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COMPUTER GRAPHICS

1. Computer graphics.

Computer graphics remains one of the most existing and rapidly growing
computer fields. Computer graphics may be defined as a pictorial representation or
graphical representation of objects in a computer.

2. scan code

When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the keyboard controller places a code carry
to the key pressed into a part of the memory called as the keyboard buffer. This code is
called as the scan code.

3. refreshing of the screen

Some method is needed for maintaining the picture on the screen. Refreshing of
screen is done by keeping the phosphorus glowing to redraw the picture repeatedly.
(i.e.)By quickly directing the electronic beam back to the same points.

4. Random scan/Raster scan displays

Random scan is a method in which the display is made by the electronic beam
which is directed only to the points or part of the screen picture is to be drawn.
The Raster scan system is a scanning technique in which the electrons sweep from
top to bottom and from left to right. The intensity is turned on or off to light and unlight
the pixel.

5. merits and demerits of Penetration techniques

The merits and demerits of the Penetration techniques are as follows

• It is an inexpensive technique
• It has only four colors
• The quality of the picture is not good when it is compared to other
techniques
• It can display color scans in monitors •
Poor limitation etc.
6. merits and demerits of DVST

The merits and demerits of direct view storage tubes [DVST] are as follows
• It has a flat screen
• Refreshing of screen is not required

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 • Selective or part erasing of screen is not possible •
It has poor contrast
• Performance is inferior to the refresh CRT.

7. emissive and non-emissive displays

The emissive display converts electrical energy into light energy. The plasma
panels, thin film electro-luminescent displays are the examples.
The Non emissive are optical effects to convert the sunlight or light from any
other source to graphic form. Liquid crystal display is an example.

8. merits and demerits of Plasma panel display

Merits

• Refreshing is not required

• Produce a very steady image free of Flicker •
Less bulky than a CRT.

Demerits

• Poor resolution of up to 60 d.p.i

• It requires complex addressing and wiring •
It is costlier than CRT.

9. persistence

The time it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay one tenth of its
original intensity is called as persistence.

10. resolution

The maximum number of points that can be displayed without an overlap on a CRT is
called as resolution.

11. Aspect ratio

The ratio of vertical points to the horizontal points necessary to produce length of
lines in both directions of the screen is called the Aspect ratio. Usually the aspect ratio is
¾.

12. Addressability

The Addressability is the number of individual dots per inch (d.p.i) that can be
created. If the address of the current dot is (x, y) then the next dot will be (x+y), (x+y+1)
etc.

2
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13. a dot size

Dot size may be defined as the diameter of a single dot on the devices output. Dot size
is also called as the Spot size.

14. interdot distance

Interdot distance is the reciprocal of addressability. If the addressability is large,

the interdot distance will be less. The interdot distance should be less to get smooth
shapes.

15. the difference between impact and non-impact printers

Impact printer press formed character faces against an inked ribbon on to the
paper. A line printer and dot-matrix printer are examples.
Non-impact printer and plotters use Laser techniques, inkjet sprays, Xerographic
process, electrostatic methods and electro thermal methods to get images onto the papers.
Examples are: Inkjet/Laser printers.

16. features of Inkjet printers

• They can print 2 to 4 pages/minutes.

• Resolution is about 360d.p.i. Therefore better print quality is achieved.
• The operating cost is very low. The only part that requires replacement is ink
cartridge.
• 4 colors cyane, yellow, majenta, black are available.

17. advantages of laser printer

• High speed, precision and economy.
• Cheap to maintain.
• Quality printers.
• Lasts for longer time.
• Toner power is very cheap.

18. advantages of electrostatic plotters

• They are faster than pen plotters and very high quality printers.
• Recent electrostatic plotters include a scan-conversion capability.
• Color electrostatic plotters are available. They make multiple passes over the
paper to plot color pictures.

19. pixel

Pixel is shortened forms of picture element. Each screen point is referred to as

pixel or pel.

