Proceedings of The First International Conference On Environmental Research and Assessment Bucharest, Romania, March 23-27, 2003

ISBN 973-558-077-2
Edited by
University of Bucharest
Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies
PROCEEDINGS
of the
First International Conference on Environmental
Research and Assessment
Bucharest, Romania
March 23-27, 2003
ICERA 2003
Ars Docendi Publishing House
2003
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Environmental Research and Assessment
Bucharest, Romania, March 23-27, 2003
EVALUATION OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMME FOR

CHELONIA MYDAS IN SAMANDAĞ COAST: A TWO-YEAR
STUDY OF MONITORING ON GREEN SEA TURTLES1
Şükran Yalçın, Ph.D.

Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Science and Letter
Tayfur Sökmen Kampüsü, 31024 Antakya – Hatay / TURKEY
E-mail: syalcin@mku.edu.tr
Tel: (90-326) 2455803, Fax: (90-326) 2455867
ABSTRACT
Samandağ, located in southern Turkey, has an importance for green turtles (Chelonia mydas),
which is listed under endangered species according to the IUCN, since they construct their nests
on the coast, which also is one of the most important three nesting zones out of reported 17
nesting places in the Mediterranean. The coastline in Samandağ is approximately 14 km in length
and can be examined into three sections; Çevlik, placed between Çevlik Port and Şeyhhızır
Shrine (5.5 km), Şeyhhızır, which is located between Şeyhhızır Shrine and Asi River mouth (4.1
km), and Meydan, which is between Asi River mouth and Sabca Cape (4.4 km). There is,
however, a great need for Chelonia mydas conservation since the area has been contaminated
by both solid and liquid wastes, disturbed by predator and human activities, and putting into
stress due to illegal sand extraction from the shores. Therefore, a monitoring and conservation
plan was implemented in 2001 in order to preserve, at least during the nesting season, the area,
where the green turtles build their nests, especially between May and August.
Both the years of 2001 and 2002 were the years this plan put into effect with the marking the
nests, daily checking the built nests in order to evaluate the conditions of the nests, observing the
hatchlings when they move to the sea, and finally examining the nests by digging them in order to
see the number of successful eggs and to report unsuccessful trials. The monitoring studies were
conducted frequently between July 3rd and September 15th, 2001 and randomly between 15th
September and 15th October in 2001 only on Şeyhhızır beach and a total of 84 tracks were
observed, in which seventy-nine of them were found to belong to C. mydas and five of them were
from Caretta caretta. Only 20 C. mydas were able to find a suitable place for nesting; 14 of them
survived and six nests disappeared due to wind, storm, and coastal erosion. The monitoring
studies conducted Şeyhhızır, Çevlik and Meydan Beaches daily, two-three days a week and ones
a week respectively in 2002, the observations were made between June 28th and September 15th,
2002. A total of 327 tracks were observed, in which 318 of them were found to be related to C.
mydas and nine of them were found to be nests belong to C. caretta. Out of these 327 tracks, 118
C. mydas and 7 C. caretta were found to be able to find a suitable place for nesting.
It is obvious that the conservation programme implemented here succeeded. However, the
monitoring and conservation of green turtles is still insufficient. The notable increase in the nest
number of green turtles observed in Samandağ may strongly have resulted from this two-year
monitoring and conservation study, which reduced the sand extraction and have the local people
informed on importance of this species. However, the reason of this increase in success of nest
numbers in the area may have resulted from annual wave of the number of green turtles come to
Samandağ Beach for nesting as well. Because of this reason, the monitoring programme must be
continued on in Samandağ Beach in 2003 nesting season as well as other years to come.
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ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania
5
Keywords: Chelonia mydas, Conservation Biology, Samandağ Coast
INTRODUCTION
Chelonia mydas, which is added the endangered species list by IUCN (1988),
lives in tropical and subtropical sea water and nesting season the adult female
come to coast in order to nesting. Samandağ, located in southern Turkey, has an
importance for green turtles (C. mydas) since they construct their nests on the
coast, which one of the most important three nesting zones out of reported 17
nesting places in the Mediterranean (Baran & Kasparek, 1989; Kasparek et al.,
2001). It is reported in various times the problem of Samandağ beaches for
green turtles. In addition, the nest numbers in a season were reported, yet they
generally were far away from the consecutive studies (Yerli ve Demirayak, 1996;
Baran ve Kasparek, 1989; Durmuş, 1998; Yerli ve Canbolat, 1998; Demirayak,
1999). The problems impact Samandağ sea turtles were indicated by these
limited studies and it is noticed that the most important problem is to be illegal
sand extractions. However, the conservation studies on green turtles in southern
Turkey are still insufficient.
This study is aimed to present the monitoring plan of Samandağ sea turtles in
order to increase the nesting and hatching success by contribution of MKU
students and the increase the positive results of conservation programme on the
nesting and hatching activity of sea turtles through the two-year study.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The coastline in Samandağ is approximately 14 km in length and can be

examined into three sections; Çevlik, placed between Çevlik Port and Şeyhhızır
Shrine (5.5 km), Şeyhhızır, which is located between Şeyhhızır Shrine and Asi
River mouth (4.1 km), and Meydan, which is between Asi River mouth and Sabca
Cape (4.4 km). In 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons, the sea turtles were
monitored between the beginning of July and mid- September at the Şeyhhızır
Beach. The monitoring programme was concluded by a team of five every
morning (05.00-09.00). It must be noted that although all the coasts of
Samandağ were taken into account for evaluation, only Şeyhhızır Beach is
presented in this study. The female tracks that resulted in successful nesting and
unsuccessful nesting trials on the beach were carefully recorded. The places of
nests, which were taken into consideration as the distance from sea and
vegetation, were recorded and they were marked by horizontal and vertical rods.
The nests were checked daily and if there were damaged nests by human and /
or other creatures, like dogs, crabs, fox etc., were also noted (Whitmore and
Dutton 1985). During the hatching season, the tracks of hatchlings were pursued
and the nests that completed their incubation period were dug. The number of
eggs, both shells and unopened ones, in the nests were counted and the infertile
and undeveloped eggs were noted. In order to dig the nests, in which no track of
hatchlings was observed, the incubation period was assumed to be 55 days for
2001 season and 60 days for 2002 season.
6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A monitoring and conservation plan was implemented in 2001 and in 2002 in

order to preserve, at least during the nesting season, the area, where the green
turtles build their nests and the hatchlings return back to the sea from, especially
between the beginning of July and mid-September. Results and discussion was
divided into five subsections as (1) The places of nests in the Şeyhhızır Beach
(2) The number of tracks and nests, (3) The nest success, (4) Hatching success,
and (5) The studies for conservation of green turtles; since it provides an easy to
follow structure.
The places of nests in the Şeyhhızır Beach
The green turtles nests were found to be intense especially near the river mouth
in both seasons. The places of the nests were indicated in Figure 1. According to
one notable previous study (Yerli and Canbolat, 1998), a couple of warning
signboards had already been placed in Şeyhhızır Beach and the marked area
was left as it was. On the other hand, the marked area between these
signboards was misunderstood by local residents and they thought that only this
area was important for protecting the sea turtles. Moreover, it is observed that
this misunderstood area was not preferred by sea turtles because of the fact that
this part of the beach was occupied by construction wastes and untreated
domestic wastewater of Samandağ. At the end of 2001 and 2002 nesting
seasons, it must be noted that the important nesting places, where sea turtles
primarily preferred, were not only on the marked area but also the places
adjacent to the river mouth. In addition, the importance of beaches was
announced to Samandağ residents by a seminar and presented that all beaches
around should be protected.
The number of tracks and nests
In 2001 season, only on the Şeyhhızır Beach, totally 84 tracks were observed, in
which seventy-nine of them were related to C. mydas and five of them were
related to C. caretta. Only 20 C. mydas were able to find a suitable place for
nesting; 14 of them were found to survive and six nests disappeared due to
natural factors, such as wind, storm, and coastal erosion. In 2002 season,
throughout all beaches of Samandağ coast total 327 tracks were observed, in
which 318 of them were found to be related to C. mydas and 164 of them were
on Şeyhhızır Beach. It was observed that a total of 92 green turtles nested in this
beach. Yerli and Canbolat (1998) indicated that the nesting success was 35 % in
1998 nesting season in Samandağ Beaches. In this study, the nesting successes
were calculated as 20 % and 36% in 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons,
respectively. As seen in Figure 2, the increased nesting success in 2002 nesting
season may have resulted from one of the two reasons or both; the annual wave
of nesting activity of green turtles in Samandağ and/or the conservation studies
in this area. During the second nesting season studied, the team recording the
data on the beach gave some useful information to the local residents about the
7
protection of beach for green turtles at the same time. Besides a seminar were
conducted in Samandağ and the people were informed on this subject.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. The maps show the nesting places of the Şeyhhızır Beach (a) in 2001
and (b) in 2002 nesting seasons.
8
100 2001
Percent 2002
80
60
40
20
0
Tracks with nests Tracks without nests
Figure 2. The percentage of tracks with nest and without nests in 2001 and 2002.
The nest success
6 nests in 2001 nesting season and 14 nests in 2002 nesting season were
disappeared by heavy storm and erosion, 4 nests were impacted by flood and all
the eggs in these four nests were damaged at various developing stages, most of
which were already hatched. Figure 3 exhibits the nest success of green turtles
in 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons. It can be seen that the nesting success in the
second year (80.4 %) was found to be larger than that in the first year (70.0 %).
Although it was observed that the rain and storm events in 2002 nesting season
were stronger than those in 2001 nesting season, the percentage of lost nests in
2002 season was computed to be less than that in the first year. Despite the fact
that the research team tried to move some nests to protect from erosion, the
number of researchers in the team were insufficient to transfer all nests that were
under threat. However, the effort was found to be successful since the number
of succeeded nests in 2002 exceeded the number of succeeded nests in 2001.
100
Percent 2001
80 2002
60
40
20
0
Succeeded nests Lost nests
Figure 3. The percentage of succeeded and lost nests in two years.
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Hatching success
In natural conditions, the total, undeveloped and infertile egg numbers and the
number of hatchling and dead ones for 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons are given
in Table 1 and 2, respectively. The percentages of hatchling alive, hatchling
dead, undeveloped and infertile in two years were compared with SPSS paired
sample test and no statistical difference was found between the two-year
percentages (P>0.05). In this study, it was assumed that the hatchling alive
indicates just only the ones that leave the nest living; otherwise, one mustn’t think
that the hatchlings, indicated in Table 1 and 2, survived by reaching the sea.
Table 1. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on

Şeyhhızır Beach of Samandağ in 2001 nesting season
Number of Total egg Mean SD %

nests number
Total egg 14 1772 126.57 33.52

number
Hatchlings alive 14 1503 107.35 31.90 84.82
Hatchlings dead 6 14 2.33 1. 96 0.79
Undeveloped 13 212 16.31 15.33 11.96
Infertile 8 44 4.89 7.41 2.48
Table 2. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on

Şeyhhızır Beach of Samandağ in 2002 nesting season
Number of Total egg Mean SD %

nests number
Total egg 78 9494 121.7 23.9

number
Hatchlings alive 74 7852 106.1 30.07 82.70
Hatchlings dead 12 82 6.83 10.11 0.86
Undeveloped 65 1012 15,6 34.52 10.66
Infertile 70 548 7.8 10.23 5.77
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The studies for conservation of green turtles
The following should be adopted in order to efficiently protect green turtles.

