
`dgs)
gs),, sg bkzm
bkzm hgf
hgfgs
gs`r
`rkm
km dg
dgsf
sfrk
rklk
lkrr gh imra
imra`
`

dgt`cc`d` c` agtmdmcmeá` p`r` `f`cc`r ` cms i`hàtkfms dg c` eghgr`fköh gspmhtàhg`

y gc dmea` dg c` rgprmdufklkckd`d sg bkzm fghtr`c. Gstm iug gc prkhfkpkm dgc KA\[D

Gxkstgh dkigrghtgs frktgrkms p`r` mre`hkz`r gc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm y gc khvgstke`dmr

pugdg tghgrcm gh fught` gh gc amaghtm dg rgd`ft`rcm: pmdgams aghfkmh`r? gc

skstga` KA\[D, y mtrms gsquga`s, dg `fugrdm fmh skeukghtg fu`drm.

2
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gc KA\[D fmhstktuyg gc skstga` dg mre`hkz`fköh aàs utkckz`dm gh c`s rgvkst`s y sg

rgikgrg ` cms fmapmhghtgs dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm, `sá?

Gc gsquga` KA\[D gs gsghfk`c p`r` –khvgstke`fköh gxpgrkaght`c‑, cms `rtáfucms dg

khvgstke`fköh tgörkf` pugdgh sgeukr uh` cöekf` dkigrghtg. (Vtgrhlgre, 0.;;9, p. 72).

C` cöekf` KA\[D sg gxpckf` pmr agdkm dg prgeuht`s, gh gc skeukghtg fu`drm sg

prgsght`h c`s prgeuht`s fmrrgspmhdkghtgs ` f`d` p`rtg dg c` gstruftur`, `sá?

;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm pmr c` `utmr`.

0>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^`rtgs dgc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm

Gc skeukghtg fu`drm prgsght` (gh eghgr`c) c`s dkigrghtgs p`rtgs fmhstktutkv`s dgc

`rtáfucm, fmhskdgr`hdm dkvgrs`s mpfkmhgs m gsquga`s.

^`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm Dgsfrkpfköh

Tátucm ^`c`lr`s ququg

g dgdgssfrk
rkl
lgh gc fmhtghkdm dgc
dmfuaghtm (`rtáfucm, cklrm, gtf.). Dglg prmfur`rsg
(Tktcg) gc aghmr hÿagrm dg p`c`lr`s.
\gsuagh dgc `rtáfucm Vkhmpsks dg c`s fmhfcuskmhgs. Ygrsköh `lrgvk`d`
qug fmhtkghg m fmhdghs` f`d` p`rtg dgc
(@lstr`ft) dmfuaghtm.
Khtrmduffköh ^rkagr` p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm . (KA\[D)

(Khtrmduftkmh) Khdk
Khdkf`
f` gc prm
prmlc
lcga
ga`` gst
gstud
udk`
k`dm
dm m khv
khvgst
gstke
ke`d
`dm
m y
fmauhkf` `c cgftmr `htgfgdghtgs dgc tga`.
Aëtmdms Vgeuhd` p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm. (KA\[D)

(Agtbmds) Dgsfrklg cms gxpgrkaghtms m prmfgsms p`r` qug

uh p`r fmapgt
fmapgtght
ghtg
g pu
pugd
gd`
` rgpgt
rgpgtkr
krcm
cmss y ml
mltg
tghg
hgr 
r 
rgsuct`dms m b`cc`zems skakc`rgs m gqukv`cghtgs.
\gsuct`dms Tgrfgr` p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm. (KA\[D)

(\gsucts) ^r
^rgs
gsgh
ght`
t` c` huhugv`
gv` khi
khimra
mra`f
`fkö
köh,
h, rg
rgsuc
suct`
t`dm
dm dgc
dgc
gstudkm m khvgstke`fköh, qug sg khimra`.
Dksfusköh Fu`rt` y ÿctka` p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm. (KA\[D)

(Dksfusskmh) Vktÿ` cms rgsuct`dms gh fmhtgxtm dg cms

fmhmfkakghtms gxkstghtgs. Cms puhtms rgcgv`htgs
sg gxprgs`h fmam fmhfcuskmhgs.
Vua`rkm Váhtgs
gskks dg c`s fmhfcuskmhg
mhgs, `c ikh`
h`cc dg
dgcc
dmfuaghtm.
00
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

(Vuaa`ry)
@er`dgfkakghtm \gfmhmfkakghtm
\gfmhmfkakghtm m frëdkt
frëdktm
m ` pgrsmh`
pgrsmh`ss m ghtkd
ghtkd`dgs
`dgs
qug `yud`rmh, `sgsmr`rmh m `skstkgrmh
(@fjmwcgdeaghts) ikh`hfkgr`aghtg c` gogfufköh dgc tr`l`om.
\gigrghfk`s \gc`fköh m ckst`dm dg cms `utmrgs, sus mlr`s y cms
`ðms dg c`s fkt`s rgekstr`d`s gh gc dmfuaghtm.
(H`ag `hd yg`r systga)
Fu`drm `d`pt`dm pmr c` `utmr`, l`s`dm gh gc gsquga` làskfm dg cms `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms amdgrhms gc`lmr`dm pmr gc
prmigsmr Àcv`rm @hdrës B`aluregr, gh –Gsfrktur` y ^rmduffköh Khtgcgftu`c‑, ` p`rtkr dg D`y (<>>7).  

0<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@utmr(gs)

C` `utmrá` gs uh tga` kapmrt`htg, gccm dgtgrakh` qukëh gs gc `utmr m `utmrgs dgc

tr`l`om:
tr`l`om: pmr cm t`htm, dglgh `p`rgfgr -fmam `utmrgs- `quëcc
`quëccms
ms qug b`h bgfbm uh`

fmhtrklufköh khtgcgftu`c sust`hfk`c y `sua`h c` rgspmhs`lkckd`d dgc fmhtghkdm dgc

`rtáfucm.

Hm sg fm
fmhs
hskd
kdgr
gr`
` `dgfu
`dgfu`d
`dm
m hg
hge`
e`rc
rcg
g rg
rgfm
fmhmf
hmfka
kakg
kght
htm
m dg `u
`utm
tmrr ` uh` pg
pgrsm
rsmh`
h`

rgspmhs`
rgspmhs`lcg
lcg dg uh` p`rtg
p`rtg iuh
iuhd`a
d`aght
ght`c
`c dgc fmh
fmhtgh
tghkdm
kdm khtgcg
khtgcgftu
ftu`c
`c dgc `rt
`rtáfu
áfucm
cm
(fmhmfkdm fmam `utmrá` khfmapcgt`) m pmr gc fmhtr`rkm khfcukr fmam `utmrgs `

pgrsmh`s fuy` fmhtrklufköh gs aáhka` m huc` (cc`a`d` `utmrá` khoustkikf`d`).

Vg pugdgh ghfmhtr`r `utmrá`s kh`dgfu`d`s pmr v`rk`s r`zmhgs, hkheuh` dg gcc`s

 oustkikf`lcg. Vgeÿh Vkcv` (0;;>) ghtrg c`s f`us`s aàs irgfughtgs dg c` `utmrá`

khoustkikf`d` sg ghfughtr`h?

 Dk
Dkrg
rgft
ftmr
mrgs
gs dg khst
khstktktuf
ufkm
kmhg
hgss y ogig
ogigss dg dg
dgp`
p`rt
rt`a
`agh
ghtm
tm qu
qug
g kapm
kapmhg
hgh
h

skst
skstga
gaàt
àtkf
kf`a
`agh
ghtg
tg su hma
hmalrg
lrg gh tmdm
tmdmss cms
cms tr
tr`l
`l`o
`oms
ms gsfr
gsfrktktms
ms pmr sus
sus

sulmrdkh`dms, `uhqu
qug
g hm b`y`h p`
p`rrtkfkp`dm m cm b`y`
y`h
h bgfbm

a`rekh`caghtg gh c` khvgstke`fköh fmrrgspmhdkghtg.

 Khvg
Khvgst
stke
ke`d
`dmr
mrgs
gs prkh
prkhfk
fkpk
pk`h
`htg
tgss m hm
hmv`
v`tm
tmss qu
qug
g gsfr
gsfrkl
klgh
gh uh `rtá
`rtáfu
fucm
cm g

kh
khou
oust
stkikikf
kf`d`
`d`ag
aght
htg
g `e
`erge
rge`h
`h ` c` ckst
ckst`
` dg `u
`utm
tmrg
rgss gc hmal
hmalrg
rg dg `ceÿ
`ceÿh
h

06
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

khstru
khstruftm
ftmr,
r, dmfg
dmfghtg
htg,, tut
tutmr,
mr, `sgs
`sgsmr,
mr, supgrk
supgrkmr
mr m fmcge`
fmcge` ago
agomr
mr pms
pmskfk
kfkmh`
mh`dm
dm

pmrqug?

m
`) qukgrgh `duc`rcm y e`h`rsg sus i`vmrgs, m
m l) gsp
gspgr
gr`
` qu
qug
g c` khfc
khfcus
uskö
köh
h dg uh hma
hmalrg
lrg rgfmhm
rgfmhmfk
fkdm
dm i`fk
i`fkckcktg
tg c`

pulckf`fköh dgc dmfuaghtm.

 Fmhfgdgr c` `utmrá` ` uh khvgstke`dmr hmv`tm, fmh c` kdg` dg gstkauc`rcm.

 Erupms dg prmigskmh`cgs m fmcge`s qug fgcglr`h `fugrdms m p`ftms dmhdg,

sk `ceuhm dg gccms gsfrklg uh `rtáfucm, `erge` fmam `utmrgs gc hmalrg dg

cms dgaàs, skh qug b`y`h khtgrvghkdm gh gc tr`l`om.

 Fu`hdm cms `utmrgs vgrd`dgrms smh prgskmh`dms p`r` khfcukr gc hmalrg dg

pgrsmh`s qug sg ckakt`rmh ` prmpmrfkmh`r fkgrt`s mrkght`fkmhgs tëfhkf`s qug

hm oustkikf`h c` `utmrá`.

 Khfcukr gh c` `utmrá` p`r` b`c`e`r m `yud`r ` uh` pgrsmh` fmh qukgh gxkstgh

c`zms `igftkvms. C` `utmrá` sg gapcg` khdglkd`aghtg –p`r` s`cd`r dgud`s m

smckfkt`r i`vmrgs‑ qug eghgr`caghtg hm smh dg f`ràftgr fkghtáikfm.

 Fmhfgdgr c` `utmrá` pmr kehmr`hfk`, skh s`lgr qug gxkstgh frktgrkms y hmra`s

p`r` prgsght`r cms `utmrgs.

 ^mr "tr`dkfköh"
"tr`dkfköh" a`c ghtghdkd`, gh cms f`sms qug sg `fmstualr
`fmstualr`
` gh uh cue`r 

m khstktufköh dgtgrakh`d`.

04
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Hm gs
gstà
tà dg aà
aàss rg
rgf`c
f`cf`
f`rr qu
qug
g tmd`
tmd` usurp
usurp`fk
`fköh
öh dg c` `ut
`utmrá
mrá`
` gs ëtkf
ëtkf`a
`agh
ghtg
tg

kh`fgpt`lcg y pugdg tghgr fmhsgfughfk`s cge`cgs gh fu`htm ` cms dgrgfbms dg

`utmr.

C` @utmrá` Aÿctkpcg

Vgeÿh Vkcv` (0;;>) hm gxkstg uh cáaktg p`r` dgtgrakh`r uh hÿagrm "`fgpt`lcg" m

"gxfgskvm" dg `utmrgs.

Gs fmaÿh gsfrklkr `rtáfucms auctk`utmr`cgs, –… cm kapmrt`htg

kapmrt`htg gs
gs tghgr
tghgr gh fught`
fught`

fmhfgdgr t`c f`tgemrá` fu`hdm ëst` sg` agrgfkd` y rgspmhs`lcg, skh mcvkd`r qug

sgeÿh sgð`c` gc `utmr fkt`dm, gc `ueg dg gstg tkpm dg `rtáfucm f`us` aufbms

 prmlcga`s ` cms gdktmrgs, cms lklcköer`ims y cms khvgstke`dmrgs .‑ (@rtkcgs Yksl`c,

0;;7)

07
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Tátucm

Gc tátucm d` c` kdg` dgc fmhtghkdm dgc dmfuaghtm (c` a`ymrá` smcm cgg gc tátucm) y gh

gsms tërakhms eghgr` m hm gc khtgrës pmr gc `rtáfucm.

–Gc tátucm dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm dglg dgsfrklkr su fmhtghkdm dg

imra` fc`r` y prgfks`, qug cg pgrakt` `c cgftmr kdghtkikf`r gc tga`
iàfkcaghtg y `c lklckmtgf`rkm f`t`cme`r y fc`skikf`r gc a`tgrk`c fmh
gx`f
gx`ftktktu
tud.
d. Dglg
Dglg sg sgrr fm
fmrt
rtmm (hm
(hm gxfg
gxfgdgdgrr dg 07 p`p`c`
c`lr
lr`s
`s)) sk
skh
h
s`frkikf`r c` fc`rkd`d, p`r` gccm dglg gvkt`rsg gc usm gxfgskvm dg
 prgpmskfkmhgs y `rtáfucms, gc utkckz`r gxpmskfkmhgs rgpgtktkv`s fmam
 pmr gogapcm? gstudkm smlrg...: khvgstke`fköh `fgrf` dg …: `hàcksks
dg cms
cms rgsu
rgsuct
ct`d
`dms
ms dg..
dg....
..:: gt
gtfë
fëtg
tgr`
r`,, y gc usm
usm kh
khhg
hgfg
fgs`
s`rk
rkm
m dg
sultátucms.  (Imra`tm Fkghtáikfm dg ^rugl`s.
bttp?//www.a`trkxbkik.fma/agtmdmcmek`<.bta  tma`dm
bttp?//www.a`trkxbkik.fma/agtmdmcmek`<.bta  gc 4 dg
sgptkgalrg dg <>0<.)

Fmhikgsm qug gc tátucm gs cm ÿctkam qug gsfrklm,

gc tghgr c` kdg` dgc `rtáfucm gh eghgr`c y

c` kdghtkikf`fköh fc`r` y prgfks` dgc prmlcga` y

dg cms mlogtkvms,

ag i`fkckt` su imrauc`fköh.‑

( @rtkcgs 0;;9 )
 @rtkcgs Yksl`c, 0;;9 
09
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Cms mlogtkvms dgc tátucm smh?

Dgsfrklkr gh imra` ^msklkckt`r `c cgftmr I`fkckt`r c` fc`skf`fköh

fc`r`, fmhfks` y gx`ft` iàfkcaghtg, c` y f`t`cme`fköh dgc
gc fmhtghkdm dgc kdghf`fköh dgc tga` a`tgrk`c fmh gx`ftud y
`rfucm dgc `rfucm pgrhghfk`

Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm pmr c` `utmr`, sgeÿh @rtkcgs Yksl`c (0;;9)

F`r`ftgrástkf`s dgc tátucm?


Dgsfrklg `dgfu`d`aghtg gc tga` dgc `rtáfucm, fmh gc aghmr hÿagrm dg
p`c`lr`s pmsklcg.

 Dglg sgr fmherughtg fmh gc prmlcga` y mlogtkvm prgsght`dms.

 Dglg sgr gspgfáikfm

 Dglg sgr fmrtm, fmhfksm y fc`rm

 ^ugdg sgr khimra`tkvm m khdkf`tkvm

^mr cm t`htm,
t`htm, hms dkfg Ymovm
Ymovmdkf
dkf Bgrhàhd
Bgrhàhdgz
gz (<>0<) uh lugh tá
tátucm
tucm `tr`g (y dglg

`tr`gr) c` `tghfköh dg cms pmtghfk`cgs cgftmrgs m khvgstke`dmrgs (gs `tr`ftkvm),

khimra`
khimra` `dgfu`
`dgfu`d`
d` y suikfk
suikfkghtgag
ghtgaghtg
htg smlrg gc aghs`og y prmpösk
prmpösktm
tm dgc `rtáfucm
`rtáfucm (gs

gx`ftm y fmapcgtm), pgraktg dgtgrakh`r y fmhmfgr c` dkigrghfk` fmh mtrms `rtáfucms

skakc`rgs (gs gspgfáikfm y gs fmhfksm).

05
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gcgaghtms dgc Tátucm

Fmam prkagr gcgaghtm sg ghfughtr`h c`s v`rk`lcgs? Gc tátucm pugdg fmhtghgr uh`

v`rk`lcg
v`rk`lcg fu`hdm sg tr`t` dg uh `rtáf
`rtáfucm
ucm dgsfrkptkvm
dgsfrkptkvm m dms v`rk`lcgs gh f`sm dg sgr 

uh `rtáfucm fmap`r`tkvm. Gh fmhsgfughfk`, cms mtrms gcgaghtms ` fmhskdgr`r sgràh

c` rgc`fköh ghtrg v`rk`lcgs, c` pmlc`fköh dgc gstudk

gstudkm
m y gc cue`r y tkga
tkgapm
pm (amaghtm)

dgc `rtáfucm.

Gh gc tátucm fmapcgtm y gx`ftm sg mlsgrv`(h) c`(s) v`rk`lcg(s) y c` pmlc`fköh dgc

gstud
gstudkm
km,, `sá aksa
aksam
m gc `ð
`ðm
m y cue`
cue`rr dg pr
prgsg
gsght
ht`fk
`fköh
öh dg
dgcc tr
tr`l
`l`o
`om,
m, skgh
skghdm
dm gccms
gccms

kaprgsfkhdklcgs p`r` uh` `dgfu`d` prgsght`fköh. ^mr su p`rtg gc tátucm gx`ftm

prgsght` c`(s) v`rk`lcg(s), aghfkmh` c` pmlc`fköh: pgrm hm aghfkmh` `ðm y cue`r.

(Gs rgfmaghd`dm p`r` c`s rgvkst`s). (Ymovmdkf Bgrhàhdgz)

Gc tátucm `tr`ftkvm gh cm pmsklcg dglg khkfk`r fmh uh` p`c`lr` kapmrt`htg m rgcgv`htg

qug `tr`ke` c` `tghfköh dgc cgftmr pmtghfk`c. Gh c`s rgvkst`s dglg smpgs`rsg gc

kap`ftm dgc tátucm y c` rkeurmskd`d `f`dëakf`.

02
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gh gc skeukghtg fu`drm prgsght`ams `ceuhms grrmrgs qug pugdgh d`rsg gh cms

tátucms y qug gc(ms) `utmr(gs) dglgh gvkt`r.

Grrmrgs dg cms tátucms

Gh gc skeukghtg
skeukghtg fu`drm pmdgams mlsgrv`r cms grrmrgs qug pugdgh prgsght`rsg gh

cms tátucms y pmr cm aksam gc `utmr khvgstke`dmr dglg gvkt`r

Gogapcm dg tátucm?

\G^\GVGHT@FKMHGV VMFK@CGV GH TM\HM @C FMHFG^TM DG GPWKD@D [ OWVTKFK@ DG CMV

\G^\GVGHT@FKMHGV
FMHFKCK@DM\GV [ C@V FMHFKCK@DM\@V GH GPWKD@D DG C@V WHKD@DGV DG AGDK@FKMH [
FMHFKCK@FKMH
FMHFKCK@FKM H DG LMEMTÀ D. F.

0;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\G^\GVGHT@TKMHVV FMHFG\HKHE TBG GPWKT[ @HD OWVTKFG FMHFG^TV MI GPWKT[

VMFK@C \G^\GVGHT@TKMH
FMHFKCK@TM\[ KHDKYKDW@CV (A@CG @HD IGA@CG), MI TBG AGDK@TKMH @HD FMHFKCK@TKMH
WHKTV MI LMEMTÀ, D. F.

\G^\GVGHT@Å×GV
\G^\GVGHT@Å×
FMHFKCK@DM\GV GGV@VVMFK@KV GA TM\HMGA
FMHFKCK@DM\@V @MGPWKD@DG
FMHFGKTMD@V
DG GPWKD@DG G OWVTKÅ@
WHKD@DGV DG DMV G
AGDK@ÅÆM
FMHFKCK@ÅÆM DG LMEMT@

\gsuagh

–Gc cgftmr cgg gc tátucm,

sk gstg gs khtgrgs`htg cgg gc rgsuagh,
sk gstg gs lughm,
 gc cgftmr fmhtkhu`rà c` cgftur` dgc `rtáfucm‑ 

(O`hg \usgcc, 0;27)

Wh rgsuagh gs c` rgprgsght`fköh `lrgvk`d` y fmrrgft` dgc fmhtghkdm dg uh

dmfuaghtm, prgp`r`dm pmr gc `utmr fmam p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm fmh gc prmpösktm dg

dgspgrt`r gc khtgrës dgc cgftmr pmr gc `rtáfucm.

Gc rgsuagh sg dglg ghtghdgr pmr sá smcm skh hgfgskd`d dg cggr gc `rtáfucm y` qug

pugdg `ftu`r fmam sustktutm dgc tgxtm, p`r` qug gc cgftmr tghe` aàs gcgaghtms.

(Igrrkmcs \, Igrrkmcs I? <>>7)

<>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gc mlogtkvm dgc \gsuagh gs `yud`r `c cgftmr khtgrgs`dm ` kdghtkikf`r ràpkd` y

gx`ft`aghtg gc fmhtghkdm làskfm dgc `rtáfucm y ` dgtgrakh`r c` rgcgv`hfk` dgc

fmhtghkdm dgc `rtáfucm.

Gc rgsuagh dglg?

 Gxprgs`r dg imra` fc`r` y lrgvg?

m cms mlogtkvms y gc `cf`hfg dgc gstudkm,

m cms prmfgdkakghtms làskfms,

cms aëtmdms `h`cátkfms y mlsgrv`fkmh`cgs,

m cms prkhfkp`cgs b`cc`zems y

m c`s fmhfcuskmhgs.

 Vktu`r c` khvgstke`fköh gh tkgapm y cue`r 

 ^rgsght`r rgsuct`dms huaërkfms prgfksms

 Khdkf`r cms cáaktgs dg v`ckdgz dg c`s fmhfcuskmhgs


\gd`ft`rsg gh tgrfgr` pgrsmh`, tkgapm p`s`dm, gxfgptm c` ir`sg
fmhfcuyghtg

 Gxfcukr c`s `lrgvk`tur`s

 Gxfcukr c`s rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s

Grrmrgs irgfughtgs gh c` rgd`ffköh dgc rgsuagh

<0
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Cms grrmrgs aàs irgfughtgs gh cms rgsÿaghgs pugdgh sgr?

Grrm Dgsfrkpfköh
r 
0 Gs dga`sk`dm c`rem
Gs dga`sk`dm dgt`cc`dm
<
6 Tkghg aàs dg <7> p`c`lr`s
4  @pmrt` khimra`fköh qug hm gstà prgsghtg gh gc ttgxtm
gxtm
7 Fmhtkghg m prgsght` khimra`fköh krrgcgv`htg
9 Khfcuyg fmhfcuskmhgs hm rgc`fkmh`d`s fmh gc tgxtm
5 Fkt` rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s
2 I`ct` dg prgfksköh, fmhfksköh y mrdgh`akghtm
; Hm gs khtgckeklcg
0> Hm pc`htg` cms prkhfkp`cgs mlogtkvms
00 Hm pc`htg` gc `cf`hfg dg c` khvgstke`fköh
0< Hm dgsfrklg c` agtmdmcmeá` gapcg`d`
Hm rgsuag (`dgfu`d`aghtg) cms rgsuct`dms
06
04 Hm eghgr`ckz` c`s prkhfkp`cgs fmhfcuskmhgs
07 Hm pgraktg `c cgftmr kdghtkikf`r, gc fmhtghkdm làskfm dgc tr`l`om, gh imra` ràpkd` y
prgfks`
09 Hm dgo` fc`rm gc prmlcga` qug sg khvgstke` y gc mlogtkvm dgc aksam
05 Hm dgo` fc`rm gc mlogtkvm dgc tr`l`om
02 Hm sg rgd`ft` gh p`s`dm (gxfgptu`hdm
(gxf gptu`hdm gc ÿctkam pàrr`im m ir`sg fmhfcuyghtg)
0; Hm pc`htg` fc`r`aghtg c` prgeuht` dg khvgstke`fköh
Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm pmr c` `utmr`. \gfmakghd` sgr utkckz`dm fmam ckst` dg fbgqugm p`r` v`ckd`r c`s
fmhdkfkmhgs dgc \gsuagh.