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20. frame buffer

Picture definition is stored in a memory area called frame buffer or refresh buffer.
21. bitmap and pixmap

The frame buffer used in the black and white system is known as bitmap which take
one bit per pixel. For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred
to as a pixmap.

22. a Vector display or stroke writing or calligraphic display

Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also
referred as vector displays.

23. video controller is used

A special purpose processor, which is used to control the operation of the display
device, is known as video controller or display controller.

24. scan conversion

A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an

application program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This
digitization process is called scan conversion.

25. run length encoding

Run length encoding is a compression technique used to store the intensity values in the
frame buffer, which stores each scan line as a set of integer pairs. One number each pair
indicates an intensity value, and second number specifies the number of adjacent pixels on
the scan line that are to have that intensity value

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1. an output primitive
Graphics programming packages provide function to describe a scene in terms of these
basic geometric structures, referred to as output primitives.

2. ‘jaggies’
Line with stair step appearance is known as jaggies.

3. point in the computer graphics system

The point is a most basic graphical element & is completely defined by a pair of user
coordinates (x , y).

4. lines
A line is of infinite extent can be defined by an angle of slope θ and one point on the
line P=P(x,y). This can also be defined as Y=mx+C where C is the Y- intercept.

5. Circle
Circle is defined by its center xc, yc and its radius in user coordinate units. The
equation of the circle is (x-xc) + (y-yc) = r2.

6. Ellipse
An ellipse can use the same parameters xc, yc ,r as a circle, in addition to the
eccentricity e. the eqn of an ellipse is:
(x-xc)2/a2 + (y-yc)2/b2 = 1

7. polygon
A polygon is any closed continues sequence of line segments ie, a polyline whose last
node point is same as that of its first node point. The line segments form the sides of the
polygon and their intersecting points form the vertices of the polygon.

8. Distinguish between convex and concave polygons

If the line joining any two points in the polygon lies completely inside the
polygon then, they are known as convex polygons. If the line joining any two points in the
polygon lies outside the polygon then, they are known as concave polygons.

9. seed fill
One way to fill a polygon is to start from a given point (seed) known to be inside the
polygon and highlight outward from this point i.e neighboring pixels until encounter the
boundary pixels, this approach is called seed fill.

10. scan line algorithm

One way to fill the polygon is to apply the inside test. i.e to check whether the
pixel is inside the polygon or outside the polygon and then highlight the pixel which lie inside
the polygon. This approach is known as scan-line algorithm.

11. coherence properties

A coherence property of a scene is apart of a scene by which relate one part of the
scene with the other parts of the scene.

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12. an active edge list in the scan line algorithm
The active edge list for a scan line contains all edges crossed by that scan line.

13. a winding number

Winding number method is used to check whether a given point is inside or out side
the polygon. In this method give a direction number to all the edges which cross the scan line.
If the edge starts below the line and ends above scan line give direction as -1 . otherwise1. Fr
polygons or two dimensional objects, the point is said to be inside when the value of winding
number is nonzero.

14. cell array

The cell array is a primitive that allows users to display an arbitrary shape defined as a
two dimensional grid pattern.

15. type face

Letters, numbers and other characters can be displayed in a variety of sizes and
styles. The overall design style for a set of characters is called a type face.

16. font
The term font referred to a set of cast metal character forms in a particular size and
format, such as 10-point courier italic.

17. a bitmapped font

A simple method for representing the character shapes in a particular typeface is
to use rectangular grid patterns. The set of characters are then referred to as a bitmap font.

18. an outline font

A flexible scheme is to describe character shapes using straight-line and curve
sections. In this case, the set of character is called an out line font.

19. an attribute parameter

Any parameter that affects the way a primitive is to be displayed is referred to as an
attribute parameter.

20. various attributes of a line

The line type, width and color are the attributes of the line. The line type include solid
line, dashed lines, and dotted lines.