These given applications could be adjusted by other communities when a
conservation programme is considered to be implemented.
1. Direct protection: The adult and baby turtles (hatchlings) monitor and
protect from people on the field as soon as possible.
2. Informing local residents: The research team on the field informed the
fishermen and people walking on the beach. Two seminars and two radio
speaks were conducted for giving the related information to the people.
Posters, T-shirts were used to attract people’s attention on the sea turtles.
The financial support for these activities was provided by MKU. MKU also
printed brochures, which include some knowledge about sea turtles, and
these brochures can be used in the coming seasons.
On the Samandağ Beach, which is one of the most important nesting areas of
green turtles in Mediterranean Sea, the knowledge of nesting of the green turtle
in Samandağ compiled by Kasparek et al. (2001) noted as 33 nests in 1988 in
the work of Baran and Kasparek (1989); as 126 nests in 1994 study of Durmuş
(1998); a number which is recorded as a lower number than Durmuş’ study on
the nests conducted by Yerli and Demirayak (1996); 44 nests in 1998 study of
Yerli and Canbolat (1998); and 21 nests noted in his 1999 dated work of
Demirayak (1999). While the number of nests decrease until 2001 season, in
2002 nesting season, the observation on the increased nest number evidences
the success of two-year monitoring and conservation programme.
It is more to expect in years to come since the success reached in past two years
is still not perfectly as expected in terms of neither conservational efforts nor
obtained results. Both collection of biological and environmental data on the
green turtles in the area and supplementation of informational resources on
green turtles to the local residents and therefore made the efforts as effective as
they can be would be the future aims of the research group working on green
turtles in Samandağ.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During 2001 and 2002 studies, I would like to thank the research team of Mustafa
Kemal University; namely: Bektaş Sönmez, Samim Kayıkçı, Münteha Sağaltıcı,
Hüseyin Doğru, Murat Apiş, Şenay Korkmaz, Aynur Görün, Feryal Özkayalar,
Cem Üllenoğlu, Ezgi Erken, Hasan Özgür, Zafer Keleş, Elif Enül, İsa Değirmenci,
Onur Köse, Murat Apiş, Selçuk Yetkin, Evrim Yıldız, Merih Kara. Thanks to the
governor of Hatay, administrative district of Samandağ, Prof. Dr. Haluk İpek,
president of Mustafa Kemal University, Prof. Dr. Miktat Doğanlar of MKU for
supporting a part of 2001 monitoring project. Thanks to Dr. Yakup Kaska for
many of his stimulating advices. I also thank to Monica Aureggi from RACS/PA
11
for supplying technical support to the research team during a month in 2002
nesting season. I am indebted to ‘Türkiye Çevre Koruma Derneği’ and to ‘Hatay
Çevre Koruma Derneği’ for their support to the 2002 monitoring studies and to
Mustafa Kemal University since they supplied the posters, brochures, and T-
shirts.
REFERENCES
Baran, İ. and Kasparek, M. (1989). Marine Turtles in Turkey. Status survey 1988
and recommendation for conservation and management. Hiedelberg 1989.
123pp.
Demirayak, F. 1999. The status of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, nesting
habitat in Kazanlı. – Medasset, Report submitted to the 19th Meeting of the
Standing Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European
Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Strasbourg.
Durmuş, H. S. (1998). An investigation on biology and ecology of the sea turtle

population on Kazanlı and Samandağ beaches. Ph.D. Dissertation. Dokuz Eylül
University. İzmir.
Kasparek M., Godley B.J. and Broderick A.C. 2001. Nesting of the Green Turtle,
Chelonia mydas, in the Mediterranean: a review of status and conservation

needs, Zoology in the Middle East 24, 45-74.
IUCN, 1988. IUCN on sea turtle conservation. Amphibia- Reptilia, 9; 325-327.
Whitmore C. and Dutton P.H., 1985. Infertility, Embryonic Mortality and Nest –
Site Selection in Leatherback and Green Sea Turtles in Suriname, Biological
Conservation, 34, 251 - 272.
Yerli S. and Canbolat A.F., 1998. Doğu Akdeniz Bölgesindeki Deniz

Kaplumbağalarının Korunmasına Yönelik Yönetim Planı İlkeleri, ÇBÇKGM,
Yayını, Ankara, 88 pp.
Yerli, S. V. and Demirayak, F. 1996. An overview on the sea turtles in Turkey and
their nesting beaches in 1995. DHKD. Rapor No:96/4 129 pp. (in Turkish).
12
A STRATEGY FOR CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED

MEDICINAL FLORA1
Naela Costică, Mihai Costică

“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University - Iaşi
Faculty of Biology, Department of Plant Biology, 20A, Carol Avenue, Iaşi, 6600,
Romania, e-mail: cnaela@uaic.ro
“Corona” Foundation, 71A, D. Mangeron Avenue, Iaşi 6600,
Romania, P.O. 10, O.B. 2015, e-mail: fundatia_corona@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The general objective of the proposed strategy regarding conservation of medicinal plant is the
development of responsibility and the awareness increase of rural community concerning the
conservation and utilisation of the resources of local medicinal flora according to environmental
European policies and the assurance of sustainable use by the local community.
As steps for implementation of this strategy we propose: 1. Development of concepts and
encouragement of attitudes and behaviours needed for achievement of an effective medicinal plant
conservation; 2. Supervision of implementing the community acquis within local activities regarding
conservation and capitalisation of medicinal flora; 3. Setting up a local qualified structure of trainers in
order to assure a permanent training of the community who will obtain the necessary skills in the field
of conservation and capitalisation the medicinal flora; 4. Training of the rural community in order to
provide input and proposal of legislative solutions concerning the conservation of medicinal plants.
Arguments for this strategy are international conventions and programs, national reports, plans of
action and programs concerning bio-diversity protection, state of wild flora and analyses of medicinal
flora in Romania, abroad reports about the experience and examples in the field of conservation and
education.
Keywords: conservation biology, medicinal flora, Romania, threatened flora
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROGRAMS
Biodiversity Convention: Article 10 – “Protect and encourage traditional users of

biological resources that are compatible with conservation”; Article 12 – (b) “Establish
and support programs for biodiversity education and training”; Article 13 – (a)
“Promote and encourage understanding of biodiversity conservation”; (b) Co-operate
internationally in biodiversity education and public awareness programs [2].
Convention on Environment Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context

(Espoo Convention): objective – “To promote international co-operation impact
assessment (EIA), especially in a transboundary context”.
Convention on Access to Information (Aarhus Convention): Article 6 – “Public

participation in decision on specific activities”; Article 7 – “Public participation
concerning plans, programs and policies relating to the environment”; Article 8 –
“Public participation during the preparation of executive regulation and/or general
applicable legally binding normative instruments”.
Regular Report on Romania’s Progress towards Accession, Commission of the

European Communities (2001): Chapter 22 – Environment– “Romania still has a
long way to go before being in line with the acquis in the field of environment policies
1
13
(…). The development of the administrative capacity in 2001 has led to increase
uncertainty about Romania’s enforcement capacities in this sector. (…). The staff
allocations for policy implementation have been reduced and the self – financing
mechanism set up last year has only generated one quarter of the expected
revenues. Co - ordination at regional level is non-existent At the national level, the
budget devoted to environmental protection is insufficient, and the Environment Fund
is unlikely to be operational in the short term. Romania should make the environment
one of its priorities for accession and considerable investments need to be secured,
also on medium-term, to ensure implementation of the environmental acquis. pp.82
–“Romania is still some way from complying with EC requirements – in particular
with the legislation on environmental impact assessments” [12]
NATIONAL PROGRAMS AND STRATEGIES
National Program for the Adoption the Acquis (NPAA), 2001 “… There is still no
realistic plan for financing investments and the weakness of the environment
administration raises serious question as the capacity to enforce recently passed
legislation” [12].
National Plan of Action for Environment Protection – general principles: pp. 13:
“Conservation and improvement of life conditions of the people, sustainable
development, (…) conservation of the biodiversity, (…) stimulation of activities to
bring to normal the environment”; priorities of action: (2) Maintain and improve the
existing potential of nature corresponding to the principle of sustainable
development. (4) Respecting the international conventions concerning the
environment protection [11].
National Strategy of Environmental Protection (2000-2004) – objective:

“…Develop a permanent action of public implication and non - governmental
organisations in the domain of environmental protection”
Condition of Environment in Romania - State of natural habitats, of wild flora

and fauna (2000): 210 t medicinal plants from wild flora were traded and the export
registered an increase in 2000 compared with 1999 from 2,352,794 Kg to 9,723,738
Kg medicinal plants [11].
THREATENED MEDICINAL FLORA IN ROMANIA [9]
Abies alba – endangered; D.cneorum - vulnerable, rare;

Acorus calamus – endangered; Dianthus callizonus – rare;
Angelica archangelica – rare; Dictamnus albus - vulnerable, rare;
Arctostaphyllos uva-urs – vulnerable; Drosera rotundifolia – rare;
Arnica montana – rare, vulnerable; Ephaedra dystachia – rare;
Asphodeline lutea - rare; Fragaria moschata –insufficiently
Betula nana – vulnerable; known;
B. humilis – endangered; Fritillaria meleagris - vulnerable, rare;
Convolvulus persicus – rare; Fritilaria orientalis vulnerable, rare;
Crocus flavus – vulnerable; Gentiana lutea - vulnerable, rare;
Cypripidium calceolus – rare, Gentiana punctata – rare;
vulnerable; Hepatica transsilvanica – endemic;
Dactylorhiza maculata – rare; Jasminum fruticans – rare;
Daphne blagayana – vulnerable, rare; Juniperus sabina - vulnerable, rare;
14
Larix decidua – rare; Paliurus spina-christi - vulnerable,

Leontopodium alpinum - vulnerable, rare;
rare; Periploca graeca – rare;
Lycopodium clavatum – threatened; Pinus sylvestris – rare;
Lycopodium annotinum – threatened; Platanthera bifolia - rare,
Silene nivalis -vulnerable, rare; Polemonium caeruleum – rare;
Menianthes trifoliata – rare; Plumbago europaea – rare;
Merendera sobolifera - vulnerable, Primula elatior – rare;
rare; Pulsatilla grandis – rare;
Muscari racemosum ssp. neglectum – Syringa josikaea - vulnerable, rare;
rare; Taxus baccata - vulnerable, rare;
Narcisus poeticus ssp. radiiflorus Thymus serpyllum – insufficiently
vulnerable, rare; known;
Oxycoccus palustris – rare; Trapa natans – vulnerable;
Paeonia officinalis – cultivated; Trollius europaeus – rare;
P. tenuifolia - vulnerable, rare; Tamus communis – rare;
P.peregrina vulnerable, rare;
REPORTS ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE ABROAD AND EXAMPLES IN THE FIELD

OF CONSERVATION AND EDUCATION
How many medicinal plants are threatened with extinction?: There are circa
270,000 species of higher plants. Approximately 28% are used in ethnomedicine. At
least 36,000 (13,3%) plant species are threatened. The equation is 270,000 higher
plants x 28% medicinal x 13,3% at threat = at least 10,000 threatened medicinal
plants species [8].
Europe’s Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Their Use, Trade and Conservation by
Dr. Dagmar Lange:… “The report recommendation for the conservation of Europe’s
medicinal and aromatic plants, including enhanced trade monitoring, improved
legislation and enforcement, enhanced cultivation efforts and public awareness
activities” in Herbal renaissance threatens Europe’s medicinal and aromatic
plants [7].
Local people and medicinal plants: The Chiang Mai Declaration of the 1988
WHO/IUCN/WWF Conference on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants – to
encourage projects in which plants are “farmed” by indigenous people near to their
habitats [10].
Report looks into health of medicinal plants: “A November 1996 report by

consultants McAlpine, Thorpe and Warrier lists 25 major threatened medicinal plants.
For example, the European species include Arnica (Arnica montana). “They call for
the development of cultivation systems for threatened medicinal plants”, “In many
instances wild-collected material may be cheaper and so undermine efforts to
cultivate, as is the case with Arnica” [1].
A remedy for medicinal plants: “Conservationists should embrace the idea of

growing medicinal plants for conservation and development” [3].
Is it using the medicinal plants compatible with conservation?: “It is often

suggested that the best way to conserve medicinal plants is to cultivate them, and so
take pressure off wild population” [5].
15
Medicinal Plants: World Bank interest: “The cultivation of medicinal plants can
form an important livelihood for rural people as well as taking pressure off dwindling
wild stocks” [6].
Science, Religion and the Environment: “Image, combining the knowledge and
wisdom of science with sensitivity and spirituality of diverse religions to create a new
and effective ethnic of caring for nature” [4].
THE PROPOSED STRATEGY OF CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED

MEDICINAL FLORA could concretise through following activities:
Organisation of theoretical modules of education per social – professional and age

categories for assuring an appropriate level of information according to EU requests
and necessary to increase responsibility in using resources of local medicinal flora. It
will be considered that the perception of educational messages varies from group to
group, from age to age, from professional category to professional category.
Therefore the objectives of educational modules will be carried out by the appropriate
methods with an emphasis on practical and formative aspects for children, the
scientific and methodological aspects for intellectuals and applicable and
capitalisation aspects for peasants.
Organisation of practical modules of instruction for demonstrating the principles of

ecological harvesting, according to scientific criteria, of vegetative and/or
reproductive organs of medicinal plants and their correct processing for
commercialisation.
Realisation of models of action by setting and keeping up the nurseries for cultivation
of threatened species of medicinal plants. It is expected that, after participation in
these practical exercises, a number of people of the local community will have private
initiatives for cultivation some threatened species of medicinal plants.
Setting up a Centre of Primary Consulting for problems of medicinal plants by

assuring the financial basis and qualified persons for the functioning of the Centre in
order to permit the development of conservation actions after the end of the project.
Organisation of meetings and also talk shows for offering an appropriate background
in finding new ideas for attracting investments in this field of activity, for improving the
environment legislation and for proposing the measures of its effective
implementation.
REFERENCES
1. Gagmar Lange, 1997 - Report looks into health of medicinal plants, Plant
Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 9: 12
2. Hugh Synge, 1995 - The Biodiversity Convention Explained, Plant Talk -