– @htg
 @htg gc frgfkghtg vmcuagh dgc a`tgrk`c fkghtáikfm pulckf`dm, gs khdkspghs`lcg qug

gc fmhtghkdm làskfm dg tmdms cms `rtáfucms sg` iàfkcaghtg `ffgsklcg, gh imra`

fmhfks`.. ^`r` gccm, cms tátuc

fmhfks` tátucms
ms b`h dg
dg sgr `dgfu`dms
`dgfu`dms y dglgh
dglgh kr sgeukdms
sgeukdms dg uh
uh

rgsuagh
rgsuagh `h`cátkf
`h`cátkfm,
m, `c fmakg
fmakghzm
hzm dg f`d`
f`d` `rtáfu
`rtáfucm.
cm. @c rgd`ft
rgd`ft`r
`r gc rgsuagh,
rgsuagh, cms

`utmrgs hm dglgh mcvkd`r qug, prml`lcgaghtg, sgrà gs` c` ÿhkf` p`rtg dgc `rtáfucm

qug cggrà c` a`ymrá` dg cms cgftmrgs‑. (WHKVKVT, MHW 0;26) (Vulr`ym)

Gogapcm dg rgsuagh?

<<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\GVWAGH

Gstg `rtáfucm sg rgikgrg ` c`s rgprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs smlrg cms fmhfgptms dg gqukd`d y

 oustkfk` dg cms fmhfkck`dmrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s gh gqukd`d, dg

d g c`s Whkd`dgs dg Agdk`fköh y

Fmhfkck`fköh dg Lmemtà, D. F. y sg rg`ckzö ` tr`vës dg uh tr`l`om dg f`apm, agdk`htg gc

dgs`rr
dgs`rrmc
mccm
cm dg c` ghtrgv
ghtrgvks
kst`
t` gh prm
prmiuh
iuhdk
dkd`
d`d,
d, ou
ouht
htmm fm
fmhh c` mlsg
mlsgrv`
rv`fk
fköh
öh p`
p`rt
rtkf
kfkp
kp`ht
`htg:
g:

bgrr`a
bgrr`akg
kght
ht`s
`s qug
qug pgrak
pgraktk
tkgr
grmh
mh tg
tghg
hgrr `ffg
`ffgsm
sm ` c`
c`ss rg
rgprg
prgsg
sght
ht`f
`fkm
kmhg
hgss sm
smfk
fk`c
`cgs
gs dg
dgsdg
sdg c`

fmtkdk`hkd`d dg su pràftkf`, skh dgsfmhtgxtu`ckz`rc` m frg`hdm gsp`fkms hugvms m vkrtu`cgs

gh cms qug c` rgprgsght`fköh pudkgr` vgrsg khicukd` m dkstmrskmh`d` pmr gcgaghtms gxtgrhms.

C`s rgprgsght`fkmhgs
rgprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs dg cms fmhfkck`d
fmhfkck`dmrgs
mrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s
fmhfkck`dmr`s gh gqukd`
gqukd`dd supmhgh
uh` rgfmhstruffköh dg c`s `ffkmhgs p`s`d`s m uh `hàcksks rgtrmspgftkvm dg c` sktu`fköh: gh

sgeuhdm cue`r, hms `fgrf`h ` rgprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs pgrsmh`ckz`d`s y `dgaàs hms d`h

 pkst`s smlrg f`apms sgaàhtkfms, vmf`luc`rkm y dksfursms `rqugtápkfms gh tmrhm ` cms

fmhfgptms dg gqukd`d y oustkfk`

<6
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Khtrmduffköh

Dgsfrklg
Dgsfrklg gc khtgrës qug gc `rtáfucm tkghg gh gc fmhtgxtm fkghtáikfm
fkghtáikfm dgc amaght
amaghtm,
m, cms

tr`l
tr`l`o
`oms
ms pr
prgv
gvkkms qu
qug
g sg b`
b`h
h bgf
gfbm
bm sm
smlr
lrg
g gc tga`
ga` y qu
quë
ë `s
`spg
pgft
ftms
ms sm
smh
h

fmhtrmvgrsk`cgs.

C` khtrmduffköh
khtrmduffköh hm dglg sgr auy gxtghs
gxtghs`
` y pugdg lghgik
lghgikfk`rsg
fk`rsg dg cm gxpugst
gxpugstm
m gh

c` rgvksköh aàs rgfkghtg smlrg gc tga`.

C` khtrmduffköh rgspmhdg ` c` prgeuht`? ½^mr quë sg b` bgfbm ëstg tr`l`om=

Gc mlogtkvm gs amtkv`r `c cgftmr p`r` qug cg` ‖tmdm- gc tr`l`om. Ghimf`rcm gh gc tga`

prkhfkp`c dgc tr`l`om, dmhdg c`s rgigrghfk`s smh fc`vgs. Eghgr`caghtg tgrakh` fmh

c` prgsght`fköh dg c` bkpötgsks y cms mlogtkvms. @c cggr c` khtrmduffköh gc cgftmr 

dglgrá` y` s`lgr pmr quë bkfkgrmh gc gstudkm.


C` Khtrmduffköh gs c` prgsght`fköh dg uh` prgeuht`.
 Dglg gxpckf`r pmrqug sg b` bgfbm gc tr`l`om.

 Dglg prgsght`r gc khtgrës qug tkghg gh gc fmhtgxtm fkghtáikfm.

 Dglg aghfkmh`r cms tr`l`oms prgvkms smlrg gc tga` y quë `spgftms hm dgo`h

fc`rms, qug fmhstktuygh gc mlogtm dg hugstr` khvgstke`fköh.

 Gc ÿctkam pàrr`im dg c` khtrmduffköh sg utkckz` p`r` rgsuakr gc mlogtkvm dgc

gstudkm.

<4
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gxks
Gxkstg
tgh
h dkig
dkigrg
rght
htgs
gs frk
frktg
tgrk
rkms
ms smlr
smlrg
g c` mr
mre`h
e`hkz
kz`fk
`fköh
öh dg c` khtr
khtrmd
mduff
uffkö
köh
h qu
qug
g gc

khvgstke`dmr pugdg tghgr gh fught` gh gc amaghtm dg rgd`ft`rcm.

Gh gc skeukghtg fu`drm pmdgams mlsgrv`r gh imra` `lrgvk`d` y fc`r` gc Gsquga`

dg cms Trgs ^àrr`ims.

Gsquga` Fcàskfm dg Trgs ^àrr`ims

^àrr`im dg Fmhtghkdm
@htgfgdghtgs ½Puë sg s`lg=,
½Puë sg frgg dgc prmlcga`=

^rgeuht` m ^rmlcga`
rgsugctm

Bkpötgsks, agt`, Dgsfrklg pmrqug sg bkzm c`

mlogtkvms khvg
khvgst
stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh
h y sg ou
oust
stki
kikf
kf`
` fm
fmh
h
r`zmhgs dgc `utmr.

Vmlrg c` Khtrmduffköh pmdgams aghfkmh`r skeukghdm ` Ikgrrm y _gpgd` (<>0<) qug

–Gh ëst` sg prgsght` fc`r`aghtg gc quë y gc pmrquë dg c` khvgstke`fköh, khfcuyg gc 

 pc`htg`akghtm dgc prmlcga`, mlogtkvm y prgeuht`s dg c` khvgstke`fköh, `sá fmam c`

 oustkikf`fköh dgc prmlcga`, gc fmhtgxtm eghgr`c dg khvgstke`fköh, föam y döhdg sg

rg`ck
rg`ckzö
zö,, c`s
c`s v`r
v`rk`l
k`lcg
cgs
s dg c` kh
khvg
vgst
stke
ke`fk
`fköh
öh y sus dgik
dgikhk
hkfk
fkmh
mhgs,
gs, `s
`sáá fmam
fmam c`
c`s
s

ckakt`fkmhgs dg ëst`. Vg pugdg khfcukr gc a`rfm dg rgigrghfk` m rgvksköh dg c`

<7
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

cktgr`tur`. Dglg f`pt`r c` `tghfköh dgc cgftmr dgsdg gc prkagr pàrr`im khtrmduftmrkm,

khvkt`hdm g khtgrgs`hdm `c cgftmr ` sgeukr cgyghdm gc dmfuaghtm, fmh uh gstkcm

dkrgftm skh dgo`r gsp`fkm ` mtr`s khtgrprgt`fkmhgs. Gc tga` eghgr`c sg prgsght`

 prmht`aghtg, p`r` cugem p`s`r `c prmlcga` dg khvgstke`fköh, qug gs gc ighöaghm

gspgfá
gspgfáikf
ikfm
m dg khtgrës
khtgrës qug
qug dgl
dglg
g sgr `ftu`c
`ftu`c,, susf
susfgpt
gptklc
klcg
g dg mlsgrv`
mlsgrv`fkö
fköh
h y dg

agdk
agdkfk
fköh,
öh, gs dg
dgfk
fkr,
r, i`
i`ft
ftkl
klcg
cg dg kh
khvg
vgst
stke
ke`r.
`r. Dg
Dglg
lg gxks
gxkstk
tkrr uh`
uh` `a
`apc
pck`
k` rgv
rgvks
kskö
köh
h

lklckmeràikf` dg cm qug sg s`lg `ftu`caghtg gh iuhfköh dg cm pulckf`dm smlrg gc 

 prmlcga`, c` qug dglg sgr rgcgv`htg y rgicgo`r c` khimra`fköh smlrg `htgfgdghtgs

dgc prmlcga` hgfgs`rkm p`r` `pmy`r c` oustkikf`fköh dgc gstudkm. C`s rgigrghfk`s

fkt`d`s gh gc tgxtm dglgh gst`r lkgh dmfuaght`d`s y `ftu`ckz`d`s. ‑ (Vulr`ym)

^`r` i`fkckt`r c` gc`lmr`fköh dg c` Khtrmduffköh pmdgams rgvks`r c`s suegrghfk`s

dg?

½Föam gsfrklkr c` khtrmduffköh dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm=

–Vg tkghg fmam tàftkf` fmaghz`r ` gsfrklkr gc `rtáfucm akghtr`s sg gstà b`fkghdm c`

khvg
khvgst
stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh.
h. C` ikh`
ikh`ck
ckd`
d`d
d dg c` khtr
khtrmd
mduf
uffk
fköh
öh gs su
suak
akhk
hkst
str`
r`rr su
suik
ikfk
fkgh
ghtg
tgs
s

`htgfgdghtgs p`r` qug gc cgftmr pugd` fmaprghdgr y gv`cu`r cms rgsuct`dms dgc 

gstud
gstudkm
km skh
skh hg
hgfgs
fgskd
kd`d
`d dg fmhs
fmhsuc
uct`
t`rr pulc
pulckf
kf`fk
`fkmh
mhgs
gs `htg
`htgrk
rkmrg
mrgs
s `c tg
tga`
a`.. Dg
Dglg
lg

 prgsght`r t`alkëh gc iuhd`aghtm r`fkmh`c dgc gsquga` ghfka` dg tmdm, b`y qug

a`hkigst`r lrgvg y fc`r`aghtg fuàc gs prmlcga` `c gsfrklkr gc `rtáfucm. B`y qug

<9
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

gcge
gcgekr
kr c`s
c`s rgig
rgigrgh
rghfk
fk`s
`s fukd
fukd`dm
`dms`
s`ag
aght
htg
g y suak
suakhk
hkst
str`
r`rr cms `htg
`htgfg
fgdgh
dghtg
tgs
s aà
aàs
s

kapmrt`htgs.‑

–Gc `utmr \mlgrt D`y suekgrg c`s skeukghtgs rgec`s p`r` b`fgr uh` khtrmduffköh?

0. Gxpm
Gxpmhgr
hgr pr
prka
kagrm
grm,, fmh
fmh tm
tmd`
d` c` fc
fc`r
`rkd
kd`d
`d pmsk
pmsklc
lcg
g c` h`tur`
h`tur`cg
cgz`
z` y gc 

`cf`hfg dgc prmlcga` khvgstke`dm.

<. \gvks`r c`s pulckf`fkmhgs pgrtkhghtgs p`r` mrkght`r `c cgftmr.

6 Khdk
Khdkf`
f`rr gc aëtm
aëtmdm
dm dg khvg
khvgst
stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh
h sk sg gstk
gstka`
a` hg
hgfg
fgs`
s`rk
rkm,
m, sg

gxpmhdràh c`s r`zmhgs p`r` gcgekr uh aëtmdm dgtgrakh`dm.

4 Aghfkmh`r cms prkhfkp`cgs rgsuct`dms dg c` khvgstke`fköh.

7 Gxprgs`r c` fmhfcusköh m fmhfcuskmhgs prkhfkp`cgs suegrkd`s pmr cms

rgsuct`dms.‑ (Tma`dm dg? bttp?//www.amhmer`ik`s.fma/tr`l`oms<4/gsfrklkr-y-

pulckf`r/gsfrklkr-y-pulckf`r.sbtac#kxzz6<MLu>^2b)

Gogapcm dg khtrmduffköh?

KHT\MDWFFKMH

Cgftur`s fmam c`s prmpugst`s pmr gc prmigsmr Ëde`r @rdkc`0 y tr`l`oms ` prmiuhdkd`d fmam

cms `dgc`ht`dms pmr Lm`vghtur` dg Vmuz` V`htms (0;;0) sgð`c`h c`s cöekf`s y r`fkmh`ckd`dgs

qug
qug mlck
mlcke`
e`hh gh gc a`rf
a`rfmm dg c` ecml
ecml`c
`ckz
kz`f
`fkö
köhh ` rg
rgim
imra
ra`r
`r c` gs
gstr
truf
uftu
tur`
r` dg
dgcc Gs
Gst`
t`dm
dm,,

 prkhfkp`caghtg, c` `dakhkstr`fköh dg oustkfk`. Gh gstg fmhtgxtm, c` frg`fköh dg khstruaghtms

<5
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

`ctgrh`tkvms p`r` c` rgsmcufköh dg fmhickftms lusf` dgamfr`tkz`r c` smfkgd`d, `fgrf`hdm gc

dgrgfbm ` c`s fmauhkd`dgs

fmauhkd`dgs aàs hgfgsk
hgfgskt`d`s,
t`d`s, `fgpt`hdm
`fgpt`hdm gc pcur`cksam ourádkfm.
ourádkfm. 0 Yë`sg pmr 

go., @rdkc`. G. Fmauhkd`d, Fmhickftm y Fmhfkck`fköh gh Gqukd`d. Whkd`d dg Oustkfk`, \gd dg

Vmckd`rkd`d. Lmemtà. 0;;4. @rdkc`, ^`r` uh` gv`cu`fköh dgc ^rmer`a` dg Fmhfkck`fköh gh

gqukd
gqukd`d.
`d. Lm
Lmem
emtà
tà.. 0;;7.
0;;7. 026\
026\G^
G^\G
\GVG
VGHT
HT@F
@FKM
KMHG
HGV
V VMFK@
VMFK@CG
CGV
V GH TM
TM\H
\HM
M @C

FMHF
FMHFG^
G^TM
TM DG GPWK
GPWKD@
D@D
D [ OW
OWVT
VTKF
KFK@
K@ DG CMV
CMV FMHF
FMHFKC
KCK@
K@DM
DM\G
\GV
V [ C@
C@V
V

FMHF
FMHFKC
KCK@
K@DM
DM\@
\@V
V GH GPWK
GPWKD@
D@D
D DG C@
C@V
V WHKD
WHKD@D
@DGV
GV DG AG
AGDK
DK@F
@FKM
KMH
H [

FMHFKCK@FKMH DG LMEMT@ HM\B[V GVTBG\ TM\\GE\MV@ OKAGHG_ AKVKMH

OW\KDKF@ AKVKMH OW\KDK \GYKVT@ DG DG\GFBM [ FKGHFK@V VMFK@CGV KVVH

05;4-9>>R HWAG\M < ghgrm - dkfkgalrg dg <>>; F@ Cms agf`hksams fmauhkt`rkms g

khstktufkm
khstktufkmh`cgs
h`cgs dg smcufk
smcufköh
öh dg fmhickftms,
fmhickftms, fmam c` fmhfkck`fköh
fmhfkck`fköh gh gqukd`d,
gqukd`d, rgprgsght`h
rgprgsght`h uh

kapmrt`htg `v`hfg gh c` fmhfgpfköh dgamfràtkf` dgc Gst`dm, gh t`htm lrkhd`h c` pmsklkckd`d

dg tr`a
tr`akt
kt`r
`r cms
cms fmh
fmhic
ickf
kftm
tmss ` p`rtk
p`rtkrr dg cm
cmss v`cm
v`cmrg
rgs,
s, cm
cmss us
usms
ms y c`
c`ss fm
fmst
stua
ualrg
lrgss dg c`
c`ss

fmauhkd`dgs y hm dgsdg c` agr` imra`ckd`d dgc Dgrgfbm. Gh t`c sghtkdm, sg dglgh pmtghfk`r 

c`s ikeur`s qug b`h skdm rgfmhmfkd`s ourádkf`aghtg gh Fmcmalk` fmam cms Fmhfkck`dmrgs gh

Gqukd`d, qukghgs ` tr`vës dg prmfgdkakghtms khimra`cgs y aàs àekcgs y dgc usm dgc frktgrkm

dg gqukd`d p`r` gc `lmrd`og dg fmhickftms, hm smcm i`fkckt`h cms `fugrdms, skhm qug rgfmhmfgh

y `ftu`ckz`h cms v`cmrgs kapgr`htgs gh su agdkm, cm qug dmt` dg iugrz` amr`c sus dgfkskmhgs

m `fugrdms, fmhtrkluyghdm fmh gstm ` c` fmbgsköh smfk`c. Gst` khvgstke`fköh sg gha`rf`

dghtrm dg gstg hugvm prmfgsm y sg prmpmhg fmhmfgr fuàcgs smh c`s rgprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs

qug sg b`h fmhstrukdm gh rgc`fköh ` cms fmhfgptms dg oustkfk` y gqukd`d dgsdg gc(`)

fmhfkck`dmr(`) gh gqukd`d. Cms rgsuct`dms `cf`hz`dms mtmre`h sghtkdm ` c` imra` fmam sg

<2
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

b`h `rt
`rtkfu
kfuc`d
c`dmm c`s dkigrgh
dkigrghtgs
tgs rgprgsgh
rgprgsght`f
t`fkmh
kmhgs
gs qug imra
imra`h
`h p`rtg
p`rtg dg c` oustk
oustkfk`
fk` y qug

fmhstktuygh c` mrkght`fköh dg c`s `ffkmhgs gh gc gogrfkfkm dg su iuhfköh fmam fmhfkck`dmrgs.

Gc gst`lcgfkakghtm dg rgc`fkmhgs agdk`d`s pmr gc sghtkdm dg cm qug gs oustm b` kdm tma`hdm

a`ymr prmt`emhksam gh c`s dgfkskmhgs qug `igft`h c` vkd` dg aufbms lmemt`hms qug,

dk`rk`aghtg, `fudgh ` rgsmcvgr sus fmhickftms pgrsmh`cgs, smfk`cgs y fmauhkt`rkms gh c`s

uhkd`dgs dg agdk`fköh y fmhfkck`fköh.

<;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

A`tgrk`c y Aëtmdms

Dglg rgspmhdgr ` c` prgeuht`? ½Föam sg bkzm=

Dglg d`r dgt`ccg dg tmdms cms p`sms qug sg skeukgrmh p`r` mltghgr cms rgsuct`dms y

dg cms a`tgrk`cgs us`dms.

Dg c` Tmrrg (0;24), dgikhg `c aëtmdm fmam gc amdm dg prmfgdgr m gc prmfgdkakghtm

sgeukdm gh c`s fkghfk`s p`r` b`cc`r c` vgrd`d y dgamstr`rc`: fmhstktuyghdm `sá, gc

dksgðm dg c` khvgstke`fköh. C` agtmdmcmeá` dglg sgr rgprmdufklcg: sk gc aëtmdm gs

fmhmfkdm söcm sg aghfkmh` y sg prgfks` c` fkt` lklckmeràikf` y sk gs hugvm m

fmrr
fmrrgs
gspm
pmhd
hdg
g ` uh aëtmd
ëtmdm
m fmhm
fmhmfk
fkdm
dm pg
pgrrm am
amdk
dkiikf`d
kf`dm,
m, dg
dglg
lg gx
gxpc
pckf
kf`r
`rsg
sg

dgt`cc`d`aghtg.

C` sgffköh dg a`tgrk`cgs y aëtmdms sg pugdg mre`hkz`r gh fkhfm (7) àrg`s

(`rr`hjks.gs, <>0<)?

@\G@V A@TG\K@CGV [ AËTMDMV

Dksgðm Vg dgdgsfr
sfrkl
klg
g gc dksg
dksgðm
ðm dg
dgcc gxpg
gxpgrka
rkaght
ghtm
m (`cg`
(`cg`tmtmrkm
rkm,,
fmht
fmhtrm
rmcc`d
`dm,
m, f`f`sm
smss y fm fmht
htrm
rmcg
cgs,
s, gh ghs`
s`yym fcáfcáhkfm
hkfm,,
prmspgftkvm, gtf.).
^mlc`fköh Dgsfrklg gc a`rfm dg c` augstr` smlrg c` qug sg b`
bgfbm gc gstudkm y föam sg b` bgfbm su sgcgffköh.
Ghtmrhm Khdkf` döhdg sg b` bgfbm gc gstudkm.
Khtgrvghfkmhgs Dgsfrkl
Dgsf rklgh
gh c`s tëf
tëfhkf
hkf`s,
`s, tr`t`a
tr`t`akgh
kghtms
tms,, agdkfk
agdkfkmhg
mhgss y
uhkd`dgs, prugl`s pkcmtm, `p`r`tms y tgfhmcmeá`, gtf. Vg
dglgh us`r hmalrgs eghërkfms.
@hàcksks gst`dástkfm Khdkf` aëtmdms gst`dástkfms utkckz`dms y föam sg b`h
`h`ckz`dms cms d`tms.
Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm pmr c` l`s`dm gh Dg c` Tmrrg \? Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm gh
ucg/`rt.bta,, tma`dm gc 7 dg sgptkgalrg dg <>0 <.
bttp?//www.`rr`jks.gs/~fucg/`rt.bta
bttp?//www.`rr`jks.gs/~f

6>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gsuct`dms

Cms rgsuct`dms dglgh?

Gxprgs`r cms rgsuct`dms dg cms gxpgrkaghtms

dgsfrktms gh gc A`tgrk`c y Aëtmdms

^rgsght`r c`s prugl`s qug `pmy`h dkfbms

rgsuct`dms, sg` gh imra` dg ikeur`s, t`lc`s m gh gc
aksam tgxtm

Gc prkagr pàrr`im dglg rgsuakr gh uh` ir`sg fmhfks`, fc`r` y dkrgft`, gc b`cc`zem

prkhfkp`c dgc gstudkm.

Gst` sgffköh dglg sgr gsfrkt` utkckz`hdm cms vgrlms gh p`s`dm.

Khfcuyg t`lc`s y ikeur`s qug gxprgsgh dg imra` fc`r` cms rgsuct`dms dgc gstudkm

rg`ckz`dm pmr gc khvgstke`dmr.

60
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Dksfusköh

Vuegrghfk`s smlrg c` dksfusköh?

 Fmakghfg c` Dksfusköh fmh c` rgspugst` ` c` prgeuht` dg c` Khtrmduffköh.

 ^rgs
^rgsgh
ghtg
tg khag
khagdk
dk`t
`t`a
`agh
ghtg
tg cms
cms rgsu
rgsuctct`d
`dms
ms fmh
fmh c`s
c`s prug
prugl`
l`ss qu
qug
g cms
cms

fmrrmlmr`h.

Gsfrkl
Gsfrkl`
` gst`
gst` sgffk
sgffköh
öh gh prprgsg
gsghthtgg pm
pmrqu
rqug
g cms
cms b`
b`cccc`ze
`zems
ms dg
dgcc tr
tr`l
`l`o
`om
m sg
fmhskdgr`h y`, gvkdghfk` fkghtáikf`.

 ^rgsgh
^rgsghtg
tg y fma
fmaght
ghtg
g fc`
fc`r`a
r`aght
ghtg,
g, gh cue`r
cue`r dg mfuct`
mfuct`rcm
rcms,
s, cms rgs
rgsuct
uct`dms
`dms

`höa
höa`c
`cms
ms,, dà
dàhd
hdmc
mcgs
gs uh
uh`
` gx
gxpc
pckf
kf`f
`fkö
köh
h cm aà
aàss fmbg
fmbgrg
rght
htg
g pm
pmssklcg
klcg m

skapcgaght
skapcgaghtg,
g, dkfkghdm qug gstm gs cm qug sg b` ghfmht
ghfmhtr`dm,
r`dm, `uhqug pmr gc

amaghtm, hm sg vg` gxpckf`fköh.