21. pixel mask

Pixel mask is a string containing the digits 1 and 0 to indicate which positions to plot
along the line path. The mask 1111000, could be used to display a dashed line with a dash
length of 4 and inter dot spacing of three.

22. a Line cap

Line caps can be used to adjust the shape of the line ends to give a better
appearance. There are three types of line caps. Butt cap which has a square end, round cap
which has a semi circle end, projecting square cap which has one half of the line width
beyond the specified end points.
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23. methods used for smoothly joining two line segments
Mitter join- by extending the outer boundaries of each of the two lines
until they meet.
Round join - by capping the connection between the two segments with a
circular boundary whose diameter is equal to the line width.
Bevel join - by displaying the line segments with butt caps and filling in
the triangular gap segment meet.

24. Color Look up table

In color displays, 24 bits per pixel are commonly used, where 8 bits represent 256
level for each color. It is necessary to read 24- bit for each pixel from frame buffer. This
is very time consuming. To avoid this video controller uses look up table to store many
entries to pixel values in RGB format. This look up table is commonly known as colour table.

25. tiling patterns

The process of filling an area with rectangular pattern is called tiling and
rectangular fill patterns are sometimes referred to as tiling patterns.

26. soft fill

Soft fill is a filling method in which fill color is combined with the background
colors.

27. kerned character

The characters which extend beyond the character body limits is known as kerned
character. Example f and j.

28. character up vector

The orientation for a displayed character string is set according to the direction of the
character up vector.

29. bundled attributes

Individual attribute commands provide a simple and direct method for specifying
attributes when a single output device is used. When several kinds of output device are
available at a graphics installation, it is convenient to set up a table for each output device that
lists set of attribute values that are to be used on that device to display each primitive type.
Attribute specified in this manner is known as bundled attribute.

30. aliasing
In the line drawing algorithms, all rasterzed locations do not match with the true
line and have to represent a straight line. This problem is severe in low resolution
screens. In such screens line appears like a stair-step. This effect is known as aliasing.

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31. antialiasing
The process of adjusting intensities of the pixels along the line to minimize the
effect of aliasing is called antialiasing.

32. pixel phasing

Pixel phasing is an antialiasing technique, stair steps are smoothed out by moving
the electron beam to more nearly approximate positions specified by the object geometry.

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1. Transformation
Transformation is the process of introducing changes in the shape size and
orientation of the object using scaling rotation reflection shearing & translation etc.

2. active and passive transformations

In the active transformation the points x and x| represent different coordinates of
the same coordinate system. Here all the points are acted upon by the same

transformation and hence the shape of the object is not distorted. In a passive
transformation the points x and x| represent same points in the space but in a different
coordinate system. Here the change in the coordinates is merely due to the change in the
type of the user coordinate system.

3. translation
Translation is the process of changing the position of an object in a straight-line path
from one coordinate location to another. Every point (x , y) in the object must under go
a displacement to (x|,y|). the transformation is:
x| = x + tx ; y| = y+ty
4. rotation
A 2-D rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x-y
plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by: X| = r cos (θ + φ)
and Y| = r sin (θ + φ).

5. scaling
The scaling transformations changes the shape of an object and can be carried out by
multiplying each vertex (x,y) by scaling factor Sx,Sy where Sx is the scaling factor of x and
Sy is the scaling factor of y.

6. shearing
The shearing transformation actually slants the object along the X direction or the Y
direction as required.ie; this transformation slants the shape of an object along a
required plane.

7. reflection
The reflection is actually the transformation that produces a mirror image of an
object. For this use some angles and lines of reflection.

8. Distinguish between window port & view port

A portion of a picture that is to be displayed by a window is known as window port.
The display area of the part selected or the form in which the selected part is viewed is
known as view port.

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9. clipping
Clipping is the method of cutting a graphics display to neatly fit a pred graphics
region or the view port.

10. covering (exterior clipping)

This is just opposite to clipping. This removes the lines coming inside the
windows and displays the remaining. Covering is mainly used to make labels on the
complex pictures.