Plant Conservation World Wide, 1: 14 – 15, 3: 26 - 28
3. Hugh Synge, 1977 - A remedy for medicinal plants, Plant Talk - Plant
Conservation World Wide, 10: 3
16
4. Hugh Synge, 1998 - Science, Religion and the Environment, Plant Talk -
Plant Conservation World Wide, 12: 3.
5. Jennie Wood, Sheldon Michael Balick, Sarah Laird, 1998 - Is using medicinal
plants compatible with conservation ?, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World
Wide, 13: 29 – 3
6. John, Lambert 1997- Medicinal Plants: World Bank interest, Plant Talk -
Plant Conservation World Wide, 10: 11.
7. Kelso Jo Bobbie, 1998 - Herbal renaissance threatens Europe’s medicinal

and aromatic plants, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 4: 12
8. Leaman J.Danna, 1998 - How many medicinal plants are threatened with
extinction?, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 14: 4.
9. Oltean M., Negrean G., Popescu A., Roman N., Dihoru G., Sanda V.,
Mihăilescu S., 1994 – Lista roşie a plantelor superioare din România. Studii,
Sinteze, Documentaţii de Ecologie. Academia Română – Institutul de Biologie.
10. Patrick O’ Harra, 1996 - Local people and medicinal plants, Plant Talk - Plant
Conservation World Wide, 5: 5 – 6
11. xxxx Planul Naţional de Acţiune pentru Protecţia Mediului – Ministerul

Apelor şi Protecţiei Mediului: Starea habitatelor naturale, a florei şi faunei
sălbatice; Strategia protecţiei mediului în România; Acţiuni strategie privind
conservarea naturii
12. xxxxx Regular Report on Romania’s Progress Towards Accession, 2001 -

Commission of the European Communities, Brussels
17
GLOBAL WARMING AND THE DANGER OF EXTINCTION OF THE

GREEK WETLANDS:
THE CASE OF THE RAMSAR SITE ALYKI KITROUS1
Efstratios Doukakis
National Technical University of Athens, School of Surveying Engineering
University Campus, 9 Hiroon Polytechniou Str., 157 80 Zografos
Tel: 010-7722707, Fax: 010-7722670, email: edouk@central.ntua.gr
ABSTRACT
Coastal and marine ecosystems support diverse and important human activities and demands on their
resources are rapidly increasing. Therefore, coastal areas become more developed and the
vulnerability of human settlements to erosion and flooding events also increases. Coastal and marine
environments are intrinsically linked to climate in many ways. The ocean is an important distributor of
the planet’s heat and this distribution could be strongly influenced by changes in global climate
through the 21st century. Sea level rise is projected to accelerate during the present century, with
dramatic impacts on low-lying regions where subsidence and erosion problems already exist. Coastal
erosion is a widespread phenomenon in many countries and has significant impacts on undeveloped
shorelines as well as on coastal development and infrastructure.
A relative small (1400 ha) but significant wetland is Alyki Kitrous in northern Greece. It is one of the
most important Ramsar sites with extensive salt marshes and a small shallow lagoon with a well-
developed dune system on the east side. The Alyki Kitrous belongs to the Thermaikos gulf, which is a
well-known subsiding area of about 40 cm/century. Working on a digitized 3d map, all models affecting
the shoreline setback are taken into account.
Choosing the 10 M as the depth of closure and the pessimistic IPCC scenario for sea level rise, the
future shoreline could be estimated. The results demand no doubt that if the scenarios will be
eventually emerged, then this important area will be lost for good.
Keywords: Alyki Kitrous, global warming, Greece, wetlands, GIS
1. INTRODUCTION
Marine environments are intrinsically linked to climate all time scales. Tides, currents,
precipitation, sea surface temperature, sea level changes and freshwater runoff, all
influence and shape the biological and geophysical nature of coastal landforms and
ecosystems. Covering more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, the water sphere plays
a critical and decisive role in the climate system. It is the major receiver and
distributor of the incoming solar radiation, with major ocean currents moving heat
energy polewards from the equator. The seawater is also one of the largest
reservoirs of carbon in the biochemical system absorbing one third of the
anthropogenic emissions. Temperature, atmospheric storms, ocean currents, fresh
water inputs from land and sea level variations have severe consequences on
coastal areas and marine resources and because of interaction between the above
forces, a region will experience the consequences of multiple climate forces.
Most of the sea level change observed over the last hundred thousand years is
accounted for by two major variables: the thermal expansion (steric effects) and the
amount of water locked in glaciers and ice sheets. With regard to thermal expansion,
given an equal mass the total volume decreases when ocean temperatures drop and
1
18
expands when temperatures increase. As for the amount of water locked in glaciers
and ice sheets, it has enough mass to raise global sea level by approximately 80 m
[6]. A thinning of glaciers in many parts of the world (Alps, Alaska, Andes etc.) has
been observed [8]. Nevertheless, it is difficult to estimate the contribution of melting
of glaciers and ice sheets to sea level rise (SLR) over the 21st century. Additionally,
activities such as groundwater pumping, deforestation, storage of water behind dams
and losses of water due to infiltration beneath impoundments can contribute
8cm/century for SLR [7]. One should not also forget the relative or local sea level
change, that is, the amount by which the land subsides or lifts due to geophysical or
anthropogenic reasons.
Generally, sea level refers to the average water level over the course of 18.6 years
period. Over geological time scales however, sea level has fluctuated greatly. During
the Cretaneous period (100 million years ago) sea level was as much as 350 m
above present level, corresponding with an ocean between 10 and 150 C warmer
than today’s and a warmer atmosphere with little or no land locked ice [6]. During
glacial periods, sea level has been as much as 120 m lower than current levels,
whereas during the warmer interglacial periods, sea level has been as much as 6 m
higher than present. Averagely speaking, global sea level has been gradually rising
since the conclusion of the last ice age (15.000 years ago). During the last century,
sea level rise has occurred at a rate of 10 to 20 cm/century [8]. For the last decade,
SLR impact assessments have generally followed a convention of considering the
impacts of a one-meter in sea level due to global warming. The consideration of
worst case scenarios is important for some types of risk assessment, where events
with small probability but higher impact may have a great impact on defining the most
rational course of action. The General Circulation Models (GSM) do provide credible
estimates of SLR due to thermal expansion, glacial melt and historic rates of sea
level change, including regional variability in eustatic sea level resulting from
oceanographic and atmospheric conditions. However, these outputs need to be
adjusted for regional land movements before effective assessments can be
performed. One approach to addressing regional differences in sea level change is to
obtain the difference between global average relative sea level rise and regional
estimates of sea level change to estimate local subsidence. This subsidence can
then be added to the model projection of SLR as predicted by GSM model output.
Most studies conducted on SLR estimates yield average total SLR of approximate 50
cm above current level by the year 2100 [10]. It is also generally agreed that SLR will
continue to accelerate beyond 2100, as a result of the long time frame necessary for
oceans and ice sheets to approach equilibrium. Finally, the rate of SLR may be as
important as the absolute rise for some key natural processes, such as the ability of
wetlands to keep pace with sea level change.
2. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COASTAL WETLANDS
Globally speaking, few environments on the planet are as biologically diverse and
productive as those found in coastal areas. Most of these systems have already been
moderately to severely affected by anthropogenic activities and the additive effect of
climate change will further intensify the impacts on the function and biodiversity of
coastal ecosystems. Since these systems provide substantial goods and services to
both human welfare and planetary processes as a whole, their continuous ability to
function is crucial. Natural systems, like wetlands, can provide flood control, storm
19
protection and waste recycling having a tremendous economical and environmental

value. Coastal erosion is already a widespread problem in Greece and elsewhere.
Generally, the highest risk areas are those currently experiencing rapid erosion rates
and very low relief. Sea level rise is one of the most significant threats to shoreline
systems, by increasing the vulnerability of developed shorelines and floodplains
through the elevation of the baseline water level for extreme storms and coastal
flooding events. In general, most unaltered and naturally functioning shorelines are
capable of adapting or responding to SLR, storm surges, wave impacts and other
climate related phenomena.
If a one meter rise in sea level occurs during this century (the worst case IPCC
scenario), thousands of square kilometers could be lost, particularly in low-lying and
subsiding areas. Rising sea level will also increase storm surge flooding both as a
result of the higher water level and because of SLR-induced erosion of landforms.
Some areas will experience dramatic changes, going from no flooding to extensive
flooding. In Greece, such events occurred very often during 2002. Generally
speaking, SLR will result in increased erosion of shores, increased salinity of
estuaries and freshwater aquifers, altered tidal ranges in rivers and bays, changes in
sediment and nutrient transport, changes in the pattern of chemical and
microbiological contamination in coastal areas and increased flooding.
3. CLIMATE CHANGE, COASTAL WETLANDS AND ALYKI KITROUS
Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish salt,
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six
meters. A cardinal characteristic of the traditional zone between the permanently
flooded and the strictly terrestrial areas is the presence of hydromorphic soils and
hydrophytic vegetation [9].
For coastal wetland ecosystems the effects of global climate change can be felt
directly through changes in SLR as well as indirectly through alteration in watershed
inputs. The indirect effect makes the prediction of the response of coastal wetlands to
climate change more complex and because of this complexity the future of coastal
wetlands becomes an increasingly significant problem as coastal areas continue to
become heavily populated and developed, resulting in both direct and indirect
deterioration and destruction of wetlands.
Coastal wetlands are valuable ecosystems since they absorb nutrients and reduce
loading to the coastal areas, protect local communities from flooding. Greece has
today about 400 large and small wetlands. Several of them are composite and form
wetland mosaics and complexes. The most common wetland types in Greece are
rivers, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, shallow lakes, shallow marine formations and
marshes. Their total area is still quite large (over 200.000 ha) despite the heavy
losses that occurred during the last 60 years.
Alyki Kitrous is a relative small but very significant wetland with extensive salt
marshes and a small shallow lagoon with a well developed dune system on the east
side. It is situated in 220 38 37 in Longitude and 410 17 27 in Latitude, its
administrative region is Kentriki Makedonia, belongs in Pieria Perfecture and has a
maximum altitude of 1 m. Alyki Kitrous is depicted in Fig. 1.
20
Reed bed formations occupy artificial ditches and canals. Alyki Kitrous is considered
a very important area for birds. A large number of protected and strictly protected
species use the site (including the salt works) for breeding, feeding and resting. The
biggest gull colony in Greece (and the second in Europe) nested in small islets in the
lagoon up to 1990 but then nesting was unsuccessful. It is included in the wetland
complex of Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon delta and has the same conservation status
(Ramsar Convention site). The main human activities are cattle raising and salt
taking. It is seriously threatened by the illegal building of summer residencies and by
the construction of a new road. Unfortunately, the number of salt works in Greece
has declined from 30 to 8 in the last forty years [4]. The salt works of Alyki Kitrous
covers an area of 250 ha producing approximately 20.000 tons of salt per year.
Fig. 1. The wetland of Alyki Kitrous (straight arrow) in the middle of Thermaikos Gulf
as part of the wetland complex of Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon delta (curved arrow).
4. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ALYKI KITROUS WETLAND
It is well known that the total change of a shoreline is the sum of the following factors
[3]:
1. Inundation
2. Erosion
3. Historical change
4. Strong wind effect
5. Sand removal
The inundation concept is a simple geometrical approach depending on the height