 Gspgfucg y tgmrkfg fmh ka`ekh`fköh y cöekf`.

 Khfcuy` c`s rgfmaghd`fkmhgs qug frg` mpmrtuh`s, sk gs `prmpk`dm.

 Gvktg s`f`r aàs fmhfcuskmhgs dg c`s qug sus rgsuct`dms pgrakt`h.

6<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s m Lklckmer`iá`

Gh c` Euá` p`r` c` \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms dgstkh`dms ` c` ^ulckf`fköh,

Vgeuhd` Gdkfköh, dg c` Mre`hkz`fköh dg c`s H`fkmhgs Whkd`s p`r` c` Gduf`fköh,

gh gc puhtm 9. FKT@V [ \GIG\GHFK@V, sg aghfkmh`?

–9.0. Cms tr`l`oms `htgrkmrgs pulckf`dms smlrg gc aksam tga` dglgh sgr 

mlog
mlogtm
tm dg rgi
rgigrg
grghfk
hfk`s
`s lklc
lklckm
kmer
erài
àikf
kf`s
`s gx
gxpc
pcáf
áfkt
kt`s
`s fu`hd
fu`hdm
m ëst`
ëst`s
s sg`h
sg`h

hgfgs
hgfgs`r
`rk`
k`s
s p`
p`r`
r` pm
pmhgr
hgr dg a`
a`hk
hkik
ikgst
gstm
m gc prm
prmer
ergsm
gsm qug su
supm
pmhgh
hgh cm
cms
s

hugvms tr`l`oms y rgsuct`dms p`r` gc fmhmfkakghtm dgc tga`. Gh gs`s

rgigrghfk`s sg gxprgs`rà gc dglkdm fmhmfkakghtm dg cms tr`l`oms qug

b`y`h pgraktkdm rg`ckz`r c` hugv` `pmrt`fköh.

  9.<. Gh eghgr`c, söcm b`y qug aghfkmh`r tr`l`oms pulckf`dms y gh

 prkhfkpkm, dglgh `l`rf`rsg tmd`s c`s iughtgs mpmrtuh`s khfcukd`s gh

gst` f`tgemrá`. Vg b`rà rgigrghfk` t`alkëh ` cms tr`l`oms `fgpt`dms

 p`r` su pulckf`fköh m dg dmakhkm pÿlckfm skh b`h skdm utkckz`dms pmr gc 

`uttmr
`u mr.. Dglg
Dglg gv
gvkt
kt`r
`rsg
sg,, dght
dghtrm
rm dg cm pmsk
pmsklc
lcg,
g, tm
tmd`
d` rg
rgiigr
grgh
ghfk
fk`
` `

fmauhkf`fkmhgs y dmfuaghtms prkv`dms dg dkiusköh ckakt`d` (gs dgfkr,

hm uhkvgrs`caghtg `ffgsklcgs).

66
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Hm sg tr`t` dg prmbklkr c`s `cuskmhgs ` ghtrgvkst`s m fmauhkf`fkmhgs

 prkv`d`s, pgrm gs fkgrt`aghtg khoustkikf`dm `pmy`r uh` `ikra`fköh m uh`

tgmrá` gh uh` ghtrgvkst` hm fmhtrmc`d`.

9.6. C`s rgigrghfk`s dglgh khdkf`rsg gh gc tgxtm agdk`htg uh` fkt` qug

sg` cm aàs lrgvg pmsklcg y qug fmrrgspmhd` ` uh` rgigrghfk` fmapcgt`

gh c` ckst` dg rgigrghfk`s qug ikeur` `c ikh`c dgc tr`l`om. Wh` fkt` gh gc 

tgxtm pugdg fmhskstkr

fmhskstkr gh gc hmalrg dgc `utmr (m dg cms `utmrgs) y gc `ðm

dg pulckf`fköh, ` cm qug fmrrgspmhdgrà uh `rtáfucm qug fmakghfg fmh

cms
cms ak
aksa
sams
ms d`t
d`tms
ms gh c` ckst
ckst`
` dg rgigrg
rgigrghf
hfk`
k`s,
s, dk
dksp
spug
ugst
stm
m gh mr
mrdgh
dgh

`ci`lët
`ci`lëtkfm
kfm (y frmhmcö
frmhmcöekf
ekf`ag
`aghtg
htg,, sk sg b`fg
b`fg rgigrgh
rgigrghfk`
fk` ` aàs dg uh

tr`l`om
tr`l`om dgc aksam `ut
`utmr).
mr). Gstg skstga`
skstga` gs gc aàs gremhöakfm,
gremhöakfm, t`htm
t`htm

 p`r` gc `utmr fmam p`r` gc cgftmr? gc gcgaghtm ahgaöhkfm dg c` fkt` qug

aghfkmh` `c `utmr y gc `ðm dg pulckf`fköh pgraktg gvkt`r c` fmhsuct`

irgfughtg dg c` ckst` dg rgigrghfk`s.

Gh c`s
c`s pu
pulc
lckkf`fk
f`fkmh
mhgs
gs fkght
kghtááikf`
ikf`s
s sg ske
keug
ugh
h gapc
gapcg`
g`hd
hdm
m mt
mtrm
rms
s

 prmfgdkakghtms, dgsdg c`s rgigrghfk`s `c pkg dg pàekh` (qug, pmr hm sgr 

gfmhöa
gfmhöakf`
kf`s
s hk grem
gremhöak
höakf`s
f`s,, dglg
dglgh
h gvkt`r
gvkt`rsg
sg tmt`ca
tmt`caght
ghtg),
g), b`st`
b`st` c`s

hmtt`s dg rg
hm rgig
igrg
rghf
hfkk` `c ikh`c
kh`c dg
dgcc tg
tgxt
xtm
m y c`s fk
fktt`s hua
huagr
gr`d
`d`s
`s,,

fmrrgspmhdkghtgs ` ckst`s dg rgigrghfk`s hm `ci`lëtkf`s m `ci`lëtkf`s.

Tmdms gstms skstga`s rgqukgrgh uh` cgftur` gh dms cue`rgs dkigrghtgs.‑

64
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Vg fkt`rà sgeÿh c` hmra`tkv` gxkekd` pmr c` rgvkst` gcgekd` m c` Gdktmrk`c fkghtáikf`.

Gxkstg
Gxkstgh
h dki
dkigrgh
grghtgs
tgs hmra
hmra`s
`s rgf
rgfmhmf
mhmfkd`
kd`ss khtgrh
khtgrh`fk
`fkmh`
mh`cag
caghtg
htg y qug dgl
dglgh
gh sgr 

tghkd`s gh fught` pmr gc khvgstke`dmr.

Ghtrg c`s hmra`s aàs us`d`s sg ghfughtr`h?

 Y@HFMWYG\.
  @^@.
 B@\Y@\D.
 Hmra`s Ful`h`s.
 Gdktmrk`c @f`dgak`.

C`s rgi
rgigrgh
grghfk`
fk`ss lkl
lklckm
ckmerà
eràikf
ikf`s
`s sug
sugcgh
cgh sgr us`d
us`d`s
`s gh cms cklrms
cklrms `f`
`f`dëa
dëakfm
kfmss m

tëfhkfms, `sá fmam gh ghs`yms. Vg dglgh khfcukr c`s rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s sk sg

gstà fkt`hdm tgxtu`caghtg m b`fkghdm rgigrghfk` `ceÿh `utmr m kdg` (khfcusm dg uh

cklrm m `rtáfucm prmpkm). Hm b`fgrcm pugdg sgr fmhskdgr`dm fmam pc`ekm y pugdg

tghgr fmhsgfughfk`s cge`cgs. (Vulr`ym)

Khfcuk
Khfcukrr c`s rgi
rgigrgh
grghfk`
fk`ss lkl
lklckm
ckmerài
eràikf`
kf`ss pgr
pgrakt
aktg
g rgi
rgimrz`
mrz`rr c`s kdg
kdg`s
`s qug sg gstàh
gstàh

prml`hdm, iuhd`aght`hdm, prmpmhkghdm m –rgiut`hdm‑. Cms cgftmrgs dglgh pmdgr 

ghfmhtr`r iàfkcaghtg gs`s rgigrghfk`s p`r` prmiuhdkz`r su cgftur`, pmr gsm, c`s

rgigrghfk`s dglgh sgr gx`ft`s. (Cklrms.vkdghu`cgs -hmra`s-`p`, <>0<)

67
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gc hkvgc dg `ftu`ckz`fköh dgc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm sg dgtgrakh`rà `tghdkghdm ` c`s

lklc
lklckm
kmer
er`i
`iá`
á`ss fmhs
fmhsuc
uct`
t`d`
d`ss y qu
qug
g sg ghfu
ghfugh
ghtr
trgh
gh gh cms
cms ÿctk
ÿctkam
amss 7 `ð
`ðms
ms dg

pulckf`fköh.

Gxkstgh dkigrghtgs hmra`s p`r` prgsght`r gs`s rgigrghfk`s. Aghfkmh`ams trgs

kapmrt
kapmrt`ht
`htgs?
gs? c`s hmra`s
hmra`s @^@
@^@,, c`s hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em 
Fbkf`em   y c`s

hmra`s KFMHTGF.
KFMHTGF. (Cklrms.vkdghu`cgs -hmra`s-`p`, <>0<)

69
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gigrghfk`s Lklckmeràikf`s

 @rtkcgs Yksl`c, C. (0;;7). Khstktutm Vupgrkmr dg Fkghfk`s Aëdkf`s dg C` B`l`h` , Fkud`d dg C`

B`l`h`, Ful`.

F`ss`hy, D. (<>>9). C` fmfkh` dg c` gsfrktur`. 06 gdkfkmhgs. (Fmcgffköh @reuaghtms),

 @h`er`a`, L`rfgcmh`, Gsp`ð`?.

Fmaktë Khtgrh`fkmh`c dg Dkrgftmrgs dg \gvkst`s Aëdkf`s. (<>>>) \gquksktms p`r` prgp`r`r

p rgp`r`r
a`husfrktms ghvk`dms ` rgvkst`s lkmaëdkf`s. \gvkst` ^`h`agrkf`h` dg V`cud ^ÿlckf` / ^`h
^ulckf Bg`ctb.
 @agrkf`h ^ulckf

D`y \. (0;;>). Föam gsfrklkr y pulckf`r tr`l`oms fkghtáikfms. U`sbkhetmh? Mre`hkz`fköh

^`h`agrkf`h` dg c` V`cud. (^ulckf`fköh Fkghtáikf`: Hm. 7<9) .

D`y \. y Mlgrt \. (0;;9) Fmam gsfrklkr y pulckf`r tr`l`oms fkghtáikfms. <ª gd. Gh Gsp`ðmc.
U`sbkhetmh. Mre`hkz`fköh ^`h`agrkf`h` dg c` V`cud. (^ulckf`fköh fkghtáikf` 772). Gstkvkcc,
 @ssuapfkö y Wrl`hm, Frkstöl`c. Fmam
Fmam fkt`r rgfursms gcgftröhkfms.
gcgftröhkfms.

Dg c` Tmrrg, \. (0;24) Föam prgsght`r gc f`pátucm dg a`tgrk`c y aëtmdms. Fmhigrghfk` W.H.@.A.

Aëxkfm.

Igrrkmcs \, Igrrkmcs I. (<>>7). Gsfrklkr y pulckf`r

pulck f`r uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm mrkekh`c. Gdkfkmhgs A`ym,
V.@. @rkl`u, L`rfgcmh` Vgerg, A`drkd.

Icmwgr, C. (0;2;). ^rmlcga-Vmcvkhe Vtr`tgekgs imr Urktkhe. Gh? F`ss`hy, c` fmfkh` dg c` gsfrktur`,
 @h`er`a`,L`rfgcmh`, Gsp`ð`?
B`aluregr, @cv`rm. (<>0>) Gsfrklkr p`r` mlogtkvkz`r gc s`lgr? föam prmdufkr `rtáfucms, cklrms,
rgsgð`s y tgxtms. (Mrkght`fkmhgs p`r` prmigsmrgs uhkvgrskt`rkms). Lmemtà? Whkvgrskd`d dg C` V`ccg.

Ksbky`a` Fgrv`htgs, \`ÿc. (0;;2) Gc sgakccgrm fkghtáikfm. Fmhfytgf Lmcgtáh Khimra`tkvm ouckm.

Ksbky`a` Fgrv`htgs, \`ÿc. (0;;;) ^`ut`s p`r` c` pulckf`fköh dg `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms. Cka`?
Whkvgrskd`d ^gru`h` F`ygt`hm Bgrgdk`.

AfAkcc`h, Ykftmrk` G. (0;;5) Urktkhe ^`pgrs kh tbg Lkmcmekf`c Vfkghfgs. Lmstmh?

Lgdimrd Lmmjs.

Agrtmh \J. (0;27) C`

C` smfkmcmeá` dg c` fkghfk`. @ck`hz` Gdktmrk`c. A`drkd.

\`aöh y@ustr`c:
(Fmcgffköh F`o`c, V.
Hm.(0;50).
<<5). Cms töhkfms dg
d g c` vmcuht`d. ; gd. A`drkd? Gsp`s`-F`cpg, 0;50?06>.

65
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gca`h, @. (0;;6). \`zmhgs p`r` sgr rgvksmr. Dmfuaghtm prgp`r`dm p`r` gc KK T`ccgr H`fkmh`c
dg \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms. U`sbkhetmh? Mre`hkz`fköh ^`h`agrkf`h` dg c` V`cud.

\ussgcc dg E`ckh`, O. (0;27). Gc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm. Fmhigrghfk` W.H.@. Bgrgdk`.

Vkcv`, E. (0;;>). C` `utmrá` aÿctkpcg y c` `utmrá` khoustkikf`d` gh cms `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms. Lmc Mi
V`hkt ^`h`a.

WHGVFM. (0;26). Euá` p`r` c` rgd`ffköh dg `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms dgstkh`dms ` c` pulckf`fköh. <
gd. ^`rás? WHGVFM.

_ulkz`rrgt`, @ra`hdm I. (0;;2). C` `vghtur` dgc tr`l`om khtgcgftu`c. Aëxkfm, D.I.?

Imhdm Gduf`tkvm Khtgr`agrkf`hm.

Ugler`iá`

 @agrkf`h ^syfbmcmekf`c @ssmfk`tkmh. (<>>;). ^ulckf`tkmh a`hu`c mi tbg @agrkf`h ^syfbmcmekf`c

 @ssmfk`tkmh. U`sbkhetmh, DF? @agrkf`h ^syfbmcmekf`c @ssmfk`tkmh. Gc F`stgcc`hm. (h.d.). ^c`ekm.
Gxtr`ádm
Gxtr`ádm gh A`rz
A`rzmm 0, <>00, dg bttp?
bttp?//www
//www.gcf`s
.gcf`stgcc`h
tgcc`hm.mr
m.mre/p`c`
e/p`c`lr`.
lr`.pbp=kd1
pbp=kd1;75
;75 B`rv`
B`rv`rd
rd C`w
\gvkgw @ssmfk`tkmh. (<>>7).

Tbg Lcuglmmj. @ Whkimra Vystga mi Fkt`tkmh. F`alrkdeg, A`ss`fbusgtts? B`rv`rd C`w \gvkgw
 @ssmfk`tkmh. B`rvgy, E. (<>>>). Urktkhe wktb smurfgs. @ eukdg imr B`rv`rd studghts. Khdk`h`pmcks?
B`fjgtt ^ulcksbkhe Fmap`hy. ^mhtkikfk` Whkvgrskd`d O`vgrk`h`. (<>>;). Hmra`s dg pulckf`fköh.
Khtgrh`tkmh`c C`w, 07, 64;-69>.

bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-
bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gst kcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-
`p`/
(@d`pt`dm dgc tr`l`om pulckf`dm pmr A. B. \`ams
\` ams gh \gvkst` dg ^mser`dm dg c` YK Fàtgdr` dg
Agdkfkh`, 0<9 (<>>6)? 0-6.), Gh bttp?//www.uer.gs/~ikcmsmik`/rgfursms/khhmv`fkmh/fmhvm-
<>>7/tr`l`om-gsfrktm/fmam-gstruftur`r-c`-rgd`ffkmh-dg-uh-`rtkfucm.bta,, tma`dm gh <7 dg `emstm dg
<>>7/tr`l`om-gsfrktm/fmam-gstruftur`r-c`-rgd`ffkmh-dg-uh-`rtkfucm.bta
<>0<.
Föam fkt`r rgfursms gcgftröhkfms. Gh? bttp?//F?/UKHDMUV/TGA^/U^A$52>;.
bttp?//F?/UKHDMUV/TGA^/U^A$52>;.BTA0;;5. BTA0;;5.
 @ffgsm gc 6> dg A`ym 0;;5. Ygrsköh 0.>.

½Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm= Dkspmhklcg gh?

www.`cfagmh.fma.`r/04/74/00]Hgrgyd`.pdi .  @ffgsm gc <> dg hmvkgalrg dg <>00
<>00

Fmhsgoms p`r` rgd`ft`r uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm* Dkspmhklcg gh?

0;>.40.02;.<0>/mikfkh`s/.../@rtkfuc
0;>.40.02;.<0>/mikfkh`s/.../@rtkfucm%<>Fkghtkikfm%<>\gd`ffkmh.pdi @ffgsm gc <> dg hmvkgalrg dg
m%<>Fkghtkikfm%<>\gd`ffkmh.pdi
<>00.

Föam gsfrklkr `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms iàfkcaghtg Dkspmhklcg gh?

www.scd.fu/e`cgrk`s/pdi/sktkms/.../062v09h>4`06>64<79pdi>>0.pdi   @ffgsm gc <> dg hmvkgalrg
dg <>00

FÖAM GVF\KLK\ WH @\TÁFWCM FKGHTÁIKFM Dkspmhklcg gh?

62
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

skslkl.uhasa.gdu.pg/lklvkrtu`cd`t`/
skslkl.uhasa.gdu.pg/lklvkrtu`cd`t`/pulckf`fkmhgs/.../`rt]khtgrgs0.pdi @ffgsm gc <> dg hmvkgalrg
pulckf`fkmhgs/.../`rt]khtgrgs0.pdi
dg <>00

Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm gh bttp?//www.`rr`jks.gs/~fucg/`rt.bta,

bttp?//www.`rr`jks.gs/~fucg/`rt.bta, tma`dm gc 7 dg
sgptkgalrg dg <>0<.

Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm,
gstkcm, Gstkcms dg rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s ‖ Hmra`s KFMHTGF, ^ulckf`dm gc <2
`emstm, <>00 pmr
<>00 pmr `utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma, gh bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<2/gstkcms-
dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-kfmhtgf/,, tma`dm gc <4 dg ouckm dg <>0<.
dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-kfmhtgf/
Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm.
gstkcm. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em, ^ulckf`dm gc 4 sgptkgalrg, <>00 
<>00 
pmr `utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma, bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdkt
bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>;/>4/gst
mrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>;/>4/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
kcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-dg-c`-uhkvgrskd`d-dg-fbkf`em/

Gc`lmr`fköh dg uh @rtáfucm Fkghtáikfm dg Khvgstke`fköh. \gsg`rfb Vfkghtkikf @rtkfcg? jhmw bmw.

Gcgh` Bghráqugz Ikgrrm y A`rá` Khës _gpgd` Emhzàcgz gh 0;>.40.02;.<0>/mikfkh`s/.../@rtkfucm
%<>Fkghtkikfm%<>Gc`lmr`fkmh.p...
%<>Fkghtkikfm%<>Gc`lmr`fkmh.p... tma`dm 9 dg sgptkgalrg dg <>0< 

IM\A@TM FKGHTÁIKFM DG ^\WGL@V. bttp?//www.a`trkxbkik.fma/agtmdmcmek`<.bta tma`dm gc

4 dg sgptkgalrg dg <>0<
Euá` p`r` c` \gd`ffköh dg @rtáfucms
@rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms dgstkh`dms ` c` ^ulckf`fköh, Vgeuhd` Gdkfköh,
^rmer`a` Eghgr`c
Gduf`fköh, dg yKhimra`fköh
c` Fkghfk` c` Fuctur`, y\gvks`d`
WHKVKVT,y Mre`hkz`fköh dg@hdgrs
`ftu`ckz`d` pmr @c`s H`fkmhgs
hdgrs Whkd`s
A`rtkhssmh, p`r`A`ym
^`rás. c` dg
0;26
bttp?//cklrms.vkdghu`cgs.fma/pdi-hmra`s-`p`-<>0</

Hmra`s @^@ `pckf`lcgs ` c` prgsght`fköh dg `rtáfucms p`r` c` \gvkst` Fmcmalk`h` dg Gduf`fköh

(Tma`dm dg www.amhmer`ik`s.fma)

Hmra`s KFMHTGF bttp?//www.sckdgsb`rg.hgt/agf`stkccm9/hmra`s-kfmhtgf-prgsg

bttp?//www.sckdgsb`rg.hgt/agf`stkccm9/hmra`s-kfmhtgf-prgsght`tkmh.
ht`tkmh. ^`ekh`
UGL www.wkjkpgdk`.fma, ^ulckf`dm pmr Fmauhk-@rq gh <>?><

\kmhd` \`aárgz, Omreg Ks`urm. \gfmaghd`fkm

\gfmaghd`fkmhgs hgs agtmdmcöekf`s p`r` b`fgr uh` tgsks m uh
gstudkm dg f`sm. Eu`h`ou`tm, Etm: ` << dg mftulrg dg <>>9. KVVH? 0229-247<. bttp?
//www.guagd.hgt/tgfskstgf`tc/khdgx.bta,
//www.guagd.hgt/tgfskstgf`tc/khdgx.bta, gh bttp? //www.guagd.hgt/rgv/tgfskstgf`tc/h>/okrr0.bta
//www.guagd.hgt/rgv/tgfskstgf`tc/h>/okrr0.bta,,
tma`dm gc << dg a`ym dg <>0<.

Tátucm \gsuagh y p`c`lr` Fc`vg. Khimrag dg Khvgstke`fköh. Gc @rtáfucm

@ rtáfucm Fkghtáikfm. Fmam b`fgr
uh` lugh` rgd`ffköh (y cgftur`). Kvàh Ymovmdkf Bgrhàhdgz. ^rmigsmr ^rkhfkp`c. Whkvgrskd`d V`h
A`rtáh dg ^mrrgs. Gh bttp?//www.sckdgsb`rg.hgt/kvmovmdkf<>>>/tktucm-y-p`c`lr`-fc`vg
bttp?//www.sckdgsb`rg.hgt/kvmovmdkf<>>>/tktucm-y-p`c`lr`-fc`vg.. Tma`dm gc 6 dg
sgptkgalrg dg <>0<.
bttp?//www<.u`b.gs/oaf/wglpul/L<.btac

WHGVFM? Euá` p`r` c` rgd`ffköh dg `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms dgstkh`dms ` c` pulckf`fköh. < gd.
^`rás WHGVFM: 0;26.

 @cmhsm-Vmcgr A, Hgrgyd` ^kðgkrm-Vuàrgz

^kðgkrm-Vuàrgz H? ½Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm
`rtáfucm fkghtáikfm= @cfagmh,
\gvkst` @reghtkh` dg Fcáhkf` Hgurmpskqukàtrkf` <>>5: 09? 59-20.
5 9-20.
xxd`rjp`c`dkhxx,, Oust `hmtbgr Umrd^rgss.fma sktg, gh
xxd`rjp`c`dkhxx
bttp?//xxd`rjp`c`dkhxx.wmrdprgss.fma/<>00/>7/>4/bgccm-wmrcd/

bttp?//www.sfkgcm.fc/sfkgcm.pbp=pkd1V>65>-40>9<>>;>>>0>>>0>&sfrkpt1sfk]`rttgxt, tma`d
bttp?//www.sfkgcm.fc/sfkgcm.pbp=pkd1V>65>-40>9<>>;>>>0>>>0>&sfrkpt1sfk]`rttgxt, ma`dm
m gc
6> dg hmvkgalrg dg <.>00.