11. the need of homogeneous coordinates

To perform more than one transformation at a time, use homogeneous coordinates or
matrixes. They reduce unwanted calculations intermediate steps saves time and memory
and produce a sequence of transformations.

12. Distinguish between uniform scaling and differential scaling

When the scaling factors sx and sy are assigned to the same value, a uniform
scaling is produced that maintains relative object proportions. Unequal values for sx and sy
result in a differential scaling that is often used in design application.

13. fixed point scaling

The location of a scaled object can be controlled by a position called the fixed
point that is to remain unchanged after the scaling transformation.

14. Affine transformation

A coordinate transformation of the form
X= axxx + axyy + bx , y ’ ayxx + ayy y +by
is called a two-dimensional affine transformation. Each of the transformed
coordinates x ‘ and y ‘ is a linear function of the original coordinates x and y , and
parameters aij and bk are constants determined by the transformation type.

15. Distinguish between bitBlt and pixBlt

Raster functions that manipulate rectangular pixel arrays are generally referred to as
raster ops. Moving a block of pixels from one location to another is also called a block transfer
of pixel values. On a bilevel system, this operation is called a bitBlt (bit-block transfer), on
multilevel system t is called pixBlt.

16. various Text clipping

All-or-none string clipping - if all of the string is inside a clip window, keep it
otherwise discards.
All-or-none character clipping ± discard only those characters that are not
completely inside the window. Any character that either overlaps or is outside a
window boundary is clipped.
Individual characters ± if an individual character overlaps a clip window
boundary, clip off the parts of the character that are outside the window.

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1. various representation schemes used in three dimensional objects

Boundary representation (B-res) ± describe the 3 dimensional object as a set of

surfaces that separate the object interior from the environment.
Space- portioning representation ± describe interior properties, by partitioning the
spatial region containing an object into a set of small, no overlapping, contiguous
solids.

2. Polygon mesh
Polygon mesh is a method to represent the polygon, when the object surfaces are
tiled, it is more convenient to specify the surface facets with a mesh function. The various
meshes are
Triangle strip ± (n-2) connected triangles
Quadrilateral mesh ± generates (n-1)(m-1) Quadrilateral

3. Bezier Basis Function

Bezier Basis functions are a set of polynomials, which can be used instead of the
primitive polynomial basis, and have some useful properties for interactive curve design.

4. surface patch
A single surface element can be defined as the surface traced out as two
parameters (u, v) take all possible values between 0 and 1 in a two-parameter
representation. Such a single surface element is known as a surface patch.

5. rendering bi-cubic surface patches of constant u and v method

The simple way is to draw the iso-parmetric lines of the surface. Discrete
approximations to curves on the surface are produced by holding one parameter constant and
allowing the other to vary at discrete intervals over its whole range. This produce curves of
constant u and constant v.

6. advantages of rendering polygons by scan line method

i. The max and min values of the scan were easily found.
ii. The intersection of scan lines with edges is easily calculated by a simple
incremental method.
iii. The depth of the polygon at each pixel is easily calculated by an
incremental method.

7. advantages of rendering by patch splitting

i. It is fast- especially on workstations with a hardware polygon-rendering
pipeline.
ii. It’s speed can be varied by altering the depth of sub-division.

8. B-Spline curve
A B-Spline curve is a set of piecewise(usually cubic) polynomial segments that pass
close to a set of control points. However the curve does not pass through these control
points, it only passes close to them.

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9. a spline
To produce a smooth curve through a designed set of points, a flexible strip called
spline is used. Such a spline curve can be mathematically described with a piecewise
cubic polynomial function whose first and second derivatives are continuous across
various curve section.

10. the use of control points

Spline curve can be specified by giving a set of coordinate positions called control
points, which indicates the general shape of the curve, can specify spline curve.