contours of the area under consideration. In case of the worst scenario of +1m sea
level rise, the region up to 1m contour will be flooded. Coastal erosion (or accretion)
is a problem throughout the world and many factors act together to influence coastal
21
erosion. These include the depth of water bodies, their alignment with prevailing
winds, change of water levels, shoreline geology and the effects of human activities.
The coastal erosion may cause problems when its development approaches, for
example, a residential area. The shape of the shoreline may change as a result of
the shoreline erosion. Moreover, the environment of the coastal zone can be
influenced due to the shoreline change. No one can stop erosion, but it can be
slowed down and its harmful effects on property and natural areas can be lessened
with correct understanding and proper management. The well-accepted Bruun model
is a tool to assess sandy beach erosion as a function of sea level rise, distance of
closure depth and the berm of the beach and the closure depth itself [1].
Historical shoreline change (erosion or accretion) can be only deduced using a time
series of air photographs. Digitizing the historical shorelines of the study area, the
transverse change can be deduced and the annual rate of change as well. In Fig. (2),
the area of Alyki Kitrous is shown covered by air photographs spanning half a century
(1945-1997) and in Fig. (3) a close look in front of the salt works is depicted. It is
concluded that the area undergoes erosion and accretion of the same size (ca.
0.5m/year) and thus it is considered more or less stable as far as the historical
change is concerned. A large-scale contour map is given in Fig. 4.
(2)
22
(3)
Fig. 2 and 3. The study area covered by air photographs spanning from 1945 (large
photograph) to 1997 (small photographs) and a close look at a small area of the
region. The blue curve represents the 1997 shoreline and the black the 1945
shoreline. The scale is arbitrary.
Fig. 4. Contour lines: Blue (0 cm), Brown (20 cm), Red (50 cm) and light Blue (-20
cm).
23
With regard to strong wind effects and sand removal, there are no official data to be
taken into account. Therefore, the effects of the historical retreat, strong winds and
sand removal are not considered in the final retreat of the study area.
In order to finally assess the vulnerability of Alyki Kitrous wetland, a series of

topographic maps at a scale of 1:1000, 1:2000 and 1:5000 and a hydrographic map
at a scale of 1:50000 were used for digitization to produce the 3D vector map of this
very important area. Assuming as depth for closure the 10 m isobath and using the
Bruun model for shore erosion, the retreat of successive shoreline points could be
computed [5]. It has to be mentioned here that the shoreline is composed of small
grain sand. The inundation concept was then applied using the high-risk scenario of
1 m due to the fact that the wetland is part of the Thermaikos Gulf, which is subsiding
at a rate of 40 cm/century [2]. Adding the results of these two models (inundation and
erosion), then the area, which may be lost due to anthropogenic climate change, is
estimated and represented by the thick line depicted in Fig. 5.
-10 M
SALT WORKS
SHORELINE RETREAT
Fig. 5. Shoreline retreat in Alyki Kitrous wetland due to inundation and erosion
caused by climate change (the scale is arbitrary).
24
5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 5 shows more than clear that under the assumed climate change scenarios, the
Alyki Kitrous wetland and salt works will be lost at the end of this century. More than
1.150 ha. of land of paramount importance would become the new sea bottom in this
peninsula. Another important Ramsar wetland is threatened by anthropogenic climate
forcing and asks for sustainable management and protection. There is presently a
trend in Greek society towards the recognition of the tremendous importance of the
multiple values of country’s wetland resources. The way to sustainable management
of wetland and terrestrial ecosystems will be long and hard.
6. REFERENCES
1. Bruun, P. (1962): Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion, Proceedings of

the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Waterways and Harbors
Division 88:117-130.
2. Brochier, F. and E. Ramieri (2001): Climate Change Impacts on the

Mediterranean Coastal Zones, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Nota di Lavoro
27.2001.
3. Cambers, G. (1998): Planning for Coastal Change, Coastal Development

Setback Guidelines in Navis, COSALC, University of Puerto Rico (2a).
4. Crisman, T.L. (2000): Conservation of Mediterranean Coastal Saline

Ecosystems: the Private Sector Role in Maintaining Ecological Function,
Center of Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
5. Doukakis, E. (2002): Coastal Vulnerability of the Island of Kos, International

Conference on Oceanographic Aspects for a Sustainable Mediterranean, 27-
29/9/2002, University of Pireas, Greece.
6. Emery, K.O. and D.G. Aubrey (1991): Sea-Levels, Land Levels and Tide
Gauges, Springer-Verlag, New York.
7. Gornitz, V.M., C. Rozenzweig and M.E. Moser (1997): Effects of

anthropogenic intervention in the land hydrologic cycle on global sea-level
rise, Global and Planetary Change 14:147-161.
8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1996): Climate Change

1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-
Technical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA.
9. Maragou, P. and Mantziou D. (2000): Assessment of the Greek Ramsar

wetlands, WWF-Greece, pp. 59 + Answered questionnaires pp 118.
10. Titus, J.G. and V.K. Narayanan (1996): The risk of sea-level rise, Climate
Change 33:151-212.
25
ANALYSIS OF VIPERA AMMODYTES SPECIES DISTRIBUTION IN

THE "IRON GATES" NATURAL PARK1
Popescu Dan-Viorel 1, Petrovan Silviu 2, Necşuliu Radu 1

1
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies
2
University of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
viorelpopescu@portiledefier.ro
ABSTRACT
Vipera ammodytes is an endangered species, strictly protected at international level. The situation and
spatial distribution of this species is mostly unknown in Romania.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the distribution of the habitats populated by Vipera ammodytes
in the "Iron Gates" Natural Park, situated in southwestern part of Romania. This was made through
detailed field survey and through GIS methods (over posing different layers, such as: aspect and slope
maps, geological and land cover maps etc).
Also, were observed the main characteristics of the habitats, like vegetation, geological and relief
conditions, microclimatic conditions and the main threats to their integrity.
The study was conducted within a LIFE NATURE project "The Iron Gates Natural Park - Habitat
Conservation and Management", lead by the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental
Research and Impact Studies.
Keywords: species distribution, habitats, vegetation formations, xerophylous scrub,

threats, GIS analysis, slope and aspect conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Presently, the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and

Impact Studies, is leading a LIFE NATURE project in the Iron Gates Natural Park.
This project aims to protect and preserve the wildlife in the area, focusing on species
of reptiles (Testudo hermanni and Vipera ammodytes) and birds (lesser kestrel, black
stork, little egret and pygmy cormorant). The sandviper (Vipera ammodytes), being a
venomous snake species, has a very delicate situation; the local people consider it a
"nasty" animal and usually kill it on sight.
Regarding this species, the project's goal is to assess the distribution of the habitats
populated by the sandviper and to raise local people's awareness for protecting and
preserving it.
WORK METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS
In 2002, between March and September (the period of activity of the most of the
reptiles in Romania) the team had the opportunity to assess the habitats distribution
during 4 sessions of field observations in the area of the Iron Gates Natural Park.
The main information sources for identifying the habitats were the bibliography and
field observations of some experienced Forestry Departments employees. In the
same time, the digital model of the Natural Park (the DEM, land use, geology, stream
network, roads network etc) was realized. The concrete results of these actions were:
1
27
- a data base of the habitats and Vipera ammodytes exemplars identified in the
field (including relevant photographs of habitats and individuals)
- a map of habitats' spatial distribution in the Iron Gates Natural Park area (Map
1)
- a summary of the activities that are threatening the species in their habitats
The field observations sessions covered few of the most important areas already
known as habitats of the sandviper, but also identified some problems. First, the
species could not be found in a series of habitats described in scientific literature as
typical (Vodiţa - Gura Văii area) and second, sandviper exemplars were identified in
some very small and fragmented habitats throughout the park (Bahna, Focoanele
Valley, Divici etc). The status of these small populations is still uncertain, because all
of them suffer intense human intervention and every site has specific conditions that
should be analysed in the future.
After conducting detailed field survey were identified a series of specific

characteristics for typical Vipera ammodytes habitats, like vegetation formations,
geology, soils and relief conditions. Having these data, we attempted to identify the
areas of possible occurrence of the species in the entire Natural Park, using the GIS
analysis. On the basis of the digital model of the Natural Park and the above
characteristics, we were able to realise a map in which we combined all relevant data
in order to assess the suitability of Vipera ammodytes habitats occurrence. The
factors taken into consideration were: the relief (altitude, slope and aspect), the
geology and the land use.
The spatial analysis suitability of habitats occurrence was realised using ArcView GIS
3.1 software and the extension Spatial Analyst 1.0. The methodology consisted in the
following steps:
1. Transforming vector type data in raster type data (creating a DEM - Digital
Elevation Model - from the elevation layer (point type), digitized from the topographic
maps 1:25 000 and deriving the slope and aspect maps, creating grids for geology
and land use layers (polygon type)) - cell dimension for each grid was 25x25 m.
2. Reclassifying each grid according to a legend established on the basis of the

information gathered during the 4 sessions of field observations and awarding each
class a mark suitable for the influence exerted in the occurrence of the Vipera
ammodytes habitats; the marks values awarded to each class of the grids are
between 1 and 10, as it follows:
- Elevation range map: 10 - between 35 and 200 m, 8 - between 200 and 400 m, 4
- between 400 and 500 m, 2 - between 500 and 700 m and 1 - between 700 and
970 m
- Slope map: 2 - between 0 and 10º, 10 - between 10 and 30º, 8 - between 30 and
40º, 4 - between 40 and 50º and 2 - between 50 and 90º
28
Map 1
29
- Aspect map: 10 - South, Southeast and Southwest, 8 - East and West and 2 -
North, Northeast and Northwest
- Geological map: 10 - limestone areas and 2 - other rock types
- Land use map: 10 - unproductive land (ridges, rocky areas, screes, sparsely
vegetated habitats) and shrub habitats and between 5 and 1 - other categories of
land use
These values were not chosen arbitrarily, but as a result of many trials and drafts of
the map (there were realised many reclassifications and types of calculations - the
average and the sum of the marks awarded for each grid cell). Finally, the above
mentioned marks were chosen and they were added (the sum was calculated). In
this way, the final result (the suitability map) reflected very precisely the real
conditions that were observed on the field, maintaining an equilibrium between the
restrictions and the permissions regarding the distribution of habitats.
3. Calculation of the final mark (using Map Calculator command), resulted from
summing the marks awarded for each cell of the initial grids - it resulted another grid,
with cells values between 8 and 50.
4. Establishing an adequate legend, suitable for the purpose of analysis and

identifying the areas with marks over 35 (considered as areas with more than 70%
chances for the Vipera ammodytes habitats to occur). These areas were highlighted
in the final map.
5. Realizing the map of Spatial analysis of the suitability of relief, geologic

and land use factors in Vipera ammodytes habitats occurrence (Map 2). Of
course, this map reveals only the typical Vipera ammodytes habitats, as the analysis
emphasized the characteristics that were considered to exert the greatest influence
in the occurrence of the habitats. So, the areas that were highlighted are supposed to
be the most suitable for the existence of sandviper populations.
The final step in analyzing Vipera ammodytes species spatial distribution in the Iron
Gates Natural Park is confronting and overlaying the two maps: the map of
distribution resulted directly from the field observations and the map of suitability as
resulted from the GIS analysis. The results are really surprising, as the map of the
suitability not only completes the initial map, by adding new areas with typical
habitats (Svinita area), but also enlarges the perimeter of the first mapped habitats
(Ciucaru Mic, Ciucaru Mare, Feţele Dunării, Sirinia Valley).
So, we might say that we presently have an almost complete picture of the spatial
distribution of the Vipera ammodytes habitats in the Iron Gates Natural Park.
Secondary, we were able to realize a preliminary analysis of the management status

of the perimeters in which we found sandviper individuals or the perimeters that are
most suited for occurrence of the habitats. The purpose of this analysis was to find
out if any of the perimeters benefits of some kind of protection measures and actions.
Over posing the resulted maps and the protected areas network map, resulted that
only two of the typical habitats are included in a natural reserve - Danube's Gorges
(Ciucaru Mic and Ciucaru Mare). Still, the field observations revealed that these two
30
Map 2
31
habitats are intensely pastured (cattle, sheep and goats) and the vegetation is in an
advanced state of degradation.
According to the GAP Analysis criteria for land stewardship (Patrick J. Crist, 2000),
this natural reserve is included in the management status 2 category, and the other
perimeters are included in the management status 3 or 4 categories. It means that
currently, there is an almost total lack of protection of the Vipera ammodytes habitats
in the Iron Gates Natural Park.
CONCLUSIONS
Vipera ammodytes habitats are varied, the species proving itself to be very adaptable
to different conditions. Its presence is not limited to the limestone areas, as small
habitats were found on volcanic rocks (granite) of metamorphic rocks (gneiss); thus,
the limestone areas condition the appearance of large habitats, with viable
populations and numerous individuals.
Habitats distribution is not continuous. They are sparsely distributed throughout the
Park. Vipera ammodytes areal is very fragmented and is continuously decreasing.
There are a few areas (Sirinia Valley, Danube Gorges), with viable populations that
should be declared strictly protected areas - fauna reservations.
Intensive pasturing proved to be in most cases the main threat to the habitat's
integrity, for two particular reasons:
- habitats restraint due to the destruction of vegetation
- transmitting from domestic animals to the wildlife (including to Vipera

ammodytes) of external parasites, like ticks (Haemophilus.sp., Ixodes sp.)
Other important threats are the killings of the viper individuals by the local people,
who believe the viper can byte and kill them or their domestic animals.
Regarding the distribution of the Vipera ammodytes habitats in the Iron Gates Natural
Park, we can say that presently there is an almost complete picture of the situation;
now, the priority in conservation should not be mapping other habitats, but monitoring
typical habitats that we already identified in order to propose them as natural
reserves - fauna protected areas.
REFERENCES
Blair Csuti, Patrick Crist (1998) - Methods for Developing Terrestrial Vertebrate
Distribution Maps for Gap Analysis, Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research
Unit, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
Boşcaiu N. and co (1971) – Vegetaţia lemnoasă mezo-xerotermă (Orno-Cotinetalia)

din Defileul Dunării, Ocrotirea naturii, nr. 15 (1), Bucureşti
Călinescu R. (1926) – Vipera ammodytes Cuv. în România, Lucrările Institutului de

Geografie al Universităţii din Cluj, II (1924-1925), Cluj
32
Edwards, T.C, C. Homer, S. Bassett (1994) - Land management categorization: A

users’ guide. A Handbook for Gap Analysis, Version 1, Gap Analysis Program
Patrick J. Crist (2000) - Mapping and Categorizing Land Stewardship, Idaho

Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID
Scott, J. M., F. Davis, B. Csuti, R. Noss, B. Butterfield, S. Caicco, C. Groves, T.