6;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm. Gh?www.`hegcikr

www.`hegcikrg.fma/sj/tbgsksbgcp/`rtkf.btac  @ffgsm
 @ffgsm gc <> dg hmvkgalrg
g.fma/sj/tbgsksbgcp/`rtkf.btac 
dg <>00

M^V. Khimra`fköh ` cms `utmrgs g khstruffkmhgs p`r` c` prgsght`fköh dg a`husfrktms. Lmc mi

V`hkt ^`h`a, 0;22. W\C? bttp?//lvs.sc
bttp?//lvs.scd.fu/rgvkst`s/spu/vmc
d.fu/rgvkst`s/spu/vmc60]0]>7/spu>7>0>7.bta
60]0]>7/spu>7>0>7.bta

\gvkst` Ful`h` dg Agdkfkh` Eghgr`c Khtger`c, `lrkc-ouhkm, 0;;7 Vg ghfughtr` dkspmhklcg gh gc

W\C? bttp?//lvs.scd.fu/r
bttp?//lvs.scd.fu/rgvkst`s/aek/vmc00]4];7/aek074;7.bta
gvkst`s/aek/vmc00]4];7/aek074;7.bta

Ymovmd
Ymo vmdkf
kf Bgrhàh
Bgrhàhdgzdgz,, Kvàh.
Kvàh. Tátuc
Tátucm
m \gsuag
\gsuagh
h y p`c
p`c`lr
`lr` Fc`vg. Khimra
` Fc`vg Khimragg dg Khvgst
Khvgstke`
ke`fkö
fköh.
h. Gc
 @rtáfucm Fkghtáikfm. Fmam b`fgr uh` lugh` rgd`ffköh (y cgftur`). ^rmigsmr ^rkhfkp`c. Whkvgrskd`d
V`h A`rtáh dg ^mrrgs. Gh bp?//www.sckdgsb`rg.hgt/kvmovmdkf<>>>/tucm-y-p`c`lr`-fc`vg. Tma`dm gc 6
dg sgptkgalrg dg <>0<.

 @d`pt`dm dgc tr`l`om pulckf`dm pmr A. B. \`ams gh \gvkst` dg ^mser`dm dg c` YK Fàtgdr` dg

Agdkfkh`,
Agdkf kh`, 0<9 (<>>6)? 0-6.),
0-6.), Gh bp?//www.uer.gs/~cmsm`/rgfursms/khhmv`fkmh/fmhvm-<>>7/tr`l`om-
gsfrktm/fmam-gstruftur`r-c`-rgd`ffkmh-dg-uh-`rfucm.bta, tma`dm gh <7 dg `emstm dg <>0<.

bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-
bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-
`p`/

Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm.
gstkcm. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em, ^ulckf`dm gc 4 sgpgalrg, <>00 pmr 
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,, bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>;/>4/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma
lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-dg-c`-uhkvgrskd`d-dg-fbkf`em/

Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm.
gstkcm. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em, ^ulckf`dm gc 4 sgpgalrg, <>00 pmr 
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma, bp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>;/>4/gscms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,
lklckmer`f`s-hmra`s-dg-c`-uhkvgrskd`d-dg-fbkf`em/ \gfupgr`dm gh `lrkc dg <>0<.

Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm,
gstkcm, Gstkcms dg rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s ‖ Hmra`s KFMHTGF, ^ulckf`dm gc  <2
`emstm, <>00  pmr  `utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,, ggh
h bp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<2/gscms-dg-
rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`f`s-hmra`s-kfmhtgf/, tma`dm gc <4 dg ouckm dg <>0<.

4>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 0. \gfmaghd`fkmhgs Agtmdmcöekf`s p`r` b`fgr uh` Tgsks m uh

Gstudkm dg F`sm?

Vg rgfmakghd` us`r c` skeukghtg rgc`fköh fmam ckst` dg fbgqugm. (C` `utmr`)

YG\KIKF@\
0. Gc tr`
tr`l`
l`om
om tkg
tkghghg uuh`
h` ikh
ikh`c
`ckd
kd`d
`d g gog
ogfu
futk
tkv`
v`.. (Fc`
(Fc`r`
r`,, mlog
mlogtktkv`
v`,, prgf
prgfksks`,
`, fmh
fmhfkfks`
s`,,
gxfcuskv`, gxb`ustkv`, fmhfcuyghtg, fmhtuhdghtg y fmhvkhfghtg)
<. Gs pms
pmskt
ktkv
kvm,
m, p prm
rmpm
pmsk
skttkv
kvm,
m, su
sueg
egststkv
kvm,
m, hmra
hmra`t `tkv
kvm
m g kkhd
hdkkf`
f`tk
tkvm
vm..
6. Gc tg
tga` ffm mrrgspmhdg ` aks kkh htgrgsgs ((g gstudk`htg).
4. Gc tg
tga`
a` agag(h (hmsms)) `p`s
`p`skm kmh`
h`,, ((Hm
Hm skeh
skehkikikf
kf`
` c`
c` për
përdkdkd`
d` dg mlog
mlogtktkvk
vkd`
d`dd fkgh
fkghtá
táik
ikf`
f`..
7. C`s
C`s iiug
ught
htgs
gs ` cc`s`s qug
qug rgfrgfur
urrá
rá sm
smh h``sg
sgququkl
klcg
cgs.
s. (G
(Gst
stàh
àh `c `c`cf`
f`hf
hfg g egh
eghgr gr`c
`c (d
(dgc
gc
gstudk`htg).
9. C`s
C`s iug
iught
htgs
gs ` c`sc`s qug
qug rrgfgfur
urrá
rá sm
smh h a`h
a`hgo go`l
`lcg
cgs.
s. (@
(@cc `c
`cf`
f`hf
hfg g ffuc
uctu
tur`
r`cc y
fmaprghsklcg dgc gstudk`htg).
5. Gc fu`d
fu`drmrm aagtgtmdmdmc
mcöe
öekf kfm
m dg
dg c`
c` khv
khvgs
gstk
tke`
e`fkfköh
öh ggst
stàà `c
`c `cf
`cf`h
`hfgfg dg
dg cc`
` gxp
gxpgrgrkg
kghf
hfk`
k` dg
khvgstke`fköh (dgc gstudk`htg).
2. Cms ttg
ga`s g gccgeklcgs ssm mh gsgspgfáikfms.
;. Gc tga
tga` `g gst
stààd dgc
gcka
kakt
kt`d
`dm,m, gh sususs `cf
`cf`h
`hfgfgss y gh su fm fmht
htg
ghkhkdm
dm..

0>..
00
00. G
Cmc stgd
Cms amfua
dmf ` uagh
gs ghtm
pmtms
skl
s cg--dg
. tm
dg tmdm
dm tktkpm
pm-- gst
gstàh
àh dksp
dkspmh mhklklcg
cgss g
ghhu uh`
h` zm
zmh`h` rgrgst
strk
rkhe
hekdkd``y
smh(sgràh) dg iàfkc fmhsuct`.
0<.
0<. C` gcgf
gcgffkfköh
öh dgc
dgc ttga
ga` `p prm
rmfu
fur`r` rgrgsm
smcvcvgr
gr uh dëik dëikfk
fktt dg
dgcc ss`l
`lgr
gr..
06
06.. (W
(Wh`h` khvg
khvgst stke
ke`f
`fkököh h ssgg ffmh
mhskskdg
dgr`r` fk
fkgh
ghtátáikikf`
f` fu
fu`h`hdmdm)) ffua
uapcpcg
g ccms
ms sk
skeu
eukgkght
htgs
gs
rgquksktms?
`) C` khvg
khvgst stke
ke`f
`fkö
köhh vvgr grs`
s` sml
smlrg rg uh mlog
mlogtm tm rg rgfm
fmhmhmfkfklc
lcgg y dgi
dgikhkhkd
kdmm dg
dg tt`c`c am
amdmdm ququgg
t`al
t` alkë këhh sg sg`
` rg rgfm fmhm
hmfk
fklc
lcgg pmrpmr cms cms dgaà dgaàs. s. Gc të tëra
rakh khm
m mlog
mlogtm tm hm tkgh tkghgg
hgfgs`rk`aghtg uh skehkikf`dm iáskfm.
l) C` kh khvg
vgststke
ke`f
`fkö
köhh dg dglglg dgdgfkfkrr sml
smlrg gst gstg g mlog
mlogttm, ffmsms`s `s qug
qug tmd tmd`v
`vá`á` hmhm b`
b`hh skdm
skdm
dkfb
dkfb`s `s,, m lkgh lkgh,, rg rgvk
vks`
s`rr fm fmh h öptk
öptkf`
f` dkig dkigrg
rghthtg
g c`c`ss fmfms`
s`ss qu qugg y` b` b`hh skskdm
dm
aghfkmh`d`s.
f) C` khvgstke`fköh dglg sgr ÿtkc ` cms dgaàs.
C` khvgstke`fköh dglg suakhkstr`r gcgaghtms p`r` c` vgrkikf`fköh m c` rgiut`fköh
dg c`s bkpötgsks qug tr`l`o` y pmr t`htm, tkghg qug suakhkstr`r cms gcgaghtms
hgfgs`rkms p`r` su sgeukakghtm pÿlckfm. Gstg rgquksktm gs iuhd`aght`c.
04.
04. Vg dkfg
dkfg ` `cecem
mh hmm sg b` dkfb dkfbm. m. (V
(Vggd dgl
glg g ss`l`lgrgr qquë
uë sgsg bb``d dkf
kfbm
bm dgdg gsg
gsg ` `ce
cem.
m. Gst
Gst``
gs c` ikh`ckd`d dgc a`rfm tgörkfm).
07.
07. C` kkhvhvgsgstktke`
e`fk
fköh
öh g gss mp
mpmrmrtu
tuh`
h` y pgrtpgrtkhkhghghtgtg.. (Dgl
(Dglg g rgrg`c
`ckz
kz`r
`rsg
sg gh gc gc fmrt
fmrtm
m pc`z
pc`zm m
p`r` qug hm pkgrd` vkeghfk` gc tga` tr`t`dm).
09.
09. C` khvgs
hvgstk tke
e`fkö
`fköh h `l
`lmr mrd`
d` uh tga ga` ` dksf
dksfkpkpckckh`
h`r.
r.
05.
05. Tr
Tr`l
`l`o `o`` uh ttga ga` ` fmhtfmhtgagapm pmràràhg
hgmm (f(fma
mam m sk iiug
ugr`r` uh
uh tgtga`
a` ffcà càsk
skfm
fm y uhm uhm fcà
fcàsk
skfm
fm
fmam sk iugr` fmhtgapmràhgm).
02.
02. Vg b b`f
`fgg gc ttr`r`l`
l`om om ((tm
tmt`
t`cc m p`rf
p`rfk`k`c)
c) dg
dg khvgkhvgst stke
ke`f
`fkö
köh h smlr
smlrg g uh `utm
`utmrr gxtr
gxtr`h
`hogogrm
rm
cgádm gh su kdkma`.
Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm sgeÿh \kmhd` \`aárgz y Omreg Ks`urm. (<>>9).

40
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm <. Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm dg rgvksköh=

tr`l`om pulckf`dm pmr A. B. \`ams gh \gvkst` dg ^mser`dm dg c` YK Fàtgdr` dg Agdkfkh`, (<>>6)  

 @d`pt`dm dgc tr`l`om

Wh `rtáfucm dg rgvksköh gs uh` pulckf`fköh mrkekh`c y su ikh`ckd`d gs gx`akh`r c`

lklc
lklckm
kmer`
er`iá
iá`
` pu
pulc
lckf
kf`d
`d`
` y sktu
sktu`rc
`rc`
` gh fkgrt
fkgrt`
` pgrsp
pgrspgft
gftkv
kv`.
`. Khtg
Khtght
ht`
` skht
skhtgt
gtkz
kz`r
`r cms
cms
rgsuct`dms y fmhfcuskmhgs dkigrghtgs pulckf`fkmhgs (dms m aàs) smlrg uh tga` m
töpkfm dgtgrakh`dm.

Dglg gst`r mre`hkz`d` p`r` qug su `cf`hfg qugdg lkgh dgikhkdm y sus p`rtgs
khtger`htgs ghf`ogh y fmhf`tghgh fmrrgft`aghtg sgeÿh uh mrdgh cöekfm.

^`rtg Dgsfrkpfköh YG\KIKF@\

Khtrmduffköh Vg iko`h cms mlogtkvms dgc tr`l`om
Dgsfrkpfköh dgc Dgsfr
frkklg aëtmdm dg cmf mf``ckz`f
`fkköh,
aëtmdm sgcg
sgcgff
ffkököh
h y gv`c
gv`cu`
u`fk
fköh
öh dg gstu gstudk
dkms
ms
prka`rkms.
Dksfusköh Vg gxpckf`h c`s dkigrghfk`s dg cms
gstudkms prka`rkms.
Fmhfcuskmhgs

Gh fmhsgfughfk`, c` gstruftur` pmdrá` sgr c` skeukghtg?

^`rtg Dgsfrkpfköh YG\KIKF@\

0 Khtrmduffköh y mlogtkvms dgc tr`l`om
< Aëtmdm dg cmf`ckz`fköh, sgcgffköh y gv`cu`fköh
dg gstudkms prka`rkms.
6 Dgs`rrmccm y dksfusköh dgc tga`
4 Fmhfcuskmhgs.

4<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 6. @^@.
@^@. Gogapcms dg hmt`s `c pkg y rgigrg
rgigrghfk`
hfk`

Dg `fugrdm ` bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<0/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-
lklckmer`ikf`s-hmra`s-`p`/

Hmt` `c pkg Lklckmer`iá`

0) Cklrms fmh uh Hmalrg(s) dgc `utmr/ `pgcckdm(s) dgc  @pgcckdm dgc `utmr,
`utmr? `utmr, hmalrg.
Tátucm dgc cklrm Tátucm dgc cklrm.
(Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh? Hmalrg dg Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh?
c` gdktmrk`c, Gdktmrk`c,
`ðm dg pulckf`fköh), `ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
hÿagrms dg pàekh` Zsk sg gstà
fkt`hdm tgxtu`caghtg m sg rgikgrg `
uh` ir`sg m kdg`Q.

Gogapcm? 0.Fb`rcgs Tkccy, Irma Gogapcm? Tkccy, Fb`rcgs. Irma

Amlkckz`tkmh tm \gvmcutkmh (Hgw [mrj? Amlkckz`tkmh tm \gvmcutkmh. Hgw [mrj?
AfEr`w-Bkcc, 0;52), <0;-<<< AfEr`w-Bkcc, 0;52.
<) Dm
Dmss `ut
`utmr
mrgs
gs?? 0. Ck`
Ck`a
a ^. Whw
Whwkhkh y Omsg
Omsgpb
pb E
E`c
`ccmw
cmw`y
`y,, Whwkh
Wh wkh,, Ck`a
Ck`a ^. y Om Omsg
sgpb
pb E`ccm
E`ccmw`
w`y,
y,
^g`fg kh Krgc`hd (Lmstmh? Vtrmhebmpg ^g`f
^g`fgg kh Kr
Krgc
gc`hd. Lmstm
`hd. Lmstmh?
h? Vtrmhebmpg
Vtrmhebmpg
^rgss, 0;;>), 22. ^rgss, 0;;>.
6) Trgs m aàs
`utmrgs? Gh c`s
hmt`s `c pkg dg
pàekh` y gh c`
Lklckmer`iá`, sg
dglg khfcukr gc 0. A`rj H. Ir`hjckh gt `c., Gcgftmr`c Ir
Ir`h
`hjc
jckh
kh,, A`r `rjj H. gt `c `c.. Gcgf
Gcgftm
tmrr`c
hmalrg dgc Fb`h
Fb `heg
eg?? \g
\gsp
spmh
mhsgsgss tm Gv Gvmcmcvk
vkhe
he Fb`heg? \gspmhsgs tm Gvmcvkhe Vmfk`c
prkagr `utmr Vmfk`c
Vmf k`c `hd @ttktu
@ttktudkh
dkh`c
`c Vtruft
Vtrufturg
urgss kh `hd @ttktu
@ttktudkh`
dkh`cc Vtr
Vtruft
ufturg
urgss kh Ugstgr
Ugstgrhh
sgeukdm pmr gt Ugst
Ug stgr
grh
h FmFmuh
uhtrtrkg
kgss (F`a
(F`alr lrkd
kdeg
eg?? Fmuh
Fm uhtr
trkg
kgs.
s. F`al
F`alrk rkde
deg?
g? F`al F`alrk
rkde
degg
`c . y mtrms, F`alrkdeg
F`alr kdeg Whkvgrskty
Whkvgrskty ^rgss
^rgss,, 0;;<),
0;;<), Whkvgrskty ^rgss, 0;;<.
`uhqug 04>.
usu`caghtg gh
c` lklckmer`iá`
sg khfcuyg gc
hmalrg dg
tmdms cms
`utmrgs.
4) Cklrms fmh 0. Tbg Umrcd L`hj. Umrcd  Tb
Tbg
g Umrc
Umrcd
d L`
L`hj
hj.. Umrc
Umrcd
d Dgvgcmpagh
Dgvgcmpaght 
t 
erupms fmam Dgvgc
gvgcm
mpagh
paghtt Khdk
hdkf`tmr
`tmrs
s <>>4 Khdkf`tmrs <>>4. U`sbkhetmh, D.F.? Tbg
<>>4
`utmr? (U`sbkhetmh, D.F.? Tbg Umrcd L`hj, Umrcd L`hj, <>>4.
<>>4), <;2-<;;.
7) @rtáfucms gh Hmalrg dgc `utmr,
rgvkst`s? –Tátucm dgc `rtáfucm,‑
Tátucm dg c` rgvkst`
vmcuagh dg c` rgvkst`, F`hmv`h, A`re`rgt. –^mcktkfs `s Fucturg?
hÿagrm dg c` mrgvkst`
(Tgapmr`d` Zsk gs
ags Zsk gs gc
gc f`smQ
f`smQ B`hh`b
Bk
Bkst
stmr
mry
@rghdt
y mi ^mck
`hd
^mcktk
tkf`
tbg
f`cc Tb
Tbmu
^ulckf \g`ca,‑
ebtt 9, hm. 6
mueb

46
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

 @ðm dg c` pulckf`fköh)? (0;27)? 66<.

hÿagrm dg pàekh`(s) Zsk gs gc f`smQ.
Gogapcm? A`re`rgt F`hmv`h, –^mcktkfs
`s Fucturg? B`hh`b @rghdt `hd tbg
^u
^ulc
lckf
kf \g`c
\g`ca, a,‑‑ Bkstm
Bkstmry
ry mi ^mcktk
^mcktkf`c 
f`c 
Tbmuebt 9, hm. 6 (0;27)? 66<.
9) Cklrms Hmalrg dgc `utmr dgc cklrm,
tr`dufkdms? Tátucm dgc cklrm,
tr`d. Hmalrg dgc tr`duftmr
(Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh.
Gdktmrk`c,
`ðm),
hÿagrm(s) dg pàekh`(s).

Gogapcm? Lgh Omwgtt, Omwgtt Lgh. –Khtrmduftkmh,‑ gh ^c`tm, Tbg

–Khtrmduftkmh,‑ gh ^c`tm, Tbg \gpulckf , tr`d. Lgh Omwgt gttt ([mrj?
\gpulckf , tr`d. Lgh Omwgtt ([mrj?  @kramht, 0;92), kkx.
 @kramht, 0;92), kkx.
\gfursms gcgftröhkfms
^`r
^`r` fk fktt`s dg
pàekh`s Ugl sg
rgfmakghd` 0. Gal`o`d` dg cms Gst`dms Whkdms. Gal`o`d` dg cms Gst`dms Whkdms.
fm
fmcm
cmf`
f`rc
rc`s
`s gh Lklckmtgf` Lgho`aáh Ir`hjckh, Lklckmtgf` Lgho`aáh Ir`hjckh.
c`s hmt`s `c pkg. –Tr`iikfjkhe kh ^grsmhs \gpmrt <>>>‑ –Tr`iikfjkhe kh ^grsmhs \gpmrt <>>7‑
T`alkëh sg Lklckmtgf` Lgho`aáh Ir`hjckh, Lklckmtgf` Lgho`aáh Ir`hjckh.
pugdgh fkt`r gh bttp?//pgwbksp`hkf.mre/ikcgs/rgpmrts/42 bttp?//pgwbksp`hkf.mre/ikcgs/rgpmrts/42.pd
c` lklckmer`iá` m .pdi (`ffgsm sgptkgalrg <;, <>>7) i (`ffgsm sgptkgalrg <;, <>>7)
ckst` dg
rgigrghfk`s.

44
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gogapcm

Hmt` `c pkg Lklckmer`iá`

0) Cklrms fmh uh Hmalrg(s) dgc `utmr/ `pgcckdm(s) dgc  @pgcckdm dgc `utmr,
`utmr? `utmr, hmalrg.
Tátucm dgc cklrm Tátucm dgc cklrm.
(Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh? Hmalrg dg Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh?
c` gdktmrk`c, Gdktmrk`c,
`ðm dg pulckf`fköh), `ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
hÿagrms dg pàekh` Zsk sg gstà
fkt`hdm tgxtu`caghtg m sg rgikgrg `
uh` ir`sg m kdg`Q.

Gogapcm?
0. Tmrrgerms`, Hmrby Gstbgr,
\gprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs dg cms
fmhfkck`dmrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s gh
gqukd`d dg c`s uhkd`dgs dg
agdk`fköh y fmhfkck`fköh dg Lmemtà,
gh tmrhm `c fmhfgptm dg gqukd`d y
 ousfk` (Lmemtà,
 ousfk`  (Lmemtà, D. F.
Gd. Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg
<>00)
Gogapcm?
Tmrrgerms`, Hmrby Gstbgr 
\gprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs dg cms
fmhfkck`dmrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s gh
gqukd`d dg c`s uhkd`dgs dg agdk`fköh y
fmhfkck`fköh dg Lmemtà, gh tmrhm `c
fmhfgptm dg gqukd`d y ousfk`
Lmemtà, D. F.
Gd. Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg
<>00

47
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Fkt` gh wmrd

@ a`hgr` dg gogapcm tma`rgams gc skeukghtg tgxtm y `pckf`rgams c` mpfköh

dg fkt`s y pmstgrkmraghtg dg lklckmer`iá` dg wmrd.

Gc tgxtm gs?

OWVTKFK@ FMAWHKT@\K@ [ OWVTKFK@ IM\A@C Dkigrghfk`s. C`s fmhfkck`dmr`s y cms fmhfkck`dmrgs

gh gqu
gqukd
kd`d
`d fmhsk
fmhskdgr
dgr`h
`h dgigrg
dgigrghfk
hfk`s
`s m dkshf
dkshfkmh
kmhgs
gs kap
kapmrt
mrt`ht
`htgs
gs ght
ghtrg
rg c`s ous ousfk
fk`s
`s imr
imra`c
a`c y
fmauhkt`rk`: pgrfklgh qug c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` sg iuhd`aght` gh c` gqukd`d: gh gc ghtghdkdm dg
qug sg vgrkf` uh e`h` - e`h`, hm b`y pgrdgdmrgs y pmr cm aksam hm b`y e`h`dmrgs: `dgaàs, c`
 ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` ghg f`ràftgr er`tuktm (` dkigrghfk` dg c` ousfk` imra`c): gh mtrm sghdm
fmkhfkdgh gh mlsgrv`r qug gc agf`hksam `ctgrh`vm hm ghg c` pmsklkckd`d dg rgsmcvgr tmdms cms
prml
prmlcg
cga`
a`s,
s, `s
`suh
uhtm
tmss m tg
tga`
a`s,
s, gh fmfmhf
hfrg
rgtm
tm,, hm tm
tmdm
dm sg pu pugd
gdgg fmhf
fmhfkckck`
k`r.
r. Dgc
Dgc gogr
gogrfk
fkfk
fkm
m dg
khvgse`fköh sg fmhfcuyg qug p`r` cms(`s) fmhfkck`dmrgs(`s) sg rgqukgrg fmaprmaksm pmr p`rtg dgc
Gst`dm fmh tmdm cm rgc`fkmh`dm fmh c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` y gspgfk`caghtg gh c` e`r`h` dg b`fgr
fuapckr gigfv`aghtg cms `fugrdms rgsuct`dms dg c`s fmhfkck`fkm
fmhfkck`fkmhgs.
hgs.

49
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@sá cm pmdgams vgr gh c` p`ht`cc` dgc fmaput`dmr?

Gh gc aghu, gh c` f`rpgt` dg –\gigrghfk`s‑ sgcgffkmh`ams gh –Gstkcm‑ @^@.

45
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^mstgrkmraghtg gcgekams –Khsgrt`r fkt`‑ y (sá hm tgaghms c` Iughtg)

sgcgffkmh`ams –hugv` Iughtg…‑

Umrd `lrkrà uh` t`lcg p`r` f`ptur`r cms d`tms?

Z FKT@TKMH Tmr00 Sc ;<<9 Q

42
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Wh` vgz f`ptur`dms sg gckekr` –@fgpt`r‑ y c` fkt` qugd`rà gh gc sktkm

`prmpk`dm.