11. different ways of specifying spline curve

• Using a set of boundary conditions that are imposed on the spline. •
Using the state matrix that characteristics the spline
• Using a set of blending functions that calculate the positions along the
curve path by specifying combination of geometric constraints on the
curve
12. important properties of Bezier Curve
• It needs only four control points
• It always passes through the first and last control points
• The curve lies entirely within the convex half formed by four control
points.

13. Differentiate between interpolation spline and approximation spline

When the spline curve passes through all the control points then it is called
interpolate. When the curve is not passing through all the control points then that curve is
called approximation spline.

14. parabolic splines

For parabolic splines a parabola is fitted through the first three points p1,p2,p3 of the
data array of kot points. Then a second parabolic arc is found to fit the sequence of points
p2, p3, p4. This continues in this way until a parabolic arc is found to fit through points pn-2,
pn-1 and pn. The final plotted curve is a meshing together of all these parabolic arcs.

15. cubic spline

Cubic splines are a straight forward extension of the concepts underlying
parabolic spline. The total curve in this case is a sequence of arcs of cubic rather than
parabolic curves
Each cubic satisfies :ax3 + bx 2+ cx + defined

16. a Blobby object

Some objects do not maintain a fixed shape, but change their surface
characteristics in certain motions or when in proximity to other objects. That is known as
blobby objects. Example ± molecular structures, water droplets.

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17. Octrees
Hierarchical tree structures called octrees, are used to represent solid objects in some
graphics systems. Medical imaging and other applications that require displays of object
cross sections commonly use octree representation.

18. Projection
The process of displaying 3D into a 2D display unit is known as
projection. The projection transforms 3D objects into a 2D projection plane.

19. steps involved in 3D transformation

• Modeling Transformation
• Viewing Transformation
• Projection Transformation
• Workstation Transformation

20. view plane

A view plane is nothing but the film plane in camera which is positioned and
oriented for a particular shot of the scene.

21. view-plane normal vector

This normal vector is the direction perpendicular to the view plane and it is
called as [DXN DYN DZN]

22. view distance

The view plane normal vector is a directed line segment from the view plane
to the view reference point. The length of this directed line segment is referred to as view
distance

23. projection
The process of converting the description of objects from world
coordinates to viewing coordinates is known as projection

24. What you mean by parallel projection

Parallel projection is one in which z coordinates is discarded and parallel
lines from each vertex on the object are extended until they intersect the view plane.

25. Perspective projection

Perspective projection is one in which the lines of projection are not
parallel. Instead, they all converge at a single point called the center of projection.

26. Projection reference point

In Perspective projection, the lines of projection are not parallel. Instead, they
all converge at a single point called Projection reference point.

27. the use of Projection reference point

In Perspective projection, the object positions are transformed to the view
plane along these converged projection line and the projected view of an object is

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 determined by calculating the intersection of the converged projection lines with the view
plane.

28. different types of parallel projections

The parallel projections are basically categorized into two types,
depending on the relation between the direction of projection and the normal to the view
plane. They are orthographic parallel projection and oblique projection.

29. orthographic parallel projection

When the direction of the projection is normal (perpendicular) to the view
plane then the projection is known as orthographic parallel projection

30. orthographic oblique projection

When the direction of the projection is not normal (not perpendicular) to the
view plane then the projection is known as oblique projection.

31. an axonometric orthographic projection

The orthographic projection can display more than one face of an object. Such
an orthographic projection is called axonometric orthographic projection.

32. cavalier projection

The cavalier projection is one type of oblique projection, in which the
direction of projection makes a 45-degree angle with the view plane.

33. cabinet projection

The cabinet projection is one type of oblique projection, in which the
direction of projection makes a n angle of arctan (2)=63.4- with the view plane.

34. vanishing point

The perspective projections of any set of parallel lines that are not parallel to
the projection plane converge to appoint known as vanishing point.

35. principle vanishing point.

The vanishing point of any set of lines that are parallel to one of the three
principle axes of an object is referred to as a principle vanishing point or axis
vanishing point.