C. Edwards, Jr., J. Ulliman, H. Anderson, F. D'Erchia, R. G. Wright (1993) - Gap
Analysis: a geographic approach to protection of biological diversity. Wildlife
Monographs No. 123
http://www.gap.uidaho.edu/handbook/
33
INFLUENCE OF THE ECOLOGICAL FACTORS TO NUMBER

VIPERA LEBETINA OBTUSA AND CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF VENOM1
1
Topchieva Sh.A., 1Iskenderov T.M.
2
Jabbarov R.B., 2Musayeva N.N., 1Topchiev А.А., Aliev F.Sh.
1
Institute of Zoology of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences
Pass.1128, block 504, Baku, 370602, Azerbaijan
2
Institute of Physics of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences
370143, Baku, H.Javid ave.33, e-mail- nmusayeva@physics.ab.az
ABSTRACT
The considerable pollution of a biosphere of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by tekhnogen ejections of

industrial plants results in formation of ecogeochemical anomalies, the sizes which one grow with
intensification of development industrial, power complexes and motor-vehicle transport. As a result of it is
reshaped local anomalies inclusive heightened quantities of heavy metals in soils, waters and plants
multiply their superior maximum allowable concentrations. By the purpose of researches was the analysis
of influencing of environmental factors on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa,
chemical composition of soils and plants of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan, compiling on this basis of
the ecogeochemical map-schemes of pollution of a soil coverage of Apsheron peninsula by heavy metals.
Keywords: venom composition; Vipera lebetina obtusa; Azerbaijan; heavy metals
All progressing pollution of a biosphere of Azerbaijan by tekhnogen ejections of

industrial plants: power, chemical, oil refining etc. conducts to saturation its by toxic
substances, and also heavy metals (HМ) by such as Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, Cu etc.)
The guards of a biosphere as habitats of all living entities is a global problem [1].
The considerable pollution of a biosphere of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by

tekhnogen ejections of industrial plants results in formation of ecogeochemical
anomalies, the sizes which one grow with intensification of development industrial,
power complexes and motor-vehicle transport.
As a result of it is reshaped local anomalies inclusive heightened quantities of heavy

metals in soils, waters and plants multiply their superior maximum allowable
concentrations.
The pollution of soils HМ is most dangerous in a kind that the soil coverage, were in
constant interplay with atmosphere and hydrosphere receives and returns them the
weighed or dissolved substances which are acquired by plants during the development
and growth, and in further through biological food chains are transferred animals and the
person [2,3]. By the purpose of researches was the analysis of influencing of
1
34
environmental factors on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa,

chemical composition of soils and plants of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan,
compiling on this basis of the ecogeochemical map-schemes of pollution of a soil
coverage of Apsheron peninsula by heavy metals. With the purpose of an
establishment of correlation dependence between the contents of HМ in soils, plants
and in venom have been carried out the routes, on the basis of which one the sampling
in high layer of soils (0-20 см), selection of vegetative sample and catching the snake in
the given terrain with the subsequent takings of venom was conducted. Catching the
snake was carried out in neighborhoods of Baku, Sumgait, Bilgah, Kurdemir, Imishli.
The contents of heavy metals (lead, hydrargyrums, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, chromium,
tin, zinc, vanadium, cobalt) was carried out by a method Atom absorbing
Spectrophotometer (AAS-300, Perkin-Elmer) in researched samples.As a result of field
researches and on the basis of a grouping of soils on the contents HМ the map-
schemes of Pb, Cr, Ni, As etc. are made. On the map-scheme of pollution of a soil
coverage of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan HМ areas of dissipation of HМ polluters,
connected with a direction dominant on Apsheron of winds "by wind rose" and spacing
intervals from sources tekhnogen ejections (fig.1) clearly are tracked. The results of
field and experimental researches have shown, that the contents ТМ in studied samples
of soils, vegetation and in samples of venom oscillates (table 1) sharply. The direct
relation between a degree pollution of soils, plants both venom from spacing interval and
arrangement them from sources of polluters was established.
Table 1 Quantitative data of the contents of heavy metals in studied samples (mg/kg)
K u r d e m i r r / n
Territory
Concentrati on (mg/kg)
Samples Pb Zn
Plant 4,8 284,3
Soil 7,6 99,0
Viper venom 89,1 371,1
I m i s h l i r / n
Territory
Concentrati on (mg/kg)
Samples
Pb Zn
Plant
4,6 67,05
Soil
9,3 68,05
Vipera
49,13 863,6
venom
35
36
In result of ecogeochemical researches the map-schemes of polluters of a soil coverage

of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by heavy metals –polluters are made.
The correlative connection between the contents of HМ in soils, plants and in viper was
detected.
The considerable oscillation HМ in studied objects is established. The contents Pb in

venom of Vipera lebetina obtusa oscillates within the limits of 89.1-49.13 mg/kg, Zn
within the limits of 371.1-863.6 mg/kg. The contents Pb in soils oscillates within the limits
of 7.6-9.3 mg/kg, Zn –the limits of 99-68.05 mg/kg. In plants of the contents, Pb
oscillates within the limits of 4.8-4.6 mg/kg, Zn- within the limits of 28.4 - 67.05 mg/kg.
Thus essential role on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa is

rendered by environmental factors, that in turn influences pharmacological properties of
this invaluable source of medicinal raw for a pharmaceutical industry.
This work was carried out due to NATO Scientific Affairs Division’s Collaborative
Linkage Grant Program under reference LST.CLG.978586 from Cooperative Science
and Technology sub-programme for financial support.
REFERENCES
1. Sh.A.Topchiyeva Influence of the environmental factors on chemical composition of

vipera’s venom. San Francisco / California, USA,7th International Interdisciplinary
Conference on the Environment, 2001. P.25.
2. Sh.A.Topchiyeva, R.B.Jabbarov et.al. Investigations of chemical composition of

Vipera Lebetina Obtusa venom depending on ecological factors by laser
spectroscopy method. Fizika, Baku, 1999, N2, p.38-40
3. Sh.A.Topchiyeva. to the physics –chemical properties, application and some

ecological aspects of venom properties. J.Bilgi, Baku, 2000, N2, p.48-52
4. Z.Gyory, Sh.A.Topchiyeva et.al. Role of Heavy metals in toxinity of Vipera’s venom.

IV International konf. 2002, Baku, p.78
37
DIRECT AND INDIRECT HUMAN-MADE IMPACT

ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE RIVER NESTOS1
G. Efthimiou 1, Α. Mertzanis 2, D. Emmanouloudis 3

1
Egnatia Odos Α.Ε., 6th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi, P.O.30, 57 001, Thermi,
gefthi@egnatia.gr or gsefthimiou@in.gr.
2
Eco-Consultants S.A., 5 Aetideon str., 15561 Athens, Greece, amertz@hol.gr.
3
Technical Educational Institute (A.T.Ε.Ι.) of Kavala, Department of Forestry in
Drama, 66100, Drama, demmano@teikav.gr.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the direct and indirect human-made impact on surface and ground water and the
geological and morphological characteristics of vulnerable ecosystems and the techniques required
for counteracting or minimizing it. Human-made activities have affected the natural evolutionary
processes and the dynamics of the river Nestos delta. Of these activities, the most serious one was
the construction and operation of irrigation and drainage trenches, i.e., of an artificial hydrographic
network. At the same time, the controlled discharge in the main riverbed affected the rich flora and
fauna of the river ecosystems in a variety of ways through the construction of dams.
Keywords: human impact, river Nestos delta, Greece, surface water, ground water
1. INTRODUCTION
The most serious pressure acting on the environment is the result of uncontrolled
human activities and a process of "development" modeled according to standards
that overlook the requirements and tolerance limits of natural ecosystems. This
pressure often has an unrectifiable impact (shrinkage or extinction of sensitive
ecosystems, deceleration or reversal of the natural evolutionary processes that occur
in river deltas, etc).
The river Nestos Delta, which is a dynamic system as regards the velocity of its
geomorphological evolution, has been subjected to intense pressure from human
activities and its condition has been disturbed to a great extent. These activities,
which began in 1945, included the drainage of marshes and lakes, the reduction of
the moist land area, the diversion of the Nestos river bed, the construction of
hydroelectric and irrigation dams, the construction of drainage and irrigation networks
and the cultivation of land.
The enviroment consists of interrelated biotic and abiotic factors and the change of
one or more parameters (retention of waters and debris in reservoirs, reduction of the
discharge downstream dams, etc.) may disturb the equilibrium, the reproductive
capacity and the dynamics of affected natural ecosystems.
The preservation of the equilibrium of the natural evolutionary processes in sensitive

ecosystems, such as the river Nestos Delta, depends greatly on the processes that
take place within the boundaries of their catchment basins, which enrich them with
water and debris. The Nestos delta and estuary is also influenced by the activity of
the sea.
1
38
2. RESEARCH SITE LOCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 Location — Morphology
The study was conducted in the river Nestos delta (map 1), which extends over an
area of 550 km2 at the southernmost part of its catchment basin and belongs to the
prefectures of Kavala and Xanthi administratively. The catchment basin has an area
of 5,749 km2, 2,312 km2 (40%) of which form to the Greek catchment basin of the
river Nestos (ph. 1).
2.2 Meteorology — Climate
The average rainfall ranges from 668.7 mm to 801.6 mm according to data from the
Greek Meteorological Service. For the period 1970-1978, it was 668.7 mm/annum at
the Paranesti station, 801.6 mm/annum at the Prasinada station, 718.8 mm/annum at
the Skaloti station,
Map 1. The River Nestos Delta
709.6 mm/annum at the Sideronero station (during the period 1977-1983), 621.1
mm/annum at the Drama station (during the period 1974-1982) and 393.7
mm/annum at the Chrysoupoli station (during the period 1984-1997). During the
same period, the average number of storms at the Drama station was 14.7 while the
average annual number of days with fog was 4.8.
The average annual temperature at the Sideronero station was 10.9o C (according to
data for the period 1977-1983) and snowfalls were abundant from November to April
with 6.3 days of snowfall/annum at the Drama station (data from the periods 1932-
1940 and 1972-1975).
2.3 Flora — Fauna
The vegetation on the banks of river deltas and valleys is riparian and azonal. The
largest part of amphibious forests belongs to the order of Populetalia albae [4]. The
broader area that surrounds the Nestos delta belongs to the Quercetalia pubescentis
zone. The Nestor riparian forest is characterised by a large number of climbing
39
species (approximately 14 species). On the Nestos banks, there grow Phragmitetum

plants, which are replaced by halophytic species as we move closer to the estuary.
The riparian forest vegetation consists of soft wood species, such as: Salix alba,
Salix fragilis, Salix amplexicaulis, Alnus glutinosa Populus alba, and hard wood
species such as Fraxinus angustifolia, Quercus pedunculiflora, Ulmus minor etc.
Approximately seven species of carnivorous animals (Carnivora) have been

observed and recorded in the area, as well as approximately 20 reptile species (34%)
out of 59 species recorded in Greece, and 11 amphibian species out of 17 – 18
species recorded in Greece in total, namely, a percentage of 61%. Fourteen fish
species have been recorded along the river, its tributaries, and its irrigation and
drainage channels, while 11 fish species live in the laggons and in brackish water.
The avifauna of the area is also very diverse: the Nestos delta hosts 300 species [4],
which correspond to 71% of the birds (420 species) recorded in Greece during recent
research and 63% of the birds recorded in Europe (474 species). This fact justifies
the worldwide interest in the wetland. Seventy-three of the said species have been
included in the Red Data Book of Birds [4].
2.4 Geology – Geomorphology
Geologically, the river Nestos Delta consists of quaternary — holocene deposits