OWVTKFK@ FMAWHKT@\K@ [ OWVTKFK@ IM\A@C Dkigrghfk`s. C`s fmhfkck`dmr`s y cms fmhfkck`dmrg

fmhfkck`dmrgss gh
gqukd`d fmhskdgr`h dgigrghfk`s m dkshfkmhgs kapmrt`htgs ghtrg c`s ousfk`s imra`c y
fmauhkt`rk`: pgrfklgh qug c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` sg iuhd`aght` gh c` gqukd`d: gh gc ghtghdkdm dg
qug sg vgrkf` uh e`h` - e`h`, hm b`y pgrdgdmrgs y pmr cm aksam hm b`y e`h`dmrgs: `dgaàs, c`
 ousfk` fmauhkt`rk`
fmauhkt`rk` ghg f`ràftgr er`tuktm (` dkigrghfk`
dkigrghfk` dg c` ousfk`
ousfk` imra`c): gh mtrm sghdm
fmkhfkdgh gh mlsgrv`r qug gc agf`hksam `ctgrh`vm hm ghg c` pmsklkckd`d dg rgsmcvgr tmdms cms
prmlcga`s, `suhtms m tga`s, gh fmhfrgtm, hm tmdm sg pugdg fmhfkck`r. Dgc gogrfkfkm
gogrfkfkm dg
khvgse`fköh sg fmhfcuyg qug p`r` cms(`s) fmhfkck`dmrgs(`s) sg rgqukgrg fmaprmaksm pmr p`rtg dgc
Gst`dm fmh tmdm cm rgc`fkmh`dm fmh c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` y gspgfk`caghtg gh c` e`r`h` dg b`fgr
fuapckr gigfv`aghtg cms `fugrdms rgsuct`dms dg c`s fmhfkck`fkmhgs.
fmhfkck`fkmhgs. Z FKT@TKMH Tmr00 Sc ;<<9 Q

4;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^`r` gdkt`r sg sgcgffkmh`rà c` mpfköh smlrg c` fkt`, fmam skeug?

OWVTKFK@ FMAWHKT@\K@ [ OWVTKFK@ IM\A@C Dkigrghfk`s. C`s fmhfkck`dmr`s y cms fmhfkck`dmrg

fmhfkck`dmrgss gh
gqukd`d fmhskdgr`h dgigrghfk`s m dkshfkmhgs kapmrt`htgs ghtrg c`s ousfk`s imra`c y
fmauhkt`rk`: pgrfklgh qug c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` sg iuhd`aght` gh c` gqukd`d: gh gc ghtghdkdm dg
qug sg vgrkf` uh e`h` - e`h`, hm b`y pgrdgdmrgs y pmr cm aksam hm b`y e`h`dmrgs: `dgaàs, c`
 ousfk` fmauhkt`rk`
fmauhkt`rk` ghg f`ràftgr er`tuktm (` dkigrghfk`
dkigrghfk` dg c` ousfk`
ousfk` imra`c): gh mtrm sghdm
fmkhfkdgh gh mlsgrv`r qug gc agf`hksam `ctgrh`vm hm ghg c` pmsklkckd`d dg rgsmcvgr tmdms cms
prmlcga`s, `suhtms m tga`s, gh fmhfrgtm, hm tmdm sg pugdg fmhfkck`r. Dgc gogrfkfkm
gogrfkfkm dg
khvgse`fköh sg fmhfcuyg qug p`r` cms(`s) fmhfkck`dmrgs(`s) sg rgqukgrg fmaprmaksm pmr p`rtg dgc
Gst`dm fmh tmdm cm rgc`fkmh`dm fmh c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` y gspgfk`caghtg gh c` e`r`h` dg b`fgr
fuapckr gigfv`aghtg cms `fugrdms rgsuct`dms dg c`s fmhfkck`fkmhgs.
fmhfkck`fkmhgs. Z FKT@TKMH Tmr00 Sc ;<<9 Q

@c ulkf`rsg gh c` aksa` fkt` d`rà c` mpfköh dg gdkt`r `c d`r fckfj smlrg c`

icgfb`.

Z FKT@TKMH Tmr00 Sc ;<<9 Q

7>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gh gstg f`sm sg khfcukrà c` pàekh` qug fmrrgspmhdg ` c` fkt`, y gh gc tgxtm qugd`rà, `sá?

… dg c` ousfk` imra`c): gh mtrm sghdm fmkhfkdgh gh mlsgrv`r qug gc agf`hksam `ctgrh`vm hm

ghg c` pmsklkckd`d dg rgsmcvgr tmdms cms prmlcga`s, `suhtms m tga`s, gh fmhfrgtm, hm tmdm sg
pugdg fmhfkck`r. Dgc gogrfkfkm dg khvgse`fköh sg fmhfcuyg qug p`r` cms(`s) fmhfkck`dmrgs(
fmhfkck`dmrgs(`s)
`s) sg
rgqukgrg fmaprmaksm pmr p`rtg dgc Gst`dm fmh tmdm cm rgc`fkmh`dm fmh c` ousfk` fmauhkt`rk` y
gspgfk`caghtg
gspgfk`cagh tg gh c` e`r`h` dg b`fgr fuapckr gigfv`aghtg cms `fugrdms rgsuct`dms dg c`s
fmhfkck`fkmhgs.
fmhfkck`fkmhgs. ZFKT@TKMH Tmr00 Sp Sp 40 Sc ;<<9 Q

70
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^`r` prgsghtgr c` lklckmer`iá` gh c` f`rpgt` dg –\gigrghfk`s‑ sg gckekr`

–Lklckmer`iá`‑ d`hdm fckfj gh c` icgfb`

^`r` lklckmer`iá` sg gcgekr` gh c` p`ht`cc`

7<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@c sgcgffkmh`r –Lklckmer`iá`‑ wmrd `pckf`rà c` ckst` dg c`s iughtgs fmhsuct`d`s

fmam cm vgams gh gc skeukghtg gogapcm.

Lklckmer`iá`
Tmrrgerms` Okaëhgz, H. G. (<>00). \gprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs
smfk`cgs gh tmrhm `c fmhfgptm dg gqukd`d y
 ousfk` dg cms fmhfkck`dmrgs
fmhfkck`dmrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s
fmhfkck`dmr`s dg c`s uhkd`dgs
uhkd`dgs dg agdk`fköh y fmhfkck`fköh
fmhfkck`fköh
gh Lmemtà. Lmemtà, D. F.? Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg.

Yksl`c, C. @. (0;;7 dg 0;;7). \gv Ful`h` Agd Egh Khtger v.00 h.4 Fkud`d dg C` B`l`h` ouc.-`em.
0;;7. Mltghkdm dg \gv Ful`h` Agd Egh Khtger v.00 h.4 Fkud`d dg C` B`l`h` ouc.-`em.
0;;7? bp?//sfkgcm.scd.fu/sf
bp?//sfkgcm.scd.fu/sfkgcm.pbp=sfrkpt1
kgcm.pbp=sfrkpt1sfk]`rgxt&pkd
sfk]`rgxt&pkd1V>294-<0<70;;7>>>4>>>07
1V>294-<0<70;;7>>>4>>>07

@c sgcgffkmh`r –\gigrghfk`s‑ wmrd `pckf`rà c` ckst` dg c`s iughtgs

fmhsuct`d`s, `sá?

\ggrghfk`s
Tmrrgerms` Okaëhgz, H. G. (<>00). \gprgsght`fkmhgs smfk`cgs
smfk`cgs gh tmrhm `c fmhfgptm dg gqukd`d y
 ousfk` dg cms fmhfkck`dmrgs
fmhfkck`dmrgs y c`s fmhfkck`dmr`s
fmhfkck`dmr`s dg c`s uhkd`dgs
uhkd`dgs dg agdk`fköh y fmhfkck`fköh
fmhfkck`fköh
gh Lmemtà. Lmemtà, D. F.? Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg.

Yksl`c, C. @. (0;;7 dg 0;;7). \gv Ful`h` Agd Egh Khtger v.00 h.4 Fkud`d dg C` B`l`h` ouc.-`em.
0;;7. Mltghkdm dg \gv Ful`h` Agd Egh Khtger v.00 h.4 Fkud`d dg C` B`l`h` ouc.-`em.
0;;7? bp?//sfkgcm.scd.fu/sf
bp?//sfkgcm.scd.fu/sfkgcm.pbp=sfrkpt1
kgcm.pbp=sfrkpt1sfk]`rgxt&pkd
sfk]`rgxt&pkd1V>294-<0<70;;7>>>4>>>07
1V>294-<0<70;;7>>>4>>>07

76
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

74
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 4. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em

\gigrghfk` Hmra` Gogapcm

\gigrghfk`  @^GCCKDM, Hmalrg.

lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. Vultátucm.
cklrms Hÿagrm dg c` gdkfköh.
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh?  @[\MV, Ir`hjy. Fàcfucm Dkigrghfk`c.
hmalrg dgc gdktmr, Tr`dufkdm pmr [gcj`dm A`rá` E`alm`. 5
`ðm dg pulckf`fköh. gd. Lmemtà D.F.? AfEr`w-Bkcc, <>>0. 7;9 p.
Hÿagrm dg cms vmcÿaghgs y tmams
(sk sg tr`t` dg mlr`s fmh aàs dg
uh vmcua
vmcuagh
gh,, sg dg dglg
lg kh
khdk
dkf`
f`rr gc
hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh skh
aghfkmh`r c` p`ekh`fköh).
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) dgc f`pátucm.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc f`pátucm.
f`pátucms m p`rtgs dgc Gh? Tátucm dgc cklrm. VAKTB, Emrdmh Y. y ^@\\, \ussgcc C.
cklrm Hÿagrm dg c` gdkfköh. A`rjgt `hd fmst `pprm`fbgs. Gh? Y`cu`tkmh
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh? mi khtgccgftu`c prmpgrty `hd kht`heklcg `ssgts.
hmalrg dgc gdktmr, 6 gd. Hgw [mrj? Ombh Ukcgy, <>>>. p. 057-
`ðm dg pulckf`fköh. <04.
^`ekh`fköh dgc f`pátucm.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) dgc `rtáfucm.
`rtáfucm.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc `rtáfucm.
`rtáfucm dg rgvkst` Gh? Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh DWHH, Vfmtt. Vgfrgtms dg Ukhdmws. Gh?
pgrködkf`. ^F Umrd. @lrkc, <>><. vmc. 9, hm. ;2, p. 79-
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh, ags y `ðm. 94.
Hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh, `htgfgdkdm Gogapcm? FCKIIM\D, Vtgp`hkg. C` hugv`
fmh c` p`c`lr` vmc, fkghfk` dg c` fmhtr`t`fköh. Gh? Egstköh,
hÿagrm dg c` ghtrge` (gh f`sm dg  @lrkc-a`ym, <>>5, vmc. 0> hm.
hm. <, p. 2>-27.
qug hm tghe` sg fmcmf` c` p`c`lr`
hm),
p`ekh`fköh, hÿagrm khkfk`c y ikh`c.
\gigrghfk` Igfb`
Igf b` dg `ftu`c
`ftu`ckz`
kz`fkö
fköh/r
h/rgvk
gvkskö
sköh?
h?  @ftu`ckz`dm gh ghgrm dg 0;;> m rgv.rgv. 0
lklckmeràikf` p`r` cms dmfuaghtms gcgftröhkfms sg `ftu`ckz`h a`rzm 0;;5.
iughtgs gcgftröhkf`s fmh irgfughfk`,
irgfughfk`, pmr cm qug gs hgfgs`rkm
hgfgs`rkm Igfb` dg c` fkt`? c` igfb` dg c` fkt` sg
gsfrklkr c` igfb` dg `ftu`ckz`fköh m rgvksköh
dgc dmfuaghtm,
dmfuaghtm, fktàhdmcm
fktàhdmcm dgspuës dg c` gapcg` gh f`sm dg hm fmhmfgr c`s igfb`s
igfb` dg pulckf`fköh. dg `ftu`ckz`fkmhgs m rgvkskmhgs. Vg rgekstr`
ghtrg p`rëhtgsks fu`dr`dms c` igfb` gh c`
qug sg fmhsuctö c` iughtg.
Gogapcm? Zfkt`dm gh 6 sgptkgalrg dg 0;;>Q m
Zfkt`dm gh 0;;4->5-<2Q
Dkspmhklkckd`d y `ffgsm? pgraktg cmf`ckz`r g
kdghtkikf`r c` iughtg dgc dmfuaghtm fkt`dm.
Gst` khimra`fköh sg `htgfgdg dg c`s
p`c`lr`s –Dkspmhklcg gh‑. Gogapcm?
Dkspmhklcg gh Khtgrhgt?
3empbgr?//khim.ckl.gdu?5>/>>/`rtkfcgs/g-omu
h`cs/ubcklr`ry/p`fsrgvkgw/v7/h6/pkfgwkc.7h68

77
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gigrghfk` Tátucm dgc dk`rkm.

lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh.
pgrködkfm Igfb` (dá`, ags y `ðm). GC TKGA^M. Lmemtà D.F. <<, hmvkgalrg,
Hÿagrm dg sgffkmhgs, <>>9. 6 sgf. 4> p.
pàekh`s.

\gigrghfk` Hmalrg fma

Hmalrg fmapcg
pcgtm
tm dgc fmher
fmhergsm,
gsm,
lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh sgakh`rkm, skapmskm m rguhköh gh
fmhergsm, a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`. FMHE\GVM KHTG\H@FKMH@C DGC
fmhigrghfk` m rguhköh Hÿagrm dgc gvghtm gh `ràlkems, L@\\MFM KLG\M@AG\KF@HM. (6? 2-0<,
dá`, ags, `ðm y mftulrg, <>>0? Vgvkcc`, Gsp`ð`). Agamrk`s.
cue`r dgc gvghtm, ghtrg p`rëhtgsks. Vgvkcc`? Whkvgrskd`d ^`lcm dg Mc`vkdg, <>>0.
Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh. 06> p.
Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh.
Gdkt
Gdktmr
mrk`
k`cc m khstk
hstkttufkö
ufköh
h qug
qug cm
p`trmfkh`.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
Hÿagrm tmt`c dg pàekh`s.
\gigrghfk` Ourksdkffköh (p`ás, dgp`rt`aghtm m
lklckmeràikf` p`r` auhkfkpkm, gh a`yÿsfuc`
hmra`s ourádkf`s smstghkd`).
Akhkstgrkm m ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg
(gh a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`).
Dgskeh`fköh y hÿagrm dg c` hmra`hm ra` FMCMALK@. AKHKVTG\KM DG
 ourádkf`. DGV@\\MCCM GFMHÖAKFM. Dgfrgtm
Igfb` dg c` hmra` ourádkf` (dá`, <<9; (09, hmvkgalrg, 0;;6). ^mr gc fu`c sg
ags, `ðm). mre`hkz` gc skstga` dg hmra`ckz`fköh,
Hmalrg dg c` hmra` ourádkf`, gh fgrtkikf`fköh y agtrmcmeá`. Lmemtà D.F.? Gc
f`sm dg qug cm tghe`. Akhkstgrkm, 0;;6. 02 p.
Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh gh qug
`p`rgfg mikfk`caghtg.
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh.
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh.
Hÿagrm. ^`ekh`fköh
\gigrghfk` Ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm.
hmra`s tëfhkf`s Födkem dg c` hmra` (sk hm imra` KHVTKTWTM FMCMALK@HM DG
p`rtg dgc tátucm). HM\A@CK_@FKÖH [ FG\TKIKF@FKÖH.
Gdkfköh. Vkstga`s dg egstköh dg c` f`ckd`d?
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. iuhd`aghtms y vmf`luc`rkm. HTF-KVM ;>>0.
Gdktmrk`c. Lmemtà D.F.? Gc khstktutm, <>>7. 69 p.
 @ðm.
^`ekh`fköh.
\gigrghfk` Tátucm dg c` khvghfköh. Gogapcm? FMHVGOM VW^G\KM\ DG
lklckmeràikf` p`r` \gspmhs`lkckd`d sgfuhd`rk`. KHYGVTKE@FKMHGV FKGHTÁIKF@V.
p`tghtgs Hmt`s. Khst`c`fköh p`r` gc prgf`cght`akghtm dg
Kdghtkikf`fköh dgc dmfuaghtm. a`tgrk`s prka`s fmh dgstkhm ` cms
^`ás u mre`hksam. prmfgdkakghtms dg i`lrkf`fköh dg `fgrm
Tkpm dg p`tghtg. agdk`htg fmhvgrs`fköh `c mxáeghm. Khvghtmr?
Hÿagrm. A. IG\HÀHDG_ CÖ^G_. Kht. FC.? F<<L
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh dgc
dmfuaghtm. 0/>4. Igfb`
Gsp`ð`, dg smckfktud?
p`tghtg <5, a`ym,GV
dg khvgstke`fköh. 0;29.

79
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

25>6097 @9. 09, `lrkc, 0;25.

\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. \MO@V, A`rá` Bgcgh` y _@AM\@, A`rá` dg
tgsks y tr`l`oms dg Aghfköh m er`dm `c qug sg mpt`. Ogsÿs. Tr`t`akghtm ikskmtgr`pëutkfm dg c`s
er`dm Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. `ctgr`fkmhgs dg fugccm dg pkg. Tr`l`om dg
Khstktufköh `f`dëakf` gh qug sg er`dm Tgr`pgut` Iáskfm. Lmemtà D.F.?
prgsght`. Whkvgrskd`d H`fkmh`c dg Fmcmalk`. I`fuct`d
 @ðm. dg Agdkfkh`. Dgp`rt`aghtm dg Tgr`pk`
^`ekh`fköh. Iáskf`, 0;2;. 072 p.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm.
khimrag fkghtáikfm y ^kg dg kaprght`?
tëfhkfm khfcuyg cms  cue`r dg pulckf`fköh, AKTFBGCC, D. y CM@DG\, @. Khvgstke`tkmh
skeukghtgs gcgaghtms  hmalrg dgc gdktmr, mi pmccut`ht gaksskmhs irma frga`tmrk`.
 `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Vtgvgh`eg? U`rrgh Vprkhe C`l., 0;;6.
^`ekh`fköh? hÿagrm dg cms UVCC\-;>2 (^@).
vmcÿaghgs y tmams (sk sg tr`t` dg
mlr`s fmh aàs dg uh vmcuagh, sg
dglg khdkf`r gc hÿagrm dgc
vmcuagh skh aghfkmh`r c`
p`ekh`fköh).
Hÿagrm m sgrkg kdghtkikf`tkv` dgc
khimrag.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc a`tgrk`c.
a`tgrk`cgs Gdkfköh (gxfgptm c` prkagr`). KHVTKTWTM EGME\ÀIKFM @EWVTÁH
f`rtmeràikfms
f`rtmeràikfm s khfcuyg Gsf`c`, prmygffkmhgs, ghtrg mtrms. FMD@__K. ^c`hm dg c` fkud`d V`ht` Ig dg
cms skeukghtgs Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Lmemtà. Gsf`c` 0? 6>.>>>. Lmemtà? KE@F,
gcgaghtms Gdktmrk`c. <>>>. 0 pc`hm? fmc: 002 x 5> fa.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
F`htkd`d dg a`p`s y
dkaghskmhgs.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs). 0? FBM^KH, I. <4 prëcudgs. Zp`rtktur`Q
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. Ukgh, Wrtgxt gdktkmh. 0 p`rtktur`: tgxtm gh
dk`pmsktkv`s, Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. `cgaàh g khecës. f.`. Z0;56Q. 4; p.
tr`hsp`rghfk`s, Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gogapcm <? FGHT\M @E\MHÖAKFM
imtmer`iá`s, p`rtktur`s Gdktmrk`c. T\M^KF@C DG KHYGVTKE@FKÖH [
khfcuyg cms skeukghtgs  @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. GHVGÐ@H_@ (F@TKG). C` khvgstke`fköh
gcgaghtms Dgsfrkpfköh iáskf`, a`tgrk`c skvkfuctur`c Zdk`pmsktkv`sQ. Turrk`cl`? F`tkg,
`fmap`ð`htg. 0;;>. 00> dk`pmsktkv`s, fmcmr, 0 f`sgtg, <9
akh, smhkdm.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs). 0? T@J@B@VBK, \. Gc auhdm dg \uakjm? gc
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. lmsqug dg c` skrgh` Zvkdgmer`l`fköhQ.
er`l`fkmhgs
er`l`fkmh gs smhmr`s? Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. Gogapcm <? L`rfgcmh`, A`he` Ikcas, 0;;6. 0
fkht`s, f`sgtgs, Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. vkdgmf`ssgttg (YBV), 7> akh., smhkdm, fmcmr,
dksfms, dksfms Gdktmrk`c. 0< puce`d`s.
fmap`ftms y  @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
pgcáfuc`s Dgsfrk
Dgs frkpfk
pfköh
öh iás
iáskf`
kf`?? khfcu
khfcuyg
yg gc tkgap
tkgapm
m 6? @CCGH, Ummdy. Mtr` auogr Zpgcáfuc`Q.
tm
tmt`
t`cc dg dur`
dur`fk
fköh
öh dg c` pr prmy
mygf
gffk
fköh
öh:: ^rmdufkd` pmr \mlgrt Ergghbut B`almrg,
prgsghfk` dg smhkdm m `usghfk`: vgcmfkd`d
Lr`skc? Dgcuxg, <>><. 0 DYD, 20 akhutms,
dg c` prmygffköh y dkaghskmhgs . fmcmr.

75
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) ghtrg p`rëhtgsks hmalrg

lklckmeràikf` p`r` dgc f`rem `lrgvk`dm. 0? F\[VT@C, C. (^rmd. Gogfut). Tbg
prmer`a`s dg r`dkm y Hmalrg dgc prmer`a`. A`fHgkc/Cgbrgr hgws bmur. Z^rmer`a`
tgcgvksköh Tkpm dg prmer`a` ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. tgcgvkskvmQ. Hgw [mrj `hd U`sbkhetmh, DF?
Ghtkd`d gaksmr`. Vgrvkfkm dg tgcgvksköh `lkgrt`. 00, mftulrg,
Igfb` dg gaksköh? dá`, ags, `ðm. 0;;6.

gstkcm. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em, ^ulckf`dm gc 4 sgptgalrg, <>00 pmr 

Vgeÿh Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm.
`umrgsgdkmrgs.fma,, bttp?//www.`utmrgs
`umrgsgdkmrgs.fma bttp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>0
gdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>;/>4/gstkcms-dg-rgi
0/>;/>4/gstkcms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`ik
grghfk`s-lklckmer`ikf`s-
f`s-
hmra`s-dg-c`-uhkvgrskd`d-dg-fbkf`em/

72
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 4 Cgy 07<> dg <>0<

^`r` cms gigftms dg c` prgsghtg Cgy ( @rtáfucm <¾. Gc `rtáfucm 2¾ dg c` Cgy <6 dg 0;2< qugd`rà `sá?
@rtáfucm 90) sg ghtkghdg pmr?

 @utmr.

^grsmh` iáskf` qug rg`ckz` c` frg`fköh khtgcgftu`c

Fmpk` m gogapc`r.

Vmpmrtg a`tgrk`c qug fmhtkghg c` mlr`, fmam rgsuct`dm dg

uh `ftm dg rgprmduffköh.
Dkstrklufköh `c
 pÿlckfm. ^ugst` ` dkspmskfköh dgc pÿlckfm dgc mrkekh`c m fmpk`s dg c`
mlr` agdk`htg su vght`, `cqukcgr, prëst`am m dg fu`cqukgr
mtr` imra`.
Dkvuce`fköh.
B`fgr `ffgsklcg c` mlr` `c pÿlckfm pmr fu`cqukgr agdkm m
prmfgdkakghtm.
Khimra`fköh smlrg
c` egstköh dg Khimra`fköh qug kdghtkikf` c` mlr`, khtgrprgt`fköh m
dgrgfbms. gogfufköh m imhmer`a`: `c `utmr dg c` mlr`, `c `rtkst`
khtërprgtg m gogfut`htg dg c` khtgrprgt`fköh m gogfufköh, m `c
prmduftmr dgc imhmer`a`: m `c tktuc`r dg fu`cqukgr dgrgfbm
smlrg c` mlr`, khtgrprgt`fköh m gogfufköh m imhmer`a`: m
khimra`fköh smlrg cms tërakhms y fmhdkfkmhgs dg utkckz`fköh
dg c`s mlr`s, khtgrprgt`fkmhgs m gogfufkmhgs m imhmer`a`s:
m fu`cqukgr hÿagrm m födkem qug rgprgsghtg dkfb`
khimra`fköh, fu`hdm fu`cqukgr` dg gstms gcgaghtms gstëh
`douhtms ` uh gogapc`r dg c` mlr`, khtgrprgt`fköh m
gogfufköh m imhmer`a` m ikeurgh gh rgc`fköh fmh c`
fmauhkf`fköh m pugst` ` dkspmskfköh `c pÿlckfm dg uh`
mlr`, khtgrprgt`fköh m gogfufköh m imhmer`a`.
Cufrm.
E`h`hfk` m prmvgfbm qug sg s`f` dg `cem.
Mlr`.
Tmd` frg`fköh khtgcgftu`c mrkekh`c dg h`tur`cgz` `rtástkf`,
fkghtáikf` m cktgr`rk`, susfgptklcg dg sgr dkvuce`d` m

Mlr` `höhka`. rgprmdufkd` gh fu`cqukgr imra`.