36. view reference point

The view reference point is the center of the viewing coordinate system. It
is often chosen to be close to or on the surface of the some object in the scene.

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1. computer graphics animation
Computer graphics animation is the use of computer graphics equipment
graphics output presentation dynamically changes in real time. This is often also called real
time animation.

2. tweening
It is the process, which is applicable to animation objects defined by a
sequence of points, and that change shape from frame to frame.

3. frame
One of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of is known as
frame.

4. key frame
One of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of the shape of an
object is known initially and for a small no of other frames called keyframe

5. pseudo animation
Pseudo animation is creating a sequence of stills, photographing or video
graphing each still as one frame, and then later playing back the frames at a faster
speed.

6. the normal speed of a visual animation

Visual animation requires a playback of at least 25 frames per second.

7. different tricks used in computer graphics animation

a. Color look Up Table manipulation
b. Bit plane manipulation
c. Use of UDCS
d. Special drawing modes
e. Sprites
f. Bit blitting

8. color look up table

In color display unit it is necessary to read 44-bit for each pixel from
buffer. This very time consuming process. To avoid this video controller uses look up
table to store many entries of pixel vales in RGB format. This look up table is
commonly known as color look up table.

9. solid modeling
The construction of 3 dimensional objects for graphics display is often
referred to as solid modeling.

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10. an intuitive interface
The intuitive interface is one, which simulates the way a person would
perform a corresponding operation on real object rather than have menu command.

11. Sprite
A Sprite is graphics shape in animation and games programs. Each sprite
provided in the system has its own memory area similar to but smaller than pixel
RAM.

12. the UDC technique

UDC stands for User defined Character set. It is graphics animation trick,
which is used in early microcomputer system.

13. the use of hidden line removing algorithm

The hidden line removal algorithm determines the lines, edges, surfaces or
volumes that are visible or invisible to an observer located at a specific point in space.

14. computer graphics realism

The creation of realistic picture in computer graphics is known as realism. It is
important in fields such as simulation, design, entertainments, advertising, research,
education, command, and control.

15. How realistic pictures are created in computer graphics

To create a realistic picture, it must be process the scene or picture through
viewing-coordinate transformations and projection that transform three-dimensional
viewing coordinates onto two-dimensional device coordinates.

16. Fractals
A Fractal is an object whose shape is irregular at all scales.

17. a Fractal Dimension

Fractal has infinite detail and fractal dimension. A fractal imbedded in n-
dimensional space could have any fractional dimension between 0 and n. The Fractal
Dimension D= LogN / Log S
Where N is the No of Pieces and S is the Scaling Factor.

18. random fractal

The patterns in the random fractals are no longer perfect and the random
defects at all scale.

19. geometric fractal

A geometric fractal is a fractal that repeats self-similar patterns over all
scales.

20. Koch curve

The Koch curve can be drawn by dividing line into 4 equal segments with
scaling factor 1/3. and middle 2 segments are so adjusted that they form adjustment sides
of an equilateral triangle.

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21. turtle graphics program
The turtle program is a Robert that can move in 2 dimensions and it has a
pencil for drawing. The turtle is defined by the following parameters.
g. Position of the turtle (x, y)
h. Heading of the turtle 0 the angle from the x axis.

22. graftals
Graftals are applicable to represent realistic rendering plants and trees. A tree
is represented by a String of symbols 0, 1, [, ]

23. a Particle system

A particle system is a method for modeling natural objects, or other
irregularly shaped objects, that exhibit “fluid-like” properties. Particle systems are
suitable for realistic rendering of fuzzy objects, smoke, sea and grass.

24. Give some examples for computer graphics standards

i. CORE ± The Core graphics standard
j. GKS -- The Graphics Kernel system
k. PHIGS ± The Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System.
l. GSX ± The Graphics system extension
m. NAPLPS ± The North American presentation level protocol syntax.

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