(clays – sands – cobbles), with surfaces of a mild to flat relief (gradient 0-15%), which
alternates with lagoons, marshes, flooded soils, dunes, cobbly – sandy dams, and
active and inactive flow beds. Further to the north, the river Nestos catchment basin,
which forms a part of the Rodopi geotectonic mass and consists mainly of
alternations of marbles, gneiss, schist and granitic and volcanic rocks, is
characterised by well-formed valley forms with pronounced deep erosion and steeply
inclined slopes that succeed the Nestos meandering reaches that occur further to the
south. There is a small proportion of Tertiary formations.
The river Nestos deltaic deposits assume a width of 2.5 - 6.0 km in the form of a fan,
like the Nile delta. From the inception of the Holocene to 1945, in the area of its delta,
the river Nestos often overflowed, changed flow beds, formed meandres and
deposited material that was dispersed as a result of the action of sea waves and
currents, thereby creating a complex system of dams (small islands), lagoons, arms,
marshes, slopes and aeolian dunes. After 1945 (when human activities in the area
intensified) the natural equilibrium conditions were altered. The artificial dislocation of
the river Nestos bed to the east by 4 km has produced erosion phenomena that are
stronger than the corresponding deposition ones in a westerner part of the delta
(Akroneri). These alluvial deposits are transported to the W-NW by waves and
coastal curents. Moreover, after the construction of the irrigation and drainage
networks, a large part of debris are deposited in irrigated areas [7].
2.5 Water resources (surface and subsurface water)
The sources of the river Nestos are located in the Rodopi mountain range, on the
mount Rila in Bulgaria. The hydrographic network that is created with two main
converging branches in the area south of the border (at the site Potami) crosses the
Greek territory from NW to SE between Rodopi, Falakro and Lekani and flows out
into the Thracian sea. The total area of its natural hydrological catchment area is
equal to 5,749 km2; 3,437 km2 (60%) of them are in Bulgarian territory. Of the 234 km
of length of the river Nestos, 130 km are in Greece. Along them there are several
converging branches of a smaller order (river Perivleptou, river Diavolorema, river
40
Arkoudorema, etc). Downstream the river Paranesti, the river Nestos discharge is
estimated as equal to 10 m3/sec.
In the mountainous basin there is ground water in the marbles and the weathered
mantle of schist-gneiss and granitic rocks. The carstic water-bearing strata discharge
mainly through fountains (the fountain of Paradisos, etc) whereas there is
occasionally a hydraulic relation with the ground water table of the Nestos Delta [2].
3. HUMAN INTERVENTION
Human intervention in the river Nestos can be classified into two categories
depending on its nature and time of occurence [7].
Category 1: Indirect Intervention (earlier period). This category concerns mainly

activities of an agricultural nature (flood control measures, drainage works, irrigation
networks, cutting back of riparian vegetation, etc.). The region was included in the
Ramsar treaty despite the fact that these activities were intensive and had a
significant impact on the Delta environment.
Category 2: Direct Intervention (more recent period). This category includes

projects and activities performed mainly in the river cathment area in order to exploit
its water capacity for power production and irrigation and for the support of the
wetland. These projects are two dams – reservoirs (in Thesavros and Platanovrisi)
which have been in operation since 1996-97. Over the past twenty years, these
interventions have disturbed the environmental equilibrium of the river Nestos
catchment area significantly: a longitudinal lake, of a length of 36 km, a width of 0.2 –
2.7 km and a depth of 140 m has been formed. It is also impossible to predict what
problems may be generated in the Delta ecosystems in the future.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT – PRESSURE ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
The pressures exercised on the Delta region ecosystems during the period referred
to as "earlier period" and their impact were restored to a considerable degree and a
condition of equilibrium had been achieved by approximately 1975-77. The natural
environment of the region was disturbed significantly at that time, which coincides
with the beginning of the construction of the abovementioned hydroelectric projects.
During the project construction stage, the disturbance and the impact affected mainly
the river catchment area (Greek part) and were more severe in the twenty-year
period from 1980 to 2000. At present, when the projects are in operation, the
disturbance and the impact affect mainly the delta area. Therefore, we have:
Period 1975-2000. During this period, the impact was felt mainly on the ecosystems
around the main riverbed because during the construction of the dams, the land was
cleared and trees were cut down on the riverbed slopes in the area where the
reservoirs were to be built, as these works were necessary to stabilise the slopes and
prepare them to bear the loads of the structures and the warer. Moreover, tunnel
boring works and road works of a considerable length were conducted in forest
areas, while thousands of trips were performed by heavy goods vehicles transporting
building materials and road works machinery.
The magnitude and the duration of the impact on the natural ecosystems in the
vicinity of the works were considerable and concerned mainly the following
parameters:
41
a. Impact on the flora and fauna of the region.
Tens of thousands of trees were cut down, the places where birds and small
mammals nested were destroyed, while, according to local inhabitants, some species
became extinct.
b. Impact on landscape appearance.
The projects and the uncovered, vertical excavation slopes have altered significantly
the physiognomy of the area in the vicinity of the projects which was the typical
physiognomy of a riparian ecosystem with very dense flora.
c. Impact on ground and air quality.
The structure and the porosity of the ground were affected negatively as a result of
earthworks (excavations, compaction, clearing of land and stumping), especially
during construction. Moreover, air quality deteriorated significantly, mainly due to the
fumes from heavy goods vehicles and construction plant.
d. Impact from noise and vibration
The production of noise and vibrations during construction caused avifauna and
mammal species to move to other localities.
Period from 2000 to the present
During this period, when the hydroelectric projects have been in operation, the
changes and pressures are mainly felt at the river Nestos delta and they are
distinguished into two subcategories:
a. Impact on surface and subsurface water
The hydroelectric exploitation of the river Nestos water capacity affects the natural
environment and the surface and subsurface water in the near and broader vicinity of
the reservoirs and downstream the hydroelecric projects. Some of these changes are
temporary and some are permanent:
• Occurrence of extreme discharge values (peak discharges), which may result

in the overflowing of the riverbed and floods in the lower regions downstream
the projects.
• Changes in the ground water content of the river Nestos delta.
• Reduction of riparian vegetation.
• Interruption of water fertilization (transportation and deposit of debris).
• Destruction of birds' nesting areas, which indirectly displaced the fauna.
• Drop of the river water temperature causing destruction of fish reproductive

areas.
42
b. Impact on geological — geomorphological features
The implementation of the program for the hydroelectric exploitation of the river
Nestos water capaciy affects the geological — geomorphological features of the near
and broader vicinity of the reservoirs and the area downstream the hydroelectric
projects. Some of these effects are temporary and some are permanent. The former
are related to the time required for project construction and the latter to the filling of
the reservoirs and the operation of the hydroelectric projects of Thesavros and
Platanovrysi. These are:
• Changes in the natural geoforms and the physiognomy of the river Nestos
valley
• Disturbing the natural processes that participate in the ongoing formation and
development of the geomorphological conditions of the river Nestos valley
• Changes in the physiognomy of the river Nestos valley, with the concurrent
appearance of geomorphological processes directly associated with a lake
environment
• Permanent presence of artificial lakes upstream the dams
• Permanent interruption of the natural processes which widen (erosion of the

riverbed in the direction of depth) and shape the river Nestos valley
• The processes of sedimentation in the reservoirs became permanent
• Inception of erosion phenomena inside the Nestos riverbed, downstream the

projects.
• The tendency to stop the advancement of the Delta coastal line is made
permanent while at the same time this coastal line recedes locally.
5. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR ADDRESSING THE IMPACT
The application of methods and techniques that are "friendly" to the environment and
the special features of the dynamically developing ecosystem is absolutely necessary
if one is to combat the impact of human activities and reinstate the disturbed
equilibrium of the Nestos delta natural ecosystems. The proposed management axes
require the restoration of the environmental equilibrium in the part of the catchment
area upstream the projects built for the hydroelectric exploitation of the river Nestos
water capacity. These management axes are defined according to the subcategories
of impact and they are:
• 1st Management Axis: Surface and subsurface water
- Discharge of water quantities from the main riverbed into the old riverbeds, which
are inactive at present, through the opening of controlled passages at appropriate
locations of the dykes. In this way, the riparian forest is flooded again and the
natural riparian ecosystems are restored while at the same time the water content
of the surface waterbearing strata is enriched, which has a beneficial effect on the
cultivations of the plain of the Municipality of Topeiros.
43
- Diversion of water quantities from the reservoir of Toxotes to the irrigation network
of the Nestos Province plain and discharge of this water to the riparian forest
"Megalo", which is "completely protected", through the existing channels. In this
way, the restoration of the envronment will be aided and the riparian forest will be
recreated and will expand into the public land that was used for poplar cultivation
in recent decades and is now protected against any human intervention.
- Construction of short earth dams at selected places of the riverbed, in-between

dykes, according to the model used in the river Rhine in Germany [3], in order to:
(a) control the re-flooding of the regions that are located between the dykes and
which are not flooded today; (b) reinstate the periodic flooding that occurred
according to the natural dynamics of the river Nestos, before the riverbed was
confined artificially and the upstream large dams were constructed, and (c) enrich
the shallow ground water content. The same result may be achieved through the
construction of small spillways with an input system that operates through grates.
These dams may be constructed in Delta trenches and they may supply pumping
tanks through sedimentation reservoirs, and then the water will be directed to
Delta areas where the trenches have a higher altitude. This water favours the
creation of new riparian forests with alnus, poplars and willows, on the alluvial
berms in-between the trenches, as it happens in the lakeside forest in Apollonia
[5].
2nd Management Axis: Geology and geoforms
- Activation of the network for monitoring and controlling the coastal area and
protecting it against intense erosion and the receding of the coastal line [1,6]. The
coastal area may be protected against erosion and the destabilization of the
coastal equilibrium by using as a basis for future interventions systematic
measurements of elementary parameters regarding the width of the beach and
the slope of the corresponding submarine part of the coastal shallow bottom. The
said observations make it possible to predict the final evolutionary stage and to
apply preventive measures on the coastal zone in good time. The measures must
be adapted to the landscape and the special characteristics of sensitive
ecosystems and adhere to the specifications for mild coastal environmental
protection structures (vegetated gabions, sills etc.)
CONCLUSIONS
The human-made activities that have developed in the river Nestos delta and its
mountainous basin are characterized by marsh and lake drainage, the reduction of
flooded areas, diversions of the flow riverbed, the construction of hydroelectric and
irrigation dams and of drainage and irrigation networks and land cultivation. These
activities are the cause of the rapid changes that have taken place in the region at
least as regards land cover and use since 1945. The changes brought about in the
water resources and the geological — geomorphological structure by hydroelectric
projects are related to the characteristics, the location and the mode of operation of
the said projects combined with the environmental characteristics (surface and
subsurface water, geological — geomorphological structure).
The appropriate design and the application of methods and techniques for the
management of sensitive natural ecosystems is a condition for the preservation of
the equilibrium of the natural evolutionary processes, the renewal of the natural
resources and, in general, environmental protection, which acquire special
44
importance for the reason that the Nestos Delta is one of the most important
wetlands in the country and is protected by national, European and international
treaties (Ramsar treaty), Greek law and the corresponding European Community
Law. To address the impact and gradually restore the disturbed equilibrium of the
river Nestos Delta natural ecosystems it is necessary to use methods and techniques
that are environmentally friendly and will restore the natural function and dynamics of
the said ecosystems by reflooding them, according to the recommended
management axes. The restoration of the environmental equilibrium in the part of the
basin upstream the hydroelectric projects of the river Nestos is considered a
prerequisite.
REFERENCES
1. Vavizos G. and Α. Mertzanis (2002). "Environment — Environmental Impact

Studies" Papasotiriou, Athens [in Greek].
2. Vergis S., (1979). Hydrogeological Study of the River Nestos Basin and
Delta, Institute for Geological and Mineralogical Studies, [in Greek].
3. Dister E., (1983). Anthropogene Wasserstandsänderungen in Flussauen und ihre

ökologischen Folgen – Beispiele vom Oberrhein und vom Rio Mgdalena
(Kolumbien) Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Ökologie, Band XI, pp 89-
100.
4. Efthymiou G. (2000) “Structural analysis, dynamics and ecological

interpretation of the Nestos coastal forests", Doctoral Thesis, Department of
Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [in Greek].
5. Emmanouelidis D., Philippidis E., Takos I, Tsioukas A and Mantzavelas A.