7;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

 @qugcc` gh qug hm sg aghfkmh` gc hmalrg dgc `utmr: pmr

vmcuht`d dgc aksam, m pmr sgr kehmr`dm.
Mlr` fmcgftkv`.

C` qug sg`
khkfk`tkv` prmdufkd`
y l`om pmr uh erupm
c` mrkght`fköh dg uh`dgpgrsmh`
`utmrgs,h`tur`c
pmr m
 ourádkf` qug c` fmmrdkhg, dkvuceug y pulckqug l`om su
hmalrg.

9>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Dgrgfbms dg @utmr 

–Dg `fugrdm fmh cms `rtáfucms 90 y 50 dg c` Fmhstktufköh ^mcátkf` dg Fmcmalk`, sgrà

prmtgekd` c` prmpkgd`d cktgr`rk` y `rtástkf` fmam prmpkgd`d tr`hsigrklcg, pmr gc
tkgapm dg c` vkd` dgc `utmr y mfbght` `ðms aàs, agdk`htg c`s imra`ckd`dgs qug
prgsfrkl` c` cgy.‑6

–Gc `utmr m, gh su f`sm, sus dgrgfbmb`lkghtgs, tkghgh smlrg c`s mlr`s cktgr`rk`s y
`rtástkf`s gc dgrgfbm gxfcuskvm dg `utmrkz`r, m prmbklkr?

`) C` rgprmduffköh dg c` mlr` l`om fu`cqukgr a`hgr` m imra`, pgra`hghtg m

tgapmr`
tga pmr`c,c, agd
agdk`h
k`htg
tg fu`
fu`cqu
cqukgr
kgr prmfgdk
prmfgdkakg
akghtm
htm khfcuy
khfcuyghd
ghdm
m gc `ca
`ca`fgh
`fgh`ak
`akght
ghtm
m
tgapmr`c
l) gh imra` gcgftröhkf`:
C` fmauhkf`fköh `c pÿlckfm dg c` mlr` pmr fu`cqukgr agdkm m prmfgdkakghtm,
y` sg`h gstms `càalrkfms
`càalrkfms m kh`càalrkfms,
kh`càalrkfms, khfcuygh
khfcuyghdm
dm c` pugst` ` dkspms
dkspmskfköh
kfköh `c
pÿlckfm, dg t`c imra` qug cms akgalrms dgc pÿlckfm pugd`h tghgr `ffgsm ` gcc`
dgsdg gc cue`r y gh gc amaghtm qug f`d` uhm dg gccms gcko`:
f) C` dkstrklufköh pÿlckf` dgc mrkekh`c y fmpk`s dg sus mlr`s, agdk`htg c` vght` m
` tr`vës dg fu`cqukgr imra` dg tr`hsigrghfk` dg prmpkgd`d:
d) C` kapmrt`fköh dg fmpk`s bgfb`s skh `utmrkz`fköh dgc tktuc`r dgc dgrgfbm pmr 
fu`cqukgr agdkm, khfcuyghdm c` tr`hsaksköh pmr agdkms gcgftröhkfms, skh pgroukfkm
dg cm dkspugstm gh c` Dgfksköh @hdkh` 670 dg 0;;6:
g) Gc `cqukcgr fmagrfk`c `c pÿlckfm dgc mrkekh`c m dg cms gogapc`rgs dg sus mlr`s.
C` tr`duffköh, `d`pt`fköh, `rrgecm u mtr` tr`hsimra`fköh dg c` mlr`‑ 4

–Gh tmdms cms f`sms gh qug uh` mlr` cktgr`rk` m `rtástkf` tghe` pmr tktuc`r uh`
pgrsmh` ourádkf`, gc pc`zm dg prmtgffköh sgrà dg 5> `ðms fmht`dms ` p`rtkr dgc ikh`c
dgc `ðm f`cghd`rkm dg c` prkagr` pulckf`fköh `utmrkz`d` dg c` mlr`. Vk dghtrm dg cms
7> `ðms skeukghtgs
skeukghtgs ` c` frg`fköh dg c` mlr` hm b` gxkstk
gxkstkdm
dm pulckf`fkö
pulckf`fköh
h `utmrkz`d`,
gc pc`zm dg prmtgffköh sgrà dg 5> `ðms ` p`rtkr dgc ikh`c dgc `ðm f`cghd`rkm dg c`
frg`fköh dg c` mlr`.‑7

6
Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 4¾. Gc `rtáfucm 00 dg c` Cgy <6 dg 0;2< qugd`rà `sá? @rtáfucm 00. 
4   Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 7¾. Gc `rtáfucm 0< dg c` Cgy <6 dg 0;2< qugd`rà `sá? @rtáfucm 0<. 
7
 Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm  9¾. Gc `rtáfucm <5 dg c` Cgy <6 dg 0;2<, qugd`rà `sá? @rtáfucm <5.

90
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^rmtgffköh dgc dgrgfbm dgc `utmr smlrg c`s mlr`s cktgr`rk`s

–C` prmtgffköh mirgfkd` pmr c`s hmra`s dg gstg f`pátucm hm `igft`rà gh amdm
`ceuhm c` prmtgffköh dgc dgrgfbm dgc `utmr smlrg c`s mlr`s cktgr`rk`s, fkghtáikf`s y
`rtást
`rtástkf`s
kf`s fmhs`er`d`
fmhs`er`d`ss pmr c` prgs
prgsght
ghtg
g cgy
cgy.. Gh fmhsgf
fmhsgfughf
ughfk`
k` hkh
hkheuh
euh`` dg c`s
dksp
dkspms
mskf
kfkm
kmhg
hgss fmht
fmhtgh
ghkd
kd`s
`s gh ëc pmpmdr
dràà khtg
khtgrpr
rprgt
gt`rs
`rsg
g gh ag
aghm
hmsf`
sf`lm
lm dg gs` gs`
prmtgffköh.

 @ ikh dg hm gst`lcgfgr hkheuh` ogr`rquá` ghtrg gc dgrgfbm dg `utmr, pmr uh` p`rtg, y
cms
cms dgrg
dgrgfb
fbms
ms dg cmscms `rtk
`rtkst
st`s
`s,, khtë
khtërp
rprg
rgtg tgss m gogf
gogfut
ut`h
`htg
tgss y prmd
prmduf
uftm
tmrg
rgss dg
im
imhm
hmer`
er`a`
a`s,
s, pmr
pmr mtr`
mtr` p`rtg
p`rtg,, gh `q`qug
ugccccms
ms f`sm
f`smss gh dmdmhd
hdgg sg`
sg` hg
hgfgs
fgs`rk
`rk`
` c`
`utmrkz`fköh t`htm dgc `utmr dg uh` mlr` fmhtghkd` gh uh imhmer`a` fmam dgc
`rtkst` khtërprgtg m gogfut`htg m prmduftmr tktuc`r dg cms dgrgfbms dgc imhmer`a`, gc
rgqugrkakghtm dg c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc `utmr hm dgo` dg gxkstkr dglkdm ` qug t`alkëh
sg rgqukgr` c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc `rtkst` khtërprgtg m gogfut`htg m dgc prmduftmr dg
imhmer`a`s.

 @sá aksam, gh `qugccms f`sms gh dmhdg sg` hgfgs`rk` c` `utmrkz`fköh t`htm dgc
`utmr dg uh` mlr` fmhtghkd` gh uh imhmer`a` fmam dgc `rtkst` khtërprgtg m
gogfut`htg m dgc prmduftmr tktuc`r dg cms dgrgfbms dgc imhmer`a`, gc rgqugrkakghtm
dg c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc `rtkst` khtërprgtg m gogfut`htg m prmduftmr dg imhmer`a`s hm
dgo` dg gxkstkr dglkdm ` qug t`alkëh sg rgqukgr` c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc `utmr.‑ 9

\gspmhs`lkckd`d fkvkc uh` khir`ffköh `c dgrgfbm dg `utmr m ` cms dgrgfbms

fmhgxms (Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 04).

Khdgpghdkghtgaghtg dg qug fmhfurr` uh` khir`ffköh `c dgrgfbm dg `utmr m ` cms

dgrgfbms
dgrg fbms fmhgxm
fmhgxms,
s, khf
khfurr
urrkrà
krà gh rgspmhs
rgspmhs`lk
`lkckd
ckd`d
`d fkv
fkvkckc y dgl
dglgrà
grà khdgah
khdgahkz`r
kz`r cms
pgroukfkms qug mf`skmhg qukgh rg`ckfg fu`cqukgr` dg c`s skeukghtgs fmhduft`s?

`) Vkh `utmrkz`fköh gcud` c`s agdkd`s tgfhmcöekf`s gigftkv`s kapugst`s

p`r` fmhtrmc`r gc `ffgsm m cms usms hm `utmrkz`dms dg c`s mlr`s,
khtgrprgt`fkmhgs `rtástkf`s m gogfufkmhgs, imhmer`a`s m gakskmhgs
r`dkmdkiuhdkd`s:

9
 Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 5¾.  Gc `rtáfucm 097 dg c` Cgy <6 dg 0;2< qugd`rà `sá? @rtáfucm 097. 

9<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

l) I`lrkqug, kapmrtg, dkstrkluy`, mirgzf` `c pÿlckfm, prmpmrfkmhg m dg

mtr` a`hgr` fmagrfk`ckfg dkspmsktkvms, prmduftms m fmapmhghtgs, u
mirgzf` `c pÿlckfm m prmpmrfkmhg sgrvkfkms qug, rgspgftm dg fu`cqukgr
agdkd` tgfhmcöekf` gigftkv`?
Vg`h prmamfkmh`dms, pulckfkt`dms m fmagrfk`ckz`dms fmh gc prmpösktm
dg gcudkr dkfb` agdkd`: m
Tghe`h uh ckakt`dm prmpösktm m uh usm fmagrfk`c skehkikf`tkvm, dkigrghtg
`c dg gcudkr dkfb` agdkd`: m
Vg`h dksgð`dms, prmdufkdms, gogfut`dms prkhfkp`caghtg fmh gc ikh dg
pgraktkr m i`fkckt`r c` gcusköh dg dkfb` agdkd`:

f) Vuprka` m `ctgrg fu`cqukgr khimra`fköh smlrg c` egstköh dg dgrgfbms:

d) Dkstrkluy` m kapmrtg p`r` su dkstrklufköh, khimra`fköh smlrg egstköh

dg dgrgfbms s`lkghdm qug dkfb` khimra`fköh b` skdm suprkakd` m
`ctgr`d` skh `utmrkz`fköh:
g) Dkstrkluy`, kapmrtg p`r` su dkstrklufköh, tr`hsakt`, fmauhkqug m
pmhe` ` dkspmskfköh dgc pÿlckfm fmpk`s dg c`s mlr`s, khtgrprgt`fkmhgs m
gogfufkmhgs m imhmer`a`s, s`lkghdm qug c` khimra`fköh smlrg egstköh
dg dgrgfbms b` skdm suprkakd` m `ctgr`d` skh `utmrkz`fköh.

^`ràer`im. V`cvm mrdgh oudkfk`c, hkheuh` `utmrkd`d `dakhkstr`tkv` pmdrà rgqugrkr 

qug gc dksgðm m c` sgcgffköh dg c`s p`rtgs y fmapmhghtgs p`r` uh prmduftm dg
fmhsuam gcgftröhkfm, dg tgcgfmauhkf`fkmhgs m dg fmaput`fköh, rgspmhd` ` uh`
agdkd` tgfhmcöekf` gh p`rtkfuc`r, ` fmhdkfköh dg qug dkfbm prmduftm hm vkmcg dg
`ceuh` mtr` imra` c`s dkspmskfkmhgs gstkpuc`d`s gh gstg `rtáfucm.

Ykmc`fköh ` cms dgrgfbms p`trkamhk`cgs dg `utmr y dgrgfbms fmhgxms 5  

Khfurrkrà gh prksköh dg fu`trm (4) ` mfbm (2) `ðms y auct` dg vgkhtksëks puhtm
sgsght`
sgsght ` y sgks (<9.99) ` akc (0.>>>) s`c`rkms aáhkams cge`cgs aghsu`cgs
aghsu`cgs vkeght
vkeghtgs
gs
qukgh, s`cvm c`s gxfgpfkmhgs prgvkst`s gh c` cgy, skh `utmrkz`fköh prgvk` y gxprgs`
dgc tktuc`r dg cms dgrgfbms fmrrgspmhdkghtgs?

 ^mr fu`cqukgr agdkm m prmfgdkakghtm, rgprmduzf` uh` mlr` dg f`ràftgr 

cktgr`rkm, fkghtáikfm, `rtástkfm m fkhga`tmeràikfm, imhmer`a`, vkdgmer`a`,
5
 Cgy 07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 09. Gc `rtáfucm <¾ dg c` Cgy 0>6< dg <>>9 qug rgimraö gc `rtáfucm <50 dg c` Cgy 7;; dg <>>>,
qugd`rà `sá

96
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

smpmrtg cöekf
smpmrtg cöekfm
m m prmer`a` dg mrdgh`dmr,
mrdgh`dmr, m, qukgh tr`hspmrtg,
tr`hspmrtg, `ca`fghg
`ca`fghg,,
fmhsgrvg, dkstrkluy`, kapmrtg, gxpmrtg, vghd`, mirgzf`, `dqukgr` p`r` c`
vght` m dkstrklufk ufköh, m suakhkstrg ` fu fu``cquk
qukgr tátucm dkfb
dkfb`s
`s
rgprmduffkmhgs.
 …
 Dkspmhe`, rg`ckfg m utkckfg, pmr fu`cqukgr agdkm m prmfgdkakghtm, c`
fmauhkf`fköh, iko`fköh, gogfufköh, gxbklkfköh, fmagrfk`ckz`fköh, dkiusköh m
dkstrklufköh y rgprgsght`fköh dg uh` mlr` dg c`s prmtgekd`s gh gstg tátucm.
 ….‑
 @rtáfucm 05. Gc `rtáfucm 6¾ dg c` Cgy 0>6< dg <>>9 qug amdkikfö gc `rtáfucm <5< dg c`
Cgyy 7;
Cg 7;;
; dg <> <>>>
>>,, qu
qugd
gd`r
`rà
à `sá?
`sá? @rtá
@rtáfucm 6¾. Ykm
fucm Ykmc`f
c`fköh
köh ` cms agf`hks
agf`hksams
ams dg
 prmtgffköh dg dgrgfbm dg `utmr y dgrgfbms fmhgxms, y mtr`s
dgir`ud`fkmhgs. Khfurrkrà gh prksköh dg fu`trm (4) ` mfbm (2) `ðms y auct` dg
vgkhtksëks puhtm sgsght` y sgks (<9.99) ` akc (0.>>>) s`c`rkms aáhkams cge`cgs
aghsu`cgs vkeghtgs, qukgh fmh gc ikh dg cmer`r uh` vght`o` fmagrfk`c m e`h`hfk`

ygfmhöakf` prkv`d`, `ftu`hdm

dgrgfbms fmhgxms y s`cvm c`sskh `utmrkz`fköhprgvkst`s
gxfgpfkmhgs dg cms tktuc`rgs
gh c` cgy?dg dgrgfbm dg `utmr 

0. Gcud` c`s agdkd`s tgfhmcöekf`s gigftkv`s kapugst`s p`r` fmhtrmc`r gc `ffgsm

m cms
cms us
usms
ms hm `utm
`utmrk
rkz`
z`dm
dmss dg c`s
c`s ml
mlr`
r`s,
s, khtg
khtgrp
rprg
rgt`
t`fk
fkmh
mhgs
gs `rtá
`rtást
stkf
kf`s
`s m
gogfufkmhgs, imhmer`a`s m gakskmhgs r`dkmdkiuhdkd`s.

<. I`lrkq
I`lrkqug,
ug, kap
kapmrt
mrtg,
g, dks
dkstrk
trkluy
luy`,
`, mirgzf
mirgzf`
` `c pÿl
pÿlckf
ckfm,
m, prmpmrf
prmpmrfkmh
kmhg
g m dg mtr
mtr`
`
a`hgr` fmagrfk`ckfg dkspmsktkvms, prmduftms m fmapmhghtgs, u mirgzf` `c
pÿlc
pÿ lckf
kfm
m m prmp
prmpmr
mrfk
fkmh
mhg
g sgrv
sgrvkf
kfkm
kmss qug,
qug, rgsp
rgspgf
gftmtm dg fu`c
fu`cqu
qukg
kgrr ag
agdk
dkd`
d`
tgfhmcöekf` gigftkv`?

Vg`h
gcudkr prmamfkmh`dms,
dkfb` agdkd`: m pulckfkt`dms m fmagrfk`ckz`dms
tghe`h uh ckakt`dm fmh fmagrfk`caghtg
prmpösktm m usm gc prmpösktm dg
skeh
skehkikikf
kf`t
`tkv
kvm
m dkig
dkigrg
rght
htg
g `c dg gcud
gcudkr
kr dkfb
dkfb`
` agagdk
dkd`
d`:: m sg`h
sg`h dksg
dksgð`
ð`dm
dms,
s,
prmdufkdms, gogfut`dms prkhfkp`caghtg fmh gc ikh dg pgraktkr m i`fkckt`r c`
gcusköh dg dkfb` agdkd`.

6. Vuprka` m `ct
`ctgrg
grg fu`cqukgr khimra`fköh smlrg c` egstköh dg dgrgfbms.

4. Dks
Dkstrk
trkluy
luy`
` m kap
kapmrt
mrtg
g p`r` su dkstrk
dkstrklufk
lufköh
öh khimra`
khimra`fkö
fköh
h sml
smlrg
rg egst
egstköh
köh dg
dgrgfbms s`lkghdm qug dkfb` khimra`fköh b` skdm suprkakd` m `ctgr`d` skh
`utmrkz`fköh.

7. Dkstrkluy`, kapmrtg p`r` su dkstrklufköh, tr`hsakt`, fmauhkqug m pmhe` `

dkspmskfköh dgc pÿlckfm fmpk`s dg c`s mlr`s, khtgrprgt`fkmhgs m gogfufkmhgs m

94
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

imhmer`a`s, s`lkghdm qug c` khimra`fköh smlrg egstköh dg dgrgfbms b` skdm

suprkakd` m `ctgr`d` skh `utmrkz`fköh.

9. I`lrkqug, ghs`alcg,
pmr mtrm agdkm amdkikqug,m kapmrtg,
uh dkspmsktkvm skstga` gxpmrtg,
t`heklcg vghd`, `rrkghdg
m kht`heklcg, m dkstrkluy`
` s`lkghd`s m
fmh r`zmhgs p`r` s`lgr qug c` iuhfköh prkhfkp`c dgc dkspmsktkvm m skstga` gs
`skstkr gh c` dgsfmdkikf`fköh dg uh` sgð`c fmdkikf`d` dg s`tëcktg pmrt`dmr` dg
prmer`a`s fmdkikf`dms skh c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc dkstrklukdmr cgeátkam dg dkfb`
sgð`c.

5. \gfgpfkmhg m pmstgrkmraghtg dkstrkluy` uh` sgð`c dg s`tëcktg pmrt`dmr` dg uh

prmer`a` qug sg mrkekhö fmam sgð`c pmr s`tëcktg fmdkikf`d` ` s`lkghd`s dg
qug b` skdm dgsfmdkikf`d` skh c` `utmrkz`fköh dgc dkstrklukdmr cgeátkam dg c`
sgð`c.

2. `c
^rgsghtg dgfc`r`fkmhgs
p`em, rgf`ud`fk
rgf`ud`fköh, m khimra`fkmhgs
öh, ckqukd`fköh
ckqukd`fk öh m dkstrk dgstkh`d`s
dkstrklufköh
lufköh dkrgft` sm gfmhöa
dg dgrgfbm
dgrgfbms khdkrgft`aghtg
gfmhöakfms
kfms dg
`utmr m dgrgfbms fmhgxms, `ctgr`hdm m i`csg`hdm, pmr fu`cqukgr agdkm m
prmfgdkakghtm, cms d`tms hgfgs`rkms p`r` gstms gigftms.

^`ràer`im. Cms huagr`c

^`ràer`im. huagr`cgs
gs 0 ` 7 dg gstg `rtáfu
`rtáfucm
cm hm sgràh `pckf`lc
`pckf`lcgs gs fu`hdm sg
tr`t
tr`tg
g dg uh`
uh` lklc
lklckm
kmtg
tgf`
f` skh
skh àh
àhka
kam
m dg cufrm
cufrm,, `rfbk
`rfbkvm,
vm, khs
khstktktu
tufk
fköh
öh gd
gduf
uf`t
`tkv
kv`
` u
mre`hksam pÿlckfm dg r`dkmdkiusköh hm fmagrfk`c.

 @rtáfucm 02. C`s dkspmskfkmhgs dg cms `rtáfucms `htgrkmrgs sg `pckf`ràh ` tmd`s

c`s mlr`s, khtgrprgt`fkmhgs, gogfufkmhgs, imhmer`a`s y gakskmhgs dg mre`hksams
dg r`dkmdkiusköh qug, `c amaghtm dg c` ghtr`d` gh vkeghfk` dg c` prgsghtg cgy hm
b`y`h p`s`dm `c dmakhkm pÿlckfm.
 @rtáfucm 0;. Vkh pgroukfk
pgroukfkm
m dg cm gst`lcgf
gst`lcgfkdm
kdm gh gc `rtáfucm 66 dg c` Fmhstktufkö
Fmhstktufköhh
^mcátkf`, c`s `utmrkd`dgs `dakhkstr`tkv`s gh gogrfkfkm dg iuhfkmhgs ourksdkffkmh`cgs
y c`s `utmrkd`dgs oudkfk`cgs fmapgtghtgs p`r` rgsmcvgr cms prmfgsms dg khir`ffköh
gh a`tgrk` dg prmpkgd`d khtgcgftu`c, gst`ràh i`fuct`d`s p`r` mrdgh`rcg `c khir`ftmr 
qug prmpmrfkmhg fu`cqukgr khimra`fköh qug pmsg` rgspgftm dg fu`cqukgr pgrsmh`
khvm
khvmcu
cufr
fr`d
`d`` gh c` khir
khir`f
`ffk
fköh,
öh, `sá
`sá fmam
fmam dg cms cms ag
agdkdkms
ms m khst
khstru
ruag
aght
htms
ms dg
prmduffköh m f`h`cgs dg dkstrklufköh utkckz`dms p`r` gccm.

 @rtáfucm <>. Gh cms prmfgsms smlrg khir`ffkmhgs `c dgrgfbm dg `utmr, cms

dgrgfbms fmhgxms y c`s a`rf`s, gc ougz gst`rà i`fuct`dm p`r` mrdgh`r qug cms
a`tgrk`cgs g kapcgaghtms
dkfb`s agrf`hfá`s qug b`y`h
pkr`tg`d`s skdm utkckz`dms
m i`cskikf`d`s gh c` i`lrkf`fköh
sg`h dgstrukd`s, m frg`fköh
` f`rem dg
dg c` p`rtg

97
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

vghfkd`
vghfkd` y skh fmapghs
fmapghs`fk
`fköh
öh `ce
`ceuh`,
uh`, m gh fkrfuh
fkrfuhst`
st`hfk
hfk`s
`s gxfgpfk
gxfgpfkmh`
mh`cgs
cgs,, skh
fmapghs`fköh `ceuh`, sg dkspmhe` su rgtkrm dg cms f`h`cgs fmagrfk`cgs.

Ghdglgrà
 ougz gc f`smmrdgh`r
dg agrf`hfá`s fmhskdgr`d`s
su dgstruffköh, ` f`rempkr`t`s
dg mqukgh
i`cskikf`d`s,
rgsuctg gh c` sghtghfk`
fmhdgh`dm gh gc
prmfgsm, ` aghms qug gc tktuc`r dg dgrgfbm fmhskght` gh qug sg dkspmhe` dg gcc`s
dg mtr` imra`. Gh f`sms `prmpk`dms c`s agrf`hfá`s dg a`rf`s i`cskikf`d`s pmdràh
sgr dmh`d`s fmh ikhgs dg f`rkd`d p`r` usm iugr` dg cms f`h`cgs dg fmagrfkm,
fu`hdm
fu` hdm c` rga
rgamfk
mfköh
öh dg c` a`r
a`rf`f` gckakh
gckakhg g c`s f`r`ft
f`r`ftgrá
grástk
stkf`s
f`s khir`ft
khir`ftmr`s
mr`s dg c`
agrf`hfá` y c` agrf`hfá` y` hm sg` kdghtkikf`lcg fmh c` a`rf` rgamvkd`. Gh
hkhe
hkheÿh
ÿh f`f`sm
sm cms
cms ougf
ougfgs
gs pm
pmdr
dràh
àh pg
pgra
raktktkr
kr c` gxpm
gxpmrtrt`f
`fkö
köh
h dg c`sc`s ag
agrfrf`h
`hfá
fá`s
`s
i`cskikf`d`s m pkr`tg`d`s m pgraktkr qug t`cgs agrf`hfá`s sg smagt`h ` mtrms
prmfgdkakghtms `du`hgrms, s`cvm gh fkrfuhst`hfk`s gxfgpfkmh`cgs. Gh rgc`fköh fmh
c`s agrf`hfá`s dg a`rf` i`cskikf`d`s, c` skapcg rgamfköh dg c` a`rf` qug iugr`
`dbgrkd` kcge`caghtg hm sgrà suikfkghtg p`r` pgraktkr qug c`s agrf`hfá`s khergsgh
gh cms f`h`cgs fmagrfk`cgs.

99
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 7. Fc`skikf`fköh dgc rgsuagh

Gc rgsuagh pugdg fc`skikf`rsg gh? dgsfrkptkvm, khimra`tkvm y gstruftur`dm?

Fc`skikf`fköh dgc Dgsfrkpfköh

rgsuagh
Dgsfrkptkvm?    D` uh` kdg` ecml`c dgc gstudkm.
 Vu gxtghsköh gs dg 7> ` 0>> p`c`lr`s.
Gs rgfmaghd`lcg p`r` rgvkst`s fkghtáikf`s.

Khimra`tkvm?    Gs skakc`r ` uh akhk`rtáfucm.

 Vu gxtghsköh gs ghtrg 07> y <>> p`c`lr`s

Gstruftur`dm ?    Vg gstruftur` gh `p`rt`dms?

m Mlogtkvms,
m Dksgðm,
m Cue`r, fkrfuhst`hfk`s,
m
Vuogtms
Aëtmdm,(p`fkghtgs),
mpgr`fköh, agdkfkmhgs,
m

m ^rkhfkp`cgs rgsuct`dms y
m Fmhfcuskmhgs.

Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm sgeÿh \gca`h, @. (0;;6)

Gc tkpm dg rgsuagh dglg fmrrgspmhdgr ` c`s hmra`s gdktmrk`cgs dg c` rgvkst` dmhdg

sg pulckf`rà.

95
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 9. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh dg `rtáfucms

 
  @rtáfucm pulckf`lcg fmh uh` gxtghsköh aáhka` dg qukhfg (07) y aàxka` dg vgkhtkfkhfm (<7)
pàekh`s.2
 Gc `rtáfucm dglg fmrrgspmhdgr ` uh` dg c`s skeukghtgs amd`ckd`dgs ;?
  `. \gpmrtg dg f`sm. Dmfuaghtm qug prgsght` cms rgsuct`dms dg uh gstudkm smlrg uh f`sm
gspgfáikfm, fmh gc ikh dg d`r ` fmhmfgr cms `hàcksks y c`s gxpgrkghfk`s fkghtáikf`s, tëfhkf`s y
agtmdmcöekf`s fmhskdgr`d`s dg a`hgr` fmhfrgt`. ^mdrà khfcukr uh` rgvksköh skstgaàtkf`
fmaght`d` dg c` cktgr`tur` smlrg f`sms `hàcmems. 0> 
l. \gvksköh dg tga` . Dmfuaghtm rgsuct`dm dg c` rgvksköh frátkf` dg c` cktgr`tur` smlrg uh
tga` gh p`rtkfuc`r ..‑‑00
 C`s fkt
fkt`s
`s lklckm
lklckmerà
eràikf
ikf`s
`s dgl
dglgh
gh b`fgrs
b`fgrsg
g fmh c`s hmr hmra`s
a`s h`f
h`fkmh
kmh`cgs
`cgs g khtgrh
khtgrh`fk
`fkmh`
mh`cgs
cgs
vkeghtgs. (Hmra`s @^@).
 ^rgsght`fköh gh Umrd, p`pgc t`a`ðm f`rt`, cgtr` @rk`c 0<, ` gsp`fkm y agdkm.


 @tghdgr ` c` skeukghtg gstruftur`

gstruftur` imra`c.

2
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6 y @rfucm 62, @fugrdm >9 dg mftulrg <7 dg
<>>9, \gec`aghtm dg Khvgse`fkmhgs
;
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6.
0>
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6 cktgr`c `).
05
@fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6. Cktgr`c l).
00

92
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

^`rtgs dgc `rtáfucm Dgsfrkpfköh

C`s p`rtgs prgckakh`rgs ?

 @utmr g khstktufköh @utmr g khstktufköh. Fmaprghdg

Fmaprghdg gc hmalrg y gc `pgcckdm dgc
`utmr m `utmrgs qug b`h rg`ckz`dm c` khvgstke`fköh y c`
khstktufköh fmh c` fu`c gstàh vkhfuc`dms.
Fmrrgm gcgftröhkfm Fmrrgm gcgftröhkfm dgc `utmr.
Tátucm (Tktcg)    Tátucm. Dglg sgr fmrtm
fmrtm y fc`rm y hm mfup`r aàs dg
07 p`c`lr`s hk utkckz`r gxprgskmhgs fmam? – Wh gstudkm m
uh` khvgstke`fköh smlrg …….
 Wh lugh tátucm dglg fmaghz`r fmh c` dgikhkfköh
gx`ft` dgc tga` sgcgffkmh`dm.

\gsuagh (@lstr`ft) Vkhmpsks

Vkhmps ks dg c`s fmh
fmhfcu
fcuskm
skmhgs
hgs.. Ygr
Ygrskö
sköhh `lrgvk
`lrgvk`d`
`d` qug
fmhtkghg m fmhdghs` f`d` p`rtg dgc `rtáfucm.
Khtrmduffköh (Khtrmduftkmh) ^rkagr` p`rtg
khvgstke`dm dgc `rtáfucm.
y fmauhkf` Khdkf``htgfgdghtgs
`c cgftmr gc prmlcga` gstudk`dm
dgc tga`. m

Vgeuhd` p`rtg dgc dmfuaghtm.

Vgffkmhgs dgc `rtáfucm    Fmhstktuygh c` p`rtg fghtr`c y c` aàs gxtghs` dgc

`rtáfucm.
 Vg ghf`lg
ghf`lgz`hz`h fmh sultát
sultátucms
ucms prk
prkhfk
hfkp`c
p`cgs.
gs. C`s
sgffkm
sgf fkmhgs
hgs dgpghd
dgpghdghgh dgc tga` tr`t`dmtr`t`dm.. Gh `rtá `rtáfuc
fucms
ms
c`rems fmrrgspmhdgh ` cms f`pátucms. F`d` dkvksköh sg
ghf`lgz` fmh sultátucms prkhfkp`cgs: b` dg sgr `h`ckz`d`
` f`l`ckd`d y rgc`fkmh`d` cöekf`aghtg fmh c`s dgaàs
sgffkmhgs.
 Dgsfrklg gh gc rgpmrtg dg f`sm 0<  cms rgsuct`dms
dg uh rgpmrtg smlrg uh f`sm gspgfáikfm, fmh gc ikh dg d`r 
` fmhmfgr
fmhmfgr cms `hà `hàcks
cksks
ks y c`s gxpgxpgrk
grkghf
ghfk`s
k`s fkg
fkghtá
htáikf
ikf`s,
`s,
të
tëfh fhkf`
kf`ss y ag agtm
tmdm
dmcöe
cöekf
kf`s
`s fmfmhs
hskdg
kdgr`
r`d`
d`ss dg a`hga`hgr` r`
fmhfrgt`, p`r` qug uh p`r fmapgtghtg pugd` rgpgtkrcms y
mltghgr rgsuct`dms m b`cc`zems skakc`rgs m gqukv`cghtgs.
 Gh c` amd`
amd`ckckd`
d`dd dg `r `rtá
táfu
fucm
cm dg rg rgvk
vksköh06,
sköh
dgsf
dgsfrk rklg
lg c` rg rgvk
vksk
sköh
öh sk skst
stga
gaàt
àtkf
kf`` fmfmag
aght ht`d
`d`` dg c`
ckcktg
tgr`
r`tu
tur`
r` sm
smlr
lrgg f`f`sm
smss `h`hàc
àcme
mems
ms m sm smlr
lrg
g gc tga`tga`
sgcg
sgcgff ffkm
kmh`
h`dm
dm,, p`
p`r`
r` qu qugg uh p`r fm fmap
apgtgtgh
ghtg
tg pupugd
gd``
rgpgtkrcms y mltghgr rgsuct`dms m b`cc`zems skakc`rgs m

0<
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 (Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>;)
06
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 (Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>;)

9;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

gqukv`cghtgs.

^`rtgs ikh`cgs
\gsuct`dms (\gsucts)   C`s
C`s p`rt
p`rtgs
gs ikh`
ikh`cg
cgss gs
gstà
tàh
h imra
imra`d
`d`s
`s pmr
pmr c`s
c`s
rgigrghfk`s y uh `pëhdkfg, sk ëstg iugsg khdkspghs`lcg.
 ^rgsgh
^rg sght`
t` c` hug
hugv`
v` khimra
khimra`fk
`fköh,
öh, rgsuct
rgsuct`dm
`dm dgc
gstudkm m khvgstke`fköh, qug sg khimra`.

\gigrghfk`s Lklckmeràikf`s (H`ag  \gigrghfk`s. Fmaprghdgh uh` ckst` qug fmhtkghg

`hd yg`r systga) c`s iughtgs lklckmeràikf`s dg cms `utmrgs fkt`dms gh gc
tgxtm. C`s mlr`s qug hm sg hmalr`rmh dghtrm dgc `rtáfucm
hm sg khfcuygh gh c`s rgigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s.
 Hmra`s @^@
  @pëhdkfg. (Vk iugrg khdkspghs`lcg `erge`r uh
`pëhdkfg), ëstg krá` fmcmf`dm khagdk`t`aghtg dgspuës dg
c`s rgigrghfk`s.

O kaëhgz.
Fu`drm rg`ckz`dm pmr Hmrby Tmrrgerms` Okaëhgz

5>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 5. Fu`drm. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh dg `rtáfucms.

@FWG\DM Hm. >6 (Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>;)

Amdkf`dm pmr cms @fugrdms Hm. 9 dg <>0> y Hm. >7 dg <>00 –^mr gc
fu`c sg `dmpt` gc hugvm \gec`aghtm dg ^mser`dms dg c` Fmrpmr`fköh
Whkvgrskd`d Cklrg‑.

@\TÁFWCM 04. \gquksktms p`r` gc Tátucm dg

Gspgfk`ckst`. ^`r` mpt`r gc tucm dg GV^GFK@CKVT@ sg
WHKYG\VKD@D rgqukgrg?
CKL\G
KHVTKTWTM DG
^MVE\@DMV 0. Furs`r y `prml`r
tmd`s c`s
6. ^rgsght`r uh tr`l`om dg khvgse`fköh `pckf`d` gh gc àrg` dg c`
gspgfk`ckz`fköh, dg fmhimrakd`d fmh gc @rfucm 62, @fugrdm >9 dg mftulrg
`skeh`tur`s
<7 dg <>>9, \gec`aghtm dg Khvgse`fkmhgs, qug sg tr`dufkrà gh uh `rfucm
gsfmekd`s b`st`
fmapcgt`r gc
pulckf`lcg fmh uh` gxtghsköh aáhka` dg qukhfg (07) y aàxka` dg
hÿagrm dg frëdktms vgkhfkhfm (<7) pàekh`s, gc fu`c dglg gst`r `rfuc`dm fmh c`s cáhg`s y
gxkekdms pmr gc prmygftms dg khvgse`fköh dg c` Whkvgrskd`d rgc`fkmh`dms fmh gc prmer`a`,
prmer`a`. dghkdms p`r` t`c gigftm pmr gc Fmhsgom @f`dëakfm fmrrgspmhdkghtg, gh
uh` dg c`s skeukghtgs amd`ckd`dgs?

<. @sksr pmr cm `.  \gpmrtg dg f`sm .

aghms ` uh 2>% dg Dmfuaghtm qug prgsght` cms

c`s bmr`s
rgsuct`dms dg uh gstudkm l. \gvksköh dg tga`.
`f`dëakf`s
\gquksktms p`r` gc prgsghfk`cgs
gst`lcgfkd`s gh gc
smlrg uh f`sm gspgfáfm, fmh
gc h dg d`r ` fmhmfgr cms
Dmfuaghtm rgsuct`dm dg
pc`h dg gstudkms `hàcksks y c`s gxpgrkghfk`s c` rgvksköh fráf` dg c`
Tátucm dg p`r` f`d` fkghf`s, tëfhkf`s y cktgr`tur` smlrg uh tga`
Gspgfk`ckst` `skeh`tur`. agtmdmcöekf`s fmhskdgr`d`s gh p`rfuc`r
dg a`hgr` fmhfrgt`. ^mdrà
khfcukr uh` rgvksköh
skstgaàf` fmaght`d` dg c`
cktgr`tur` smlrg f`sms
`hàcmems.
04

04
 Fu`drm gc`lmr`dm pmr Hmrby Tmrrgerms`. Tma`dm dg @FWG\DM Hm. >6 DG HMYKGAL
HMYKGAL\G\G 0> DG <>>;, AMDKIKF@DMV ^M\ CMV @fugrdms
Hm. 9 dg <>0> y Hm. >7 dg <>00. WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G. LMEMTÀ, D. F \gec`aghtm dg ^m
^mser`dms..
ser`dms..

50
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 2. CKVT@ DG FBGPWGM. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh

prg sght`fköh dg `rtáfucms
 

CKVT@ DG FBGPWGM. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh / rgvksköh dg `rtáfucms.

\gquksktm    
07 Hÿagrm
0 Gxtghsköh qukhfg (07) ` (<7) pàekh`s
pàekh`s
< ^rgsght`fköh gh Umrd
6 ^`pgc t`a`ðm f`rt`
4 Cgtr` m iughtg @rk`c 0<
7 ^àrr`ims ` gsp`fkm y agdkm
9 \gpmrtg dg f`sm09
5 \gvksköh dg tga`05
2 Fkt`s lklckmeràikf`s (Hmra`s @^@)
;
^`rtgs dgc `rtáfucm
^`rtgs prgckakh`rgs
0>  @utmr. (Fmaprghdg gc hmalrg y gc `pgcckdm dgc `utmr m `utmrgs qug b`h rg`ckz`dm
c` khvgstke`fköh)
00 Khstktufköh (Khstktufköh fmh c` fu`c gstàh vkhfuc`dms )
0< Fmrrrg
Fm rgmm gcgft
gcgftröhkf
röhkfm
m dgc
`utmr 
06 Tátucm (Tktcg)
04 \gsuagh (@lstr`ft) (Ygrsköh `lrgvk`d` qug fmhtkghg m fmhdghs` f`d` p`rtg
dgc `rtáfucm)
07 Khtrmduffköh (Khtrmduftkmh) ( Khdkf` gc prmlcga` gstudk`dm m khvgstke`dm y
fmauhkf` `c cgftmr `htgfgdghtgs dgc tga`)
Vgffkmhgs dgc `rtáfucm
09 ^`rtg fghtr`c
05 Vultátucms prkhfkp`cgs
^`rtgs ikh`cgs
02 \gsuct`dms (\gsucts) ( ^rgsght` c` hugv` khimra`fköh, rgsuct`dm dgc gstudkm
m khvgstke`fköh, qug sg khimra`)
0; \gigrghfk`s Lklckmeràikf`s
Lklckmeràikf`s (H`ag `hd yg`r systga)
<>  @pëhdkfg (sk iugsg khdkspghs`lcg)
Mtrms
MLVG\Y@FKMHGV

07
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6 y @rfucm 62, @fugrdm >9 dg mftulrg <7 dg <>>9, \gec`aghtm dg
Khvgse`fkmhgs
09
 @fugrdm Hm. >6 Hmvkgalrg 0> dg <>>; `rfucm 04, huagr`c 6 cktgr`c `).
05

5<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm ;. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em

\gigrghfk` Hmra` Gogapcm

\gigrghfk`  @^GCCKDM, Hmalrg.

lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. Vultátucm.
cklrms Hÿagrm dg c` gdkfköh.
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh?  @[\MV, Ir`hjy. Fàcfucm Dkigrghfk`c.
 hmalrg dgc gdktmr, Tr`dufkdm pmr [gcj`dm A`rá` E`alm`. 5
 `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. gd. Lmemtà D.F.? AfEr`w-Bkcc, <>>0. 7;9 p.
Hÿagrm dg cms vmcÿaghgs y tmams
(sk sg tr`t` dg mlr`s fmh aàs dg
uh vmcua
vmcuagh
gh,, sg dgdglg
lg kh
khdk
dkf`
f`rr gc
hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh skh
aghfkmh`r c` p`ekh`fköh).
C` rgigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) dgc f`pátucm.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc f`pátucm.
f`pátucms
cklrm m p`rtgs dgc Gh? Tátucmdgdgc
Hÿagrm c` cklrm.
gdkfköh. VAKTB,
A`rjgt `hdEmrdmh
fmst Y. y ^@\\, \ussgcc
`pprm`fbgs. C.
Gh? Y`cu`tkmh
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh? mi khtgccgftu`c prmpgrty `hd kht`heklcg `ssgts.
 hmalrg dgc gdktmr, 6 gd. Hgw [mrj? Ombh Ukcgy, <>>>. p. 057-
 `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. <04.
^`ekh`fköh dgc f`pátucm.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) dgc `rtáfucm.
`rtáfucm.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc `rtáfucm.
`rtáfucm dg rgvkst` Gh? Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh DWHH, Vfmtt. Vgfrgtms dg Ukhdmws. Gh?
pgrködkf`. ^F Umrd. @lrkc, <>><. vmc. 9, hm. ;2, p. 79-
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh, ags y `ðm. 94.
Hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh, `htgfgdkdm Gogapcm? FCKIIM\D, Vtgp`hkg. C` hugv`
fmh c` p`c`lr` vmc, fkghfk` dg c` fmhtr`t`fköh. Gh? Egstköh,
hÿagrm dg c` ghtrge` (gh f`sm dg  @lrkc-a`ym, <>>5, vmc. 0> hm.
hm. <, p. 2>-27.
qug hm tghe` sg fmcmf` c` p`c`lr`
hm),
p`ekh`fköh, hÿagrm khkfk`c y ikh`c.
\gigrghfk` Igfb`
Igf b` dg `ftu`c
`ftu`ckz`kz`fkö
fköh/r
h/rgvk
gvkskö
sköh?
h?  @ftu`ckz`dm gh ghgrm dg 0;;> m rgv.rgv. 0
lklckmeràikf` p`r` cms dmfuaghtms gcgftröhkfms sg `ftu`ckz`h a`rzm 0;;5.
iughtgs gcgftröhkf`s fmh irgfughfk`,
irgfughfk`, pmr cm qug gs hgfgs`rkm
hgfgs`rkm Igfb` dg c` fkt`? c` igfb` dg c` fkt` sg
gsfrklkr c` igfb` dg `ftu`ckz`fköh m rgvksköh
dgc dmfuaghtm,
dmfuaghtm, fktàhdmcm
fktàhdmcm dgspuës dg c` gapcg` gh f`sm dg hm fmhmfgr c`s igfb`s
igfb` dg pulckf`fköh. dg `ftu`ckz`fkmhgs m rgvkskmhgs. Vg rgekstr`
ghtrg p`rëhtgsks fu`dr`dms c` igfb` gh c`
qug sg fmhsuctö c` iughtg.
Gogapcm? Zfkt`dm gh 6 sgptkgalrg dg 0;;>Q m
Zfkt`dm gh 0;;4->5-<2Q
Dkspmhklkckd`d y `ffgsm? pgraktg cmf`ckz`r g
kdghtkikf`r c` iughtg dgc dmfuaghtm fkt`dm.
Gst` khimra`fköh sg `htgfgdg dg c`s
p`c`lr`s –Dkspmhklcg gh‑. Gogapcm?
Dkspmhklcg gh Khtgrhgt?
3empbgr?//khim.ckl.gdu?5>/>>/`rtkfcgs/g-omu
h`cs/ubcklr`ry/p`fsrgvkgw/v7/h6/pkfgwkc.7h68

56
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

\gigrghfk` Tátucm dgc dk`rkm.

lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh.
pgrködkfm Igfb` (dá`,
Hÿagrm ags y `ðm).
dg sgffkmhgs, GC TKGA^M.
<>>9. Lmemtà
6 sgf. 4> p. D.F. <<, hmvkgalrg,
pàekh`s.

\gigrghfk` Hmalrg
Hma lrg fma
fmapcg
pcgtm
tm dgc fmher
fmhergsm,
gsm,
lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh sgakh`rkm, skapmskm m rguhköh gh
fmhergsm, a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`. FMHE\GVM KHTG\H@FKMH@C DGC
fmhigrghfk` m rguhköh Hÿagrm dgc gvghtm gh `ràlkems, L@\\MFM KLG\M@AG\KF@HM. (6? 2-0<,
dá`, ags, `ðm y mftulrg, <>>0? Vgvkcc`, Gsp`ð`). Agamrk`s.
cue`r dgc gvghtm, ghtrg p`rëhtgsks. Vgvkcc`? Whkvgrskd`d ^`lcm dg Mc`vkdg, <>>0.
Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh. 06> p.
Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh.
Gdkt
Gdktmr
mrk`
k`cc m khstk
hstkttufkö
ufköh
h qug
qug cm
p`trmfkh`.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.