(2002). "Restoration of the aesthetic amphibious forest of Apollonia with irrigation
from extra-torrential tapping tanks», Panhellenic Forestry Congress, Tripolis [in
Greek].
6. Marabini F. and A. Mertzanis, (2002). «The coastal zone safeguard and the man
activity in the Mediterranean sea». 1st Scientific Conference
“Oceanographical Aspects for a Sustainable Mediterranean” - EFMS
(European Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies) - HOA
(Hellenic Oceanographers Association), September 27-29, 2002, Athens.
7. Psilovikos A., Vavliakis E., and Langalis Th. (1988). "Natural processes and
human activities in the recent evolution of the river Nestos Delta", Greek
Geological Association Bulletin, Volume ΧΧ (1), pp. 313-324, Athens [in Greek].
45
ASSESSMENT OF THE ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY STATE

IN THE MARINE ECOSYSTEM
BELOSLAV LAKE – VARNA LAKE – VARNA BAY1
K. Stefanova
Institute of Oceanology, BAS, P.O. Box 152, 9000, Varna, Bulgaria
e-mail: kstefanova@abv.bg
ABSTRACT
The Beloslav Lake-Varna Lake– Varna Bay system is one of the most eutrophicated areas along the
Black Sea coast. It is a cascade, launching at the canals entries into the sea, pollutants and nutrients
from the chemical industry, agriculture and sewage origin.
The aim of the present study is to assess the state of the zooplankton community in relation to:
species diversity; changes in the seasonal qualitative and quantitative parameters; spatial distribution,
as well as, outlining trends of species development under the eutrophication influence. The result
reveal tendency in the zooplankton spаce distribution in marine ecosystem Varna Bay-Varna Lake-
Beloslav-Lake has diminished number of species towards lakes. The assessment of zooplankton
ecological state by Shannon-Weaver diversity index revealed a relatively decreasing ecological
stability from Varna Bay to Beloslav Lake. Despite of strong interaction among the sites, zooplankton
communities manifest specific features and ecological autonomy.
Keywords: Beloslav Lake-Varna Lake– Varna Bay system, Black Sea coast,
zooplankton community
INTRODUCTION
During the late 1970s, the Black Sea ecosystem was in an ecological crisis. The
deterioration of this ecosystem was the result of two principal factors: eutrophication
(that’s, nutrient enrichment due to domestic or agricultural waste) and invasion by the
comb jelly Mnemiopsis. These factors were exacerbated by pollution and overfishing
(Kideys, 2002). Anthropogenic eutrophication has been identified as a key ecological
problem for the coastal Black Sea region (especially the North-Western part
subjected to the strong influence of freshwater input), resulted in dramatic alterations
in the chemical and biological regimes (Mee, 1992; Zaitzev, 1992). A substantial
shifts in the structure of phytoplankton communities and increase in primary
productivity, expansion of phytoplankton blooms and related hypoxia/anoxia
conditions have been well documented, exerting adverse effect on the functioning of
the food web (induced alterations in zooplakton community structure, disturbance in
the reproduction of commercial fish, deterioration of benthic communities) (Bodeanu,
1993, Moncheva et al., 1995). Important factors for zooplankton development at
human impact, climate and the internal balance of the ecosystem. Consuming the
primary production and being the food resource for higher trophic level zooplankon
plays a significant role in food webs (Konsulov, Kamburska, 1998)
Remarkably, since the mid-1990s, the impact of both eutrophication and Mnemiopsis
has decline and virtually all ecosystem indicators now show sings of recovery,
suggesting that the Black Sea has returned to a healthier state (Kideys, 2002).
1
46
The investigated system Beloslav Lake-Varna Lake– Varna Bay is one of the most
eutrophicated areas along the Black Sea coast. It is a cascade, launching through
the canals into the sea pollutants and nutrients of chemical industry, agricultural and
sewage origin. According to Water Quality Index (WQI) estimated as ratio of the
measured values of nutrients and Chl”a” to the local regulation standards, the two
lakes fell in the category “bad”, while Varna Bay was scaled as “poor” water quality,
highly eutrophicated. The same authors claimed phytobiomass: zoobiomass ratio for
the lake system (a measure of grazing pressure) more than 10 times higher than the
classical one 10:1 (Moncheva et al., 2001)
Recently, signs of relatively recovery and improvement of the Black Sea ecosystem
were observed and changes in species diversity, as well zooplankton dynamics in the
system Varna Bay-the two lakes were also documented [Kamburska et al. 2002,
Konsulova et al.,2000, Velikova et al. 2001).
However, the species diversity, structure and seasonally variability of zooplankton

community are attractive and give a possibility to assess the status of plankton fauna.
The aim of the present study is to assess the state of the zooplankton community in
relation to: species diversity; changes in the seasonal qualitative and quantitative
parameters; spatial distribution, as well as, outlining trends of species development
under the eutrophication influence.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study is based on data collected at a standard sampling network during the
scientific cruises in Varna Bay in November 1999, on a board of Navy vessel
“Admiral Br. Ormanov” and in Varna –Beloslav Lakes in November 1999, March, May
and August 2000 on a boat of IO-BAS, Varna. The number of stations in Beloslav
Lake were 2 (A1, A4), in Varna Lake 8 (A6, A7, A8, A9, A10, A11, A13 and A16), and
in Varna Bay- 3 sampling stations (Fig. 1).
The samples were collected with vertical plankton nets “Jeddy”– 36 and 14,5 cm
diameters, and 150 µm mesh size. Samples were fixed to 4% formalin solution after
sorting out, counting and measuring the size of gelatinous species-M. leidyi, A. aurita
and B. ovata. Identification of the samples to species level was done under a
binocular microscope. Species abundance per cubic meter was performed according
to Dimov’s method (Dimov, 1959). Biomass (mg.m-3) was estimated by using
individual standard weights (Petipa, 1959)
Shannon-Weaver diversity index H’ was applied for assessment of zooplankton

component ecological status of the lake and bay biota. The index depends on the
number of species and their quantitative ratios in the total zooplankton abundance
and biomass. Values lower than 1 indicates a critical ecological status, while above 3
demonstrate ecological stability of the component (Shannon, Weaver, 1963). Mean
coefficients of similarity and dissimilarity of Bray - Curtis are calculated for seasons
and regions as well the species percentage weight (SIMPER analysis) (Clarke,
Warwick, 1994).
47
Figure 1. Map of sampling stations
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
During the autumn 1999 the environmental parameters manifested significant

differences in temperature, oxygen (O2) and nutrients concentrations– inorganic P, N.
The average surface temperature was about 15,17ºC and О2 – 6,42 ml/l. The
concentrations of phosphates were high values, varied between 97 – 186 µg/l and
the nitrates between 140-220 µg/l.
The average water temperature in March 2000 was 7,92ºC and oxygen concentration
– 10,41 ml/l, while in spring it decreased to 7,63 ml/l and average temperature was
14,53ºC. The surface temperature in August 2001 was 24,24ºC. The high water
temperature, significant organic loading causing oxygen deficiency (2.21 ml.l-1) in the
bottom waters due to the limited vertical water exchange and oxygen exhaustion
caused by the oxidising processes.
On the basis of the obtained results in the investigated area, zooplankton species
have been identified belonging to the phylum Protozoa, Coelenterata, Ctenophora,
Nemathelminthes, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Chaetognatha, Appendicularia.
Seasonal species diversity revealed variability due to species ecological adaptation
and environmental condition. Zooplankton species enrichment was higher during
autumn and summer (table 1). Tendency in the zooplankton space distribution in
marine ecosystem Varna Bay-Varna Lake-Beloslav-Lake has diminished number of
species towards lakes (figure 2).
Generally, the specific hydrology in the bay contributes to higher zooplankton species
enrichment. Plankton fauna and benthic organisms (with plankton larval stage in their
life cycle) from the one hand have a higher reproductive potential, and on the other
the plankton community composition could be restored by currents from the marine
site (Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 1999).
48
Table 1. Seasonal zooplankton diversity
Species autumn winter spring summer

Rotatoria
Brachionus rubens + + + +
Brachionus calyciflorus + + + +
Synchaeta vorax + + - +
Rotatoria spp. + + + +
Asplanhna priodonta + + + +
Copepoda
Acartia clausi + + + +
Paracalanus parvus + + - +
Pseudocalanus elongatus - + - +
Oithona similis + + + +
Oithona nana + + - +
Centropages kroyeri + - - +
Calanipeda aquae dulcis - - + +
Cyclops vicinus + + + +
Harpactikoida sp. + + + +
Cladocera
Penilia avirostris + - - +
Pleopis polyphemoides + + + +
Evadne tergestina - - - +
Evadne spinifera - - - +
Meroplankton
Cirripedia nauplii + + + +
Cirripedia cypris + + + +
Polychaeta larvae + + + +
Lamellibranhia veliger + + + +
Gastropoda veliger + - - +
Decapoda zoea - - - +
Decapoda mysis + - - +
Decapoda larvae - + - +
Nematoda larvae + + + +
Ichtyoplankton
Pisces ova - - - +
Pisces larvae - - + +
Chaetognatha
Sagitta setosa + + + +
Dinoflagellates
Noctiluca scintillans + + + +
Appendicularia
Oicopleura dioica + - - -
Infusoria
Favela erenbergi + - - -
Tinntinoidae sp. + - - -
Coelenterata
Aurelia aurita + + + +
Ctenophora
Mnemiopsis leidyi + - + +
Beroe ovata + - - +
49
er
summ
spring
r
winte
n
autum
0 5 10 15 20 25
number of species
Varna Bay Varna Lake Beloslav Lake
Figure 2. Number of species in Varna Bay, Varna Lake and Beloslav Lake during the
investigated period
Zooplankton community in investigatied area in respect to quantitative parameters

show significant variability (figure 3). The results revealed the lowest abundance and
the least fluctuation in winter. In autumn 1999 the average zooplankton abundance
was 58 009 ind/m3. Maximum abundance of 28 166 ind/m3 was recorded at st. A12 in
Varna Lake. The sampling station is located closed to the sewage plant. Samples
were rich of decomposed organic matter (detritus) as a consequence of the plant
activity influence. The greatest part to the total abundance was due to opportunistic
copepod A. clausi (40%) and Cirripedia nauplii (25%), and Polychaeta larvae (11%).
A. clausi is an eurythermic and euryhaline copepod tolerant resistant to different
environmental conditions of many types. (Zaitsev, Alexandrov, 1997)
In winter the recorded average abundance was 2.5 folds lower than autumn
(31 902 ind/m3) Rotatoria contributed 50% to the abundance structure, while
Copepods and Meroplankton presented equal values of 25%. An increased
abundance was recorded in spring at about 2.7 folds. Zooplankton abundance
structure was mostly presented by rotifers 50%, Meroplankton (20%), Copepods
(17%), Cladocera (12%) and N. scintillans 1%. In summer the zooplankton
abundance revealed an apparent alteration to increased – 110 347 ind/m3. The
greatest part in the total abundance structure was due to copepods share of 77%.
6000
400000
5000
abundance ind.m-3
300000
4000
biomass mg.m-3
200000 3000
2000
100000
1000
0 g
s p rin 0
A2 A6 u tu m
n
A8 a
A1
0 3 A2 A6
A1 B1 A8
B3 A 10 A 13
stations B1
stations B3
autumn winter spring summer autumn winter spring summer
Figure 3. Seasonal zooplankton abundance and biomass dynmic in the system

Varna Bay-Varna Lake-Beloslav Lake.
50
Comparative analysis of the results obtained for Varna and Beloslav lakes shown
dissimilarity of the zooplankton diversity and community structure compared to those
in Varna Bay.
Beloslav Lake is an area subjected to high industrial, chemical pollution and low self-
purifying capacity. In November 1999 its community was dominated by rotifers (more
than 60 % of the average abundance) followed by Copepods (25 %) and
Meroplankton (10 %) (Figure 4). Class Rotatoria (microzooplankton) constituted a
major component of plankton fauna. The benthic larvae and copepods were equally
presented in the abundance structure in Varna Lake. In Varna Bay the contribution of
all groups in the zooplankton abundance structure was relatively similar
(Meroplankton – 37%, Copepoda – 35%, Rotatoria – 27%)
60000
100000
80000
abundance ind/m3
40000
60000
abundance ind/m3
40000
20000 20000
ake
0 Bel. LLake
Va rn a
Copepoda
ake
Cladocera
0 Bel. L
Meroplankton
Rotatoria
Bay
N. scintillans
Copepoda
a
Cladocera
Va rn
Meroplankton
Rotatoria
N. scintillans
S. setosa juv.
S.setosa
F.erenbergi
O.dioica
Varna Bay Varna Lake Bel. Lake

Varna Lake Bel. Lake
a) b)
Figure 4. Zooplankton average abundance by groups and species in investigated
areas during a) autumn and b) winter
Zooplankton time-space variability in spring - summer at the stations in investigated

area was demonstrated on figure 5. The average spring zooplankton abundance
(170 484 ind/m3) of the Beloslav Lake was twice higher than that one in Varna Lake
and about 5 times more than in Varna Bay. Rotifers were also significantly donated
the zooplankton diversity in the Beloslave Lake, followed by copepods. Under
conditions of anthropogenic eutrophication, large species of crustacean plankton
have been replaced by smaller species (Kamburska, Stefanova, 2002).
In summer 2001 high copepods diversity in the three sites, especially in Varna Lake
was evident. The abundance of benthic larval, rotifers and N. scintillans was very
low. The results reveal significant alteration in the Cladocera structure in Varna Bay.
The high temperature in that warm period could have favored the increase of the
number of warm-water cladocer as well (Evadne spinifera, Evadne tergestina, Penilia
avirostris).
51
120000 1600
1200
abundance ind/m3
80000
abundance ind/m3
800
40000 400
Bay 0 Bel. Lake

0 Varn a
Copepoda
Varna Bay
Cladocera
Copepoda
Cladocera
Meroplankton
Meroplankton
Rotatoria
Rotatoria
N. scintillans
N. scintillans
S. setosa juv.
Varna Bay Varna Lake Bel. Lake Varna Bay Varna Lake Bel. Lake
a) b)
Figure 5. Zooplankton average abundance by groups and species in investigated
areas during a) spring and b) summer
The seasonal comparative analysis demonstrated that the greatest part to the total
abundance in Beloslave Lake was due to small-size species of rotifers. In general,
the latest were dominant in the lakes, which suggest the strong impact of the lake
community. Microzooplankton acts as a trophic link between phytoplankton-
mesozooplankton and very often plays an important role in nitrate and energy
transfer in lakes ecosystems (Makarewicz, Likens, 1979). Rotifer abundance
correlates with trophic state indicators (chlorophyll a and total phosphorous), as the
low pH induces a reduction of phytoplankton biodiversity and standing stock
(Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 1999). The neutral to low alkaline pH in
Beloslav lake could be one of the possible factors favouring the high zooplankton
standing stock there.
Further, the assessment of zooplankton ecological state by Shannon-Weaver

diversity index revealed a relatively decreasing ecological stability from Varna Bay
towards Beloslav Lake. Diversity index by abundance and biomass varied from 1.6 to
3.7 (figure 6). In autumn - summer periods the values were lower than in spring and
winter. The possible reason could be the effect of combination peculiar hydrophisical
regime together with a strong antropogenic pressure especially in summer, which
continued in autumn too. The index bellow 2 was estimated at station A6, A7 (closed
to electric power station) and A9, where dominated by the rotifers. The higher value
in all season of H (B) in st. A2 probably related to the more even quantitative
distribution of the species in the total biomass. In summer the Shannon-Weaver
indexes the lowest and diminished toward lakes was evident. Irrespective to the
relatively high species richness (15 species) the Shannon-Weaver diversity index,
suggest lower zooplankton communities state, which is an indicator of negative
ecological processes functioning in the lakes in summer.
52
Shannon-Weaver index H(A) 4 4
Shanon-Weaver index H(B)

3 3
2 2
1 1
0
0
A2
A4
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A13
A16
B1
B2
B3
A2
A4
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A13
A16
B1
B2
B3
stations stations
autumn winter spring summer autumn winter spring summer
a) b)
Figure 6. Shannon-Weaver diversity index by zooplankton abundance a) [H (A)] and
biomass b) [H (B)]
Simper analysis was applied to find out seasonal similarity of the zooplankton
community. The analysis revealed equal contribution percentage (32-31%) of
copepods, benthic larval and rotifers in autumn. During winter the highest importance
was due to Rotatoria with 34%, following by Copepoda and Meroplankton. Species of
benthic larval, rotifers, copepods and cladocers had equal contribution (24%) for
average similarity in spring, while in summer Copepoda contributed over 47% and
Meroplankton – 40%. меропланктон - 40%.
Autumn Winter
33% 33% 32% 34%
34% 34%
Copepoda Meroplankton Rotatoria Rotatoria Copepoda Meroplankton
Spring Summer
25% 25%
32% 33%
24% 26%
35%
Copepoda Meroplankton Cladocera Rotatoria Copepoda Meroplankton Cladocera
Figure 7. Seasonal relative contribution (percentage of the average coefficients of

similarity) of the zooplankton groups characteristic
An alternative, more analytical way of achieving the same characterisation is to

compute the average dissimilarity between groups and the separate contributions
53
from each species. Meanly the species, which discriminated groups autumn - winter,
autumn – spring, winter – spring were Cladocera with 30%, 37%, 45% and Rotatoria
– 10%, 12% and 17% respectively. In groups autumn – summer, winter – summer
and spring – summer dissimilarity percentage of rotifers prevailed than Cladocera
and N. scintillans. Seasonal dissimilarity percentage depended on ecological
zooplankton species adaptation to environmental condition.
In spatial aspect the zooplankton group which discriminate Beloslav Lake and Varna
Lake were Cladocera, Rotatoria and Copepoda with 39%, 29% and 12% respectively
contribution to the average inter-group coefficient of dissimilarity. The situation
between groups Beloslav Lake – Varna Bay was similar but O. dioica took the place
of copepods. Cladocera species, rotifers and N. scintillans contributed to discriminate
Varna Lake and Varna Bay with 23%, 22% and 12% respectively. Further, the same
zoopankton species are also typical for lakes and marine sites. Rotatoria, Copepoda
and Meroplankton comprised over 70% contribution to the average inter-group
coefficient of similarity in Beloslav Lake (figure 7). For Varna Lake Copepoda species
and benthic larval were very typical of zooplankton community with 36%, 35% and
rotifers – 21%. In Varna Bay Meroplankton (31%), Copepoda (30%) and Cladocera
(18%) contributed for similarity in this inter-group.
Beloslav Lake Varna Lake
30% 24%
36% 38%
34% 38%
Rotatoria Copepoda Meroplankton Copepoda Meroplankton Rotatoria
Varna Bay
16%
33%
19%
32%
Meroplankton Copepoda
Cladocera Rotatoria
Figure 8. Relative contribution (percentage of the average coefficients of similarity) of

the species characteristic of both lakes and Varna Bay
Generally, Rotatoria’s significance was evident from east towards west. Rotifers
decreased to Varna Bay due to the prevalence of freshwater and brackish species in
zooplankton structure of Beloslave Lake. In Varna Lake was observed a dominance
of copepods due to the prevalence of A. clausi with its nauplii and young stages in
the eutrophic areas of Thermo Electric Power Station and sewage plant. The benthic
54
larval forms also typical for zooplankton community in Varna Lake. The importance of
Cladocera species as peculiar feature of zooplankton structure in Varna Bay is
presented on figure 8.
The comparative analysis with former investigations of 1990-1991 and 1998 (EIA
Report, 1999) provide further evidences for the shift in the dominant structure in both
lakes and bay, especially insummer. During 1990-1991 the dominants in lakes were
Moina micrura, Calanipeda aquaedulcis, Cyclops vicinus (Konsulov, 1991), which in
1998 were not recorded. Calanipeda aquaedulcis and Cyclops vicinus occurred in
spring and summer 2001. Species rare for the Varna Bay during 1995-1998, such as
Paracalanus parvus, Oithona nana and Centropages kroyeri (Konsulov, Kamburska,
1998) were registered in investigated period. This fact could be an evidence for
marine ecosystem recovery suggesting that the Black Sea has returned to a healthier
state (Kideys, 2002).
CONCLUSION
To summarize the results, the following conclusions could be given:
1. Zooplankton species enrichment was the higher during autumn and summer.
Tendency in the zooplankton spаce distribution in marine ecosystem Varna Bay-
Varna Lake-Beloslav-Lake has diminished number of species towards lakes
2. The average zooplankton abundance in autumn was 58 009 ind/m3, which

was 2.5 folds higher than in winter. In summer the zooplankton abundance increased
to 110 347 ind/m3. The greatest part in the total abundance structure was due to
copepods, while in winter and spring rotifers dominated the area.
3. The assessment of zooplankton ecological state by Shannon-Weaver diversity

index revealed a relatively decreasing ecological stability from Varna Bay to Beloslav
Lake. In autumn and summer the values were lower than spring and winter due to
the effect of combination of peculiar hydrophisical regime together with a strong
antropogenic pressure especially in summer, which continued in autumn too
4. Despite of strong interaction among the sites (Beloslav Lake, Varna Lake and
Varna Bay), zooplankton communities manifest specific features and ecological
autonomy which is well illustrated by Simper analysis.
AKNOWLEDGMENTS
The results of the present study were obtained through the Projects CESUM-BS
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and contemporary eutrophication conditions, pp. 203-209
2. Bray, J.R. and Curtis, J. T., 1957. An ordination of the upland forest
communities of southern Wisconsin. Ecol. Monogr. 27: 320-349.
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3. Clarke K. R., R. M. Warwick. 1994, Change in Marine Communities: An

Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation, Plymouth: Plymouth Marine
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4. Dimov I. Improved quantitative zooplankton sampling method. Rep. BAS. 12,

5, pp. 427-429
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Environmental Impact Assessment Report – Stock Terminal of Port Varna – West,
Oiltanking, EAD, 1999
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invasion of Beroe ovata in the Black Sea-why a warning for ecosystem concern?,
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bay - Varna lake - Beloslav lake. Black Sea 2002, Sixth International Conference on
Marine Science and Technology, Varna, pp.336-341
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Compass, vol. 297, pp.1482-1483
9. Konsulov, A., 1991. Recent state of zooplankton community in Varna and

Beloslav Lakes. Proceeding of Second Sciences Conference, 246, pp. 98-108
10. Konsulov, A., L.Kamburska, 1998a. Black Sea zooplankton structural dynamic
and variability off the Bulgarian Black Sea coast during 1991-1995. NATO ASI
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on Scientific Results”, L.Ivanov & T.Oguz (eds.), v. 1, (Kluwer Academic Publishers),
281-293.
11. Konsulova, Ts, V.Todorova, G.Stereva, A. Trayanova, 2000. Benthic

macrofauna status – a relevant tool for environmental impact assessment in port
areas. 2nd Intern. Conf. Port Development and Coastal Environment. 5-7, June,
Varna, Bulgaria, v. 1:109-119.
12. Makarewicz, J., G. E. Likens, 1979. Structure and function of the zooplankton
community of Mirror Lake, New Hampshire. Ecol. Monogr. 49: 109-127.
13. Mee L. 1992. The Black Sea in crisis: A need for concerted international
action. AMBIO – Journal of the Human environment, RSAS, pp. 278-286
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along the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and Possible patterns of Fish and Zoobenthic
Mortalities In:Harmful Marine Algal Blooms, P. Lassus, G. Arzul, E. Denn, P. Gentien
[eds], Lavoisier Publ. Inc., pp. 193-198
15. Moncheva S., Dontcheva V., Shtereva G., Kamburska L., Malej, A., Gorinstein
S. 2001. Application of eutrophication indices for assessment of the Bulgarian Black
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16. Petipa,T.S., 1959. On average weight of main forms of zooplankton. The

studies of Sevastopol Biological Station, No 5, pp. 13.
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Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 117 pp.
18. Velikova, V., Petrova, D., Mihneva, V., Dineva, S., and S. Ouzounova, 2001.
Recent state of the Bulgarian Black Sea-signs of improvement of