\gigrghfk` Hÿagrm tmt`c(p`ás,

Ourksdkffköh dg pàekh`s.
dgp`rt`aghtm m
lklckmeràikf` p`r` auhkfkpkm, gh a`yÿsfuc`
hmra`s ourádkf`s smstghkd`).
Akhkstgrkm m ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg
(gh a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`).
Dgskeh`fköh y hÿagrm dg c` hmra`
hm ra` FMCMALK@. AKHKVTG\KM DG
 ourádkf`. DGV@\\MCCM GFMHÖAKFM. Dgfrgtm
Igfb` dg c` hmra` ourádkf` (dá`, <<9; (09, hmvkgalrg, 0;;6). ^mr gc fu`c sg
ags, `ðm). mre`hkz` gc skstga` dg hmra`ckz`fköh,
Hmalrg dg c` hmra` ourádkf`, gh fgrtkikf`fköh y agtrmcmeá`. Lmemtà D.F.? Gc
f`sm dg qug cm tghe`. Akhkstgrkm, 0;;6. 02 p.
Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh gh qug
`p`rgfg mikfk`caghtg.
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh.
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh.
Hÿagrm. ^`ekh`fköh
\gigrghfk` Ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg.
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm.
hmra`s tëfhkf`s Födkem dg c` hmra` (sk hm imra` KHVTKTWTM FMCMALK@HM DG
p`rtg dgc tátucm). HM\A@CK_@FKÖH [ FG\TKIKF@FKÖH.
Gdkfköh. Vkstga`s dg egstköh dg c` f`ckd`d?
Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. iuhd`aghtms y vmf`luc`rkm. HTF-KVM ;>>0.
Gdktmrk`c. Lmemtà D.F.? Gc khstktutm, <>>7. 69 p.
 @ðm.
^`ekh`fköh.
\gigrghfk` Tátucm dg c` khvghfköh. Gogapcm? FMHVGOM VW^G\KM\ DG
lklckmeràikf` p`r` \gspmhs`lkckd`d sgfuhd`rk`. KHYGVTKE@FKMHGV FKGHTÁIKF@V.
p`tghtgs Hmt`s. Khst`c`fköh p`r` gc prgf`cght`akghtm dg
Kdghtkikf`fköh dgc dmfuaghtm. a`tgrk`s prka`s fmh dgstkhm ` cms
^`ás u mre`hksam. prmfgdkakghtms dg i`lrkf`fköh dg `fgrm
Tkpm dg p`tghtg. agdk`htg fmhvgrs`fköh `c mxáeghm. Khvghtmr?
Hÿagrm. A. IG\HÀHDG_ CÖ^G_. Kht. FC.? F<<L

54
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh dgc 0/>4. Igfb` dg smckfktud? <5, a`ym, 0;29.

dmfuaghtm. Gsp`ð`, p`tghtg dg khvgstke`fköh. GV
25>6097 @9. 09, `lrkc, 0;25.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r`
tgsks y tr`l`oms dg Tátucm.
Aghfköh m er`dm `c qug sg mpt`. \MO@V, A`rá` Bgcgh`
Ogsÿs. Tr`t`akghtm y _@AM\@, A`rá`
ikskmtgr`pëutkfm dg c`s dg
er`dm Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. `ctgr`fkmhgs dg fugccm dg pkg. Tr`l`om dg
Khstktufköh `f`dëakf` gh qug sg er`dm Tgr`pgut` Iáskfm. Lmemtà D.F.?
prgsght`. Whkvgrskd`d H`fkmh`c dg Fmcmalk`. I`fuct`d
 @ðm. dg Agdkfkh`. Dgp`rt`aghtm dg Tgr`pk`
^`ekh`fköh. Iáskf`, 0;2;. 072 p.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm.
khimrag fkghtáikfm y ^kg dg kaprght`?
tëfhkfm khfcuyg cms  cue`r dg pulckf`fköh, AKTFBGCC, D. y CM@DG\, @. Khvgstke`tkmh
skeukghtgs gcgaghtms  hmalrg dgc gdktmr, mi pmccut`ht gaksskmhs irma frga`tmrk`.
 `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Vtgvgh`eg? U`rrgh Vprkhe C`l., 0;;6.
^`ekh`fköh? hÿagrm dg cms UVCC\-;>2 (^@).
vmcÿaghgs y tmams (sk sg tr`t` dg
mlr`skhdkf`r
dglg fmh aàs dg uh vmcuagh,
gc hÿagrm dgc sg
vmcuagh skh aghfkmh`r c`
p`ekh`fköh).
Hÿagrm m sgrkg kdghtkikf`tkv` dgc
khimrag.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs).
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm dgc a`tgrk`c.
a`tgrk`cgs Gdkfköh (gxfgptm c` prkagr`). KHVTKTWTM EGME\ÀIKFM @EWVTÁH
f`rtmeràikfms
f`rtmeràikfm s khfcuyg Gsf`c`, prmygffkmhgs, ghtrg mtrms. FMD@__K. ^c`hm dg c` fkud`d V`ht` Ig dg
cms skeukghtgs Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Lmemtà. Gsf`c` 0? 6>.>>>. Lmemtà? KE@F,
gcgaghtms Gdktmrk`c. <>>>. 0 pc`hm? fmc: 002 x 5> fa.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
F`htkd`d dg a`p`s y
dkaghskmhgs.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs). 0? FBM^KH, I. <4 prëcudgs. Zp`rtktur`Q
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. Ukgh, Wrtgxt gdktkmh. 0 p`rtktur`: tgxtm gh
dk`pmsktkv`s, Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. `cgaàh g khecës. f.`. Z0;56Q. 4; p.
tr`hsp`rghfk`s, Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gogapcm <? FGHT\M @E\MHÖAKFM
imtmer`iá`s, p`rtktur`s Gdktmrk`c. T\M^KF@C DG KHYGVTKE@FKÖH [
khfcuyg cms skeukghtgs  @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. GHVGÐ@H_@ (F@TKG). C` khvgstke`fköh
gcgaghtms Dgsfrkpfköh iáskf`, a`tgrk`c skvkfuctur`c Zdk`pmsktkv`sQ. Turrk`cl`? F`tkg,
`fmap`ð`htg. 0;;>. 00> dk`pmsktkv`s, fmcmr, 0 f`sgtg, <9
akh, smhkdm.
\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs). 0? T@J@B@VBK, \. Gc auhdm dg \uakjm? gc
lklckmeràikf` p`r` Tátucm. lmsqug dg c` skrgh` Zvkdgmer`l`fköhQ.
er`l`fkmhgs
er`l`fkmh gs smhmr`s? Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. Gogapcm <? L`rfgcmh`, A`he` Ikcas, 0;;6. 0
fkht`s, f`sgtgs, Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. vkdgmf`ssgttg (YBV), 7> akh., smhkdm, fmcmr,
dksfms, dksfms Gdktmrk`c. 0< puce`d`s.
fmap`ftms y  @ðm dg pulckf`fköh.
pgcáfuc`s Dgsfrk
Dgs frkpfk
pfköh
öh iás
iáskf`
kf`?? khfcu
khfcuyg
yg gc tkgap
tkgapm
m 6? @CCGH, Ummdy. Mtr` auogr Zpgcáfuc`Q.
tm
tmt`
t`cc dg dur`
dur`fk
fköh
öh dg c` pr prmy
mygf
gffk
fköh
öh:: ^rmdufkd` pmr \mlgrt Ergghbut B`almrg,
prgsghfk` dg smhkdm m `usghfk`: vgcmfkd`d
dg c` prmygffköh y dkaghskmhgs .
Lr`skc? Dgcuxg, <>><. 0 DYD, 20 akhutms,

57
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

fmcmr.

\gigrghfk`  @utmr(gs) ghtrg p`rëhtgsks hmalrg

lklckmeràikf` p`r` dgc f`rem `lrgvk`dm. 0? F\[VT@C, C. (^rmd. Gogfut). Tbg

prmer`a`s
tgcgvksköh dg r`dkm y Hmalrg dgc prmer`a`.
Tkpm dg prmer`a` ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. A`fHgkc/Cgbrgr
tgcgvkskvmQ. Hgw hgws bmur.U`sbkhetmh,
[mrj `hd Z^rmer`a` DF?
Ghtkd`d gaksmr`. Vgrvkfkm dg tgcgvksköh `lkgrt`. 00, mftulrg,
Igfb` dg gaksköh? dá`, ags, `ðm. 0;;6.

Fu`drm dg Fmrrgffköh dg gstkcm.

gstkcm. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em, <>00,
`umrgsgdkmrgs.fma

59
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

@hgxm 0> Hmra`s KFMHTGF

V
KFgM
eÿ
HhTGFmrrgffk
Fmrr
F, gffköh
^ulöh
^ul ckckf` dg gstkcm
f`dm
dm gst
gc kcm,,<2Gs
Gstktkcm
`cms
emsstmdg
, <rgig
rg>igrg
00rghf
  hfk`
k`ss  lklc
pmr lk`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma
lckm
kmerà
eràikikf`
f`ss ‖ Hm
`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma,Hmra
,ra`s
`s
gh
bp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<2/gscms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`f`s-
bp?//www.`utmrgsgdktmrgs.fma/lcme/<>00/>2/<2/gscms-dg-rgigrghfk`s-lklckmer`f`s-
hmra`s-kfmhtgf/, tma`dm gc <4 dg ouckm dg <>0< .

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` cklrms

 @^GCCKDM, Hmalrg. Tátucm. Vultátucm.

Vultátucm. Hÿagrm dg c` gdkfköh. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh?
hmalrg dgc gdktmr, `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Hÿagrm dg cms vmcÿaghgs y tmams (sk sg
tr`t` dg mlr`s fmh aàs dg uh vmcuagh, sg dglg khdkf`r gc hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh skh
aghfkmh`r c` p`ekh`fköh).
Gogapcm? @[\GV, Ir`hj. Fàcfucm. Tr`dufkdm pmr [gcj` A`rá` E`rfá`. 4 gd. Lmemtà
D.F.? AfEr`w-Bkcc, <>>0. 7;9 p.

C` rgigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` f`pátucms m p`rtgs dgc cklrm

 @utmr(gs) dgc f`pátucm. Tátucm dgc f`pátucm. Gh? Tátucm dgc cklrm. Hÿagrm dg c`
gdkfköh. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh? hmalrg dgc gdktmr, `ðm dg pulckf`fköh. ^`ekh`fköh
dgc f`pátucm.

Gogapcm? VAKTB, Emrdmh Y. y ^@\\, \ussgcc C. A`rjgt `hd fmst `pprm`fbgs. Gh?
Y`cu`tkmh mi khtgccgftu`c prmpgrty `hd kht`heklcg `ssgts. 6 gd. Hgw [mrj? Ombh
Ukcgy, <>>>. p. 057- <04.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` `rtáfucm dg rgvkst`

 @utmr(gs) dgc `rtáfucm. Tátucm dgc `rtáfucm. Gh? Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh pgrködkf`.
Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh, ags y `ðm. Hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh, `htgfgdkdm fmh c` p`c`lr`
vmc, hÿagrm dg c` ghtrge` (gh f`sm dg qug hm tghe` sg fmcmf` c` p`c`lr` hm),
p`ekh`fköh, hÿagrm khkfk`c y ikh`c.

Gogapcm? DWHH, Vfmtt. Vgfrgtms dg Ukhdmws. Gh? ^F Umrd. @lrkc, <>><. vmc. 9, hm.
;2, p. 79-94.

55
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gogapcm? FCKIIM\D, Vtgp`hkg. C` hugv` fkghfk` dg c` fmhtr`t`fköh. Gh? Egstköh,

 @lrkc-a`ym, <>>5, vmc. 0> hm. <, p. 2>-27.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` iughtgs gcgftröhkf`s

Igfb` dg `ftu`ckz`fköh/rgvksköh?

Cms dmfuaghtms gcgftröhkfms sg `ftu`ckz`h fmh irgfughfk`, pmr cm qug gs hgfgs`rkm

gsfrklkr c` igfb` dg `ftu`ckz`fköh m rgvksköh dgc dmfuaghtm, fktàhdmcm dgspuës dg
c` igfb` dg pulckf`fköh.

Gogapcm? `ftu`ckz`dm gh ghgrm dg 0;;> m rgv. 0 a`rzm 0;;5.

Igfb` dg c` fkt`?

C` igfb` dg c` fkt` sg gapcg` gh f`sm dg hm fmhmfgr c`s igfb`s dg `ftu`ckz`fkmhgs

m rgvkskmhgs. Vg rgekstr` ghtrg p`rëhtgsks fu`dr`dms c` igfb` gh c` qug sg fmhsuctö
c` iughtg.

Gogapcm? Zfkt`dm gh 6 sgptkgalrg dg 0;;>Q m Zfkt`dm gh 0;;4->5-<2Q

Dkspmhklkckd`d y `ffgsm?

^graktg cmf`ckz`r g kdghtkikf`r c` iughtg dgc dmfuaghtm fkt`dm. Gst` khimra`fköh sg

`htgfgdg dg c`s p`c`lr`s –Dkspmhklcg gh‑.

Gogapcm? Dkspmhklcg gh Khtgrhgt? 3empbgr?//khim.ckl.gdu?5>/>>/`rtkfcgs/g-omu

h`cs/ubcklr`ry/p`fsrgvkgw/v7/h6/pkfgwkc.7h68

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh pgrködkfm

Tátucm dgc dk`rkm. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Igfb` (dá`, ags y `ðm). Hÿagrm dg
sgffkmhgs, pàekh`s.

Gogapcm? GC TKGA^M. Lmemtà D.F. <<, hmvkgalrg, <>>9. 6 sgf. 4> p.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` uh fmhergsm, fmhigrghfk` m rguhköh

52
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Hmalrg fmapcgtm dgc fmhergsm, sgakh`rkm, skapmskm m rguhköh gh a`yÿsfuc`

smstghkd`. Hÿagrm dgc gvghtm gh `ràlkems, dá`, ags, `ðm y cue`r dgc gvghtm, ghtrg
p`rëhtgsks. Tátucm dg c` pulckf`fköh. Cue`r dg c` pulckf`fköh. Gdktmrk`c m khstktufköh
qug cm p`trmfkh`. @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Hÿagrm tmt`c dg pàekh`s.

Gogapcm? FMHE\GVM KHTG\H@FKMH@C DGC L@\\MFM KLG\M@AG\KF@HM.

(6? 2-0<, mftulrg, <>>0? Vgvkcc`, Gsp`ð`). Agamrk`s. Vgvkcc`? Whkvgrskd`d ^`lcm dg
Mc`vkdg, <>>0. 06> p.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` hmra`s ourádkf`s

Ourksdkffköh (p`ás, dgp`rt`aghtm m auhkfkpkm, gh a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`). Akhkstgrkm

m ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg (gh a`yÿsfuc` smstghkd`). Dgskeh`fköh y hÿagrm dg c`
hmra` ourádkf`. Igfb` dg c` hmra` ourádkf` (dá`, ags, `ðm). Hmalrg dg c` hmra`
 ourádkf`, gh f`sm dg qug cm tghe`. Tátucm dg c`
c` pulckf`fköh gh qug `p`rgfg
mikfk`caghtg. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh. Hÿagrm. ^`ekh`fköh.

Gogapcm? FMCMALK@. AKHKVTG\KM DG DGV@\\MCCM GFMHÖAKFM. Dgfrgtm Dgfrg tm

<<9; (09, hmvkgalrg, 0;;6). ^mr gc fu`c sg mre`hkz` gc skstga` dg hmra`ckz`fköh,
fgrtkikf`fköh y agtrmcmeá`. Lmemtà D.F.? Gc Akhkstgrkm, 0;;6. 02 p.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` hmra`s tëfhkf`s

Ghtkd`d rgspmhs`lcg. Tátucm. Födkem dg c` hmra` (sk hm imra` p`rtg dgc tátucm).
Gdkfköh. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gdktmrk`c. @ðm. ^`ekh`fköh.

Gogapcm? KHVTKTWTM FMCMALK@HM DG HM\A@CK_@FKÖH [ FG\TKIKF@FKÖH.

Vkstga`s dg egstköh dg c` f`ckd`d? iuhd`aghtms y vmf`luc`rkm. HTF-KVM ;>>0.
Lmemtà D.F.? Gc khstktutm, <>>7. 69 p.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` p`tghtgs

Tátucm dg c` khvghfköh. \gspmhs`lkckd`d sgfuhd`rk`. Hmt`s. Kdghtkikf`fköh dgc

dmfuaghtm. ^`ás u mre`hksam. Tkpm dg p`tghtg. Hÿagrm. Igfb` dg pulckf`fköh dgc
dmfuaghtm.

5;
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Gogapcm? FMHVGOM VW^G\KM\ DG KHYGVTKE@FKMHGV FKGHTÁIKF@V.

Khst`c`fköh p`r` gc prgf`cght`akghtm dg a`tgrk`s prka`s fmh dgstkhm ` cms
prmfgdkakghtms dg i`lrkf`fköh dg `fgrm agdk`htg fmhvgrs`fköh `c mxáeghm.

Khvghtmr? A. IG\HÀHDG_
a`ym, 0;29. CÖ^G_.
Gsp`ð`, p`tghtg Kht. FC.? F<<L
dg khvgstke`fköh. GV0/>4. Igfb`
25>6097 @9.dg09,
smckfktud? <5,
`lrkc, 0;25

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` tgsks y tr`l`oms dg er`dm

 @utmr(gs). Tátucm. Aghfköh m er`dm `c qug sg mpt`. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Khstktufköh

`f`dëakf` gh qug sg prgsght`. @ðm. ^`ekh`fköh.

Gogapcm? \MO@V, A`rá` Bgcgh` y _@AM\@, A`rá` dg Ogsÿs. Tr`t`akghtm

ikskmtgr`pëutkfm dg c`s `ctgr`fkmhgs dg fugccm dg pkg. Tr`l`om dg er`dm Tgr`pgut`
Iáskfm. Lmemtà D.F.? Whkvgrskd`d H`fkmh`c dg Fmcmalk`. I`fuct`d dg Agdkfkh`.
Dgp`rt`aghtm dg Tgr`pk` Iáskf`, 0;2;. 072 p.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` khimrag fkghtáikfm y tëfhkfm khfcuyg cms

skeukghtgs gcgaghtms

 @utmr(gs). Tátucm. ^kg dg kaprght`? cue`r dg pulckf`fköh, hmalrg dgc gdktmr, `ðm dg
pulckf`fköh. ^`ekh`fköh? hÿagrm dg cms vmcÿaghgs y tmams (sk sg tr`t` dg mlr`s
fmh aàs dg uh vmcuagh, sg dglg khdkf`r gc hÿagrm dgc vmcuagh skh aghfkmh`r c`
p`ekh`fköh). Hÿagrm m sgrkg kdghtkikf`tkv` dgc khimrag.

Gogapcm? AKTFBGCC, D. y CM@DG\, @. Khvgstke`tkmh mi pmccut`ht

p mccut`ht gaksskmhs irma
frga`tmrk`. Vtgvgh`eg? U`rrgh Vprkhe C`l., 0;;6. UVCC\-;>2 (^@).

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` a`tgrk`cgs f`rtmeràikfms khfcuyg cms skeukghtgs

gcgaghtms

 @utmr(gs).Tátucm dgc a`tgrk`c. Gdkfköh (gxfgptm c` prkagr`). Gsf`c`, prmygffkmhgs,

ghtrg mtrms. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gdktmrk`c. @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. F`htkd`d dg
a`p`s y dkaghskmhgs.

Gogapcm? KHVTKTWTM EGME\ÀIKFM @EWVTÁH FMD@__K. ^c`hm dg c` fkud`d

V`ht` Ig dg Lmemtà. Gsf`c` 0? 6>.>>>. Lmemtà? KE@F, <>>>. 0 pc`hm? fmc: 002 x 5>
fa.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` dk`pmsktkv`s, tr`hsp`rghfk`s, imtmer`iá`s,

p`rtktur`s khfcuyg cms skeukghtgs gcgaghtms

2>
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

 @utmr(gs). Tátucm. Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gdktmrk`c.

Gdktmrk`c.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Dgsfrkpfköh iáskf`, a`tgrk`c `fmap`ð`htg.

Gogapcm
tgxtm 0? FBM^KH,
gh `cgaàh I. <4f.`.
g khecës. prëcudgs.
Z0;56Q. Zp`rtktur`Q
4; p. Ukgh, Wrtgxt gdktkmh. 0 p`rtktur`:
Gogapcm <? FGHT\M @E\MHÖAKFM T\M^KF@C DG KHYGVTKE@FKÖH [
GHVGÐ@H_@ (F@TKG). C` khvgstke`fköh skvkfuctur`c Zdk`pmsktkv`sQ. Turrk`cl`? F`tkg,
0;;>. 00> dk`pmsktkv`s, fmcmr, 0 f`sgtg, <9 akh, smhkdm.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` er`l`fkmhgs smhmr`s? fkht`s, f`sgtgs, dksfms,

dksfms fmap`ftms y pgcáfuc`s

 @utmr(gs). Tátucm. Tkpm dg a`tgrk`c ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. Cue`r dg pulckf`fköh. Gdktmrk`c.

Gdktmrk`c.
 @ðm dg pulckf`fköh. Dgsfrkpfköh iáskf`? khfcuyg gc tkgapm
tkgapm tmt`c dg dur`fköh dg c`
prmygffköh: prgsghfk` dg smhkdm m `usghfk`: vgcmfkd`d dg c` prmygffköh y
dkaghskmhgs.
Gogapcm 0? T@J@B@VBK, \. Gc auhdm dg \uakjm? gc lmsqug dg c` skrgh`
Zvkdgmer`l`fköhQ.

Gogapcm <? L`rfgcmh`, A`he` Ikcas, 0;;6. 0 vkdgmf`ssgttg (YBV), 7> akh., smhkdm,
fmcmr, 0< puce`d`s.

Gogapcm 6? @CCGH, Ummdy. Mtr` auogr Zpgcáfuc`Q. ^rmdufkd` pmr \mlgrt Ergghbut
B`almrg, Lr`skc? Dgcuxg, <>><. 0 DYD, 20 akhutms, fmcmr.

\gigrghfk` lklckmeràikf` p`r` prmer`a`s dg r`dkm y tgcgvksköh

 @utmr(gs) ghtrg p`rëhtgsks hmalrg dgc f`rem `lrgvk`dm. Hmalrg dgc prmer`a`.
Tkpm dg prmer`a` ghtrg fmrfbgtgs. Ghtkd`d gaksmr`. Igfb` dg gaksköh? dá`, ags,
`ðm.

Gogapcm 0? F\[VT@C, C. (^rmd. Gogfut). Tbg A`fHgkc/Cgbrgr hgws bmur.

Z^rmer`a` tgcgvkskvmQ. Hgw [mrj `hd U`sbkhetmh, DF? Vgrvkfkm dg tgcgvksköh
`lkgrt`. 00, mftulrg, 0;;6

20
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Fmhtghkdm

^`sms làskfms p`r` prmdufkr `rtáfucms fkghtáikfms.......................................................................0

^rgeuht`s fc`vg ` tghgr gh fught` `htgs dg gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm.............................4

½Puë gs uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm=..............

.............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
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...............77

Tkpms dg @rtáfucms Fkghtáikfms y @f`dëakfms, Mtrms...............

............................
.............................
......................................9
.......................9

Mre`hkz`fköh dg uh `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm...............

..............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
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.................2
...2

^`rtgs dgc `rtáfucm fkghtáikfm..............

.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
................................
.................00
00

 @utmr(gs).............
............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
....................................
..................... 06

C` @utmrá` Aÿctkpcg...............
.............................
.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
...........................................
................................
....07
07

Tátucm...............
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
..................................
..........................
....... 09

F`r`ftgrástkf`s dgc tátucm?...............

.............................
.............................
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.............................
.............................
.....................................
......................05
05

Gcgaghtms dgc Tátucm..............

.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
...........................................
..............................
..02
02

Grrmrgs dg cms tátucms..............

.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
............................................
..............................0;
0;

\gsuagh.............
............................
.............................
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.............................
.............................
..................................................
................................... <>

Grrmrgs irgfughtgs gh c` rgd`ffköh dgc rgsuagh......................................................................<0

Khtrmduffköh..............
.............................
.............................
.............................
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................<4
<4

Gsquga` Fcàskfm dg Trgs ^àrr`ims..............

.............................
.............................
.............................
.................................................
..................................<7
<7

A`tgrk`c y Aëtmdms..............
.............................
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................................
.................. 6>

\gsuct`dms..............
............................
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.............................
.............................
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..................
...60
60

Dksfusköh..............
.............................
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................................
...................
..6<
6<

\gigrghfk`s lklckmeràikf`s m Lklckmer`iá`...............

.............................
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......................... 66

\gigrghfk`s Lklckmeràikf`s...............
.............................
.............................
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...................................65
....................65

2<
 

WHKYG\VKD@D CKL\G
VGDG ^\KHFK^@C
Lmemtà, D.F.

Ugler`iá`...............
.............................
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..............................
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.............................
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.................. 62

 @hgxm 0. \gfmaghd`fkmhgs Agtmdmcöekf`s p`r` b`fgr

b`fgr uh` Tgsks m uh Gstudkm dg F`s
F`sm
m. 40

`rtáfucm dg rgvksköh=.............
 @hgxm <. Föam gsfrklkr uh `rtáfucm ............................
.............................
.............................
.............................4<
..............4<
 @hgxm 6. @^@. Gogapcms dg hmt`s `c pkg y rgigrghfk`..............................................................46

Lklckmer``.......................
Lklckmer``......................................
.............................
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..............................
.............................
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.......................................
........................ 76

\gigrghfk`s..................
\gigrghfk`s................................
.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
.............................
..............................76
...............76

 @hgxm 4 Cgy 07<> dg <>0<.............

............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
.................................................
..................................72
72

Dgrgfbms dg @utmr .............................
............................................
..............................
.............................
.............................
...........................................
................................
....9>
9>

^rmtgffköh dgc dgrgfbm dgc `utmr smlrg c`s mlr`s cktgr`rk`s.....................................................90

\gspmhs`lkckd`d fkvkc uh` khir`ffköh `c dgrgfbm dg `utmr m ` cms dgrgfbms fmhgxms (Cgy
07<> dg <>0<, @rtáfucm 04)..............
...........................
.............................
..............................
.............................
.............................
...................................90
....................90

Ykmc`fköh ` cms dgrgfbms p`trkamhk`cgs dg `utmr y dgrgfbms fmhgxms...................................9<

 @hgxm 7. Fc`skikf`fköh dgc rgsuagh.............

............................
.............................
.............................
..............................
...................................99
....................99

 @hgxm 9. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh

prgsght`fköh dg `rtáfucms............................................................95

 @hgxm 5. Fu`drm. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh dg `rtáfucms.............................................5>

 @hgxm 2. CKVT@ DG FBGPWGM.

FBGPWGM. \gquksktms p`r` c` prgsght`fköh dg `rtáf
`rtáfucms
ucms....................50

Whkvgrskd`d dg Fbkf`em......................................................................5<
 @hgxm ;. Hmra`s dg c` Whkvgrskd`d
 @hgxm 0> Hmra`s KFMHTGF.............
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................. 59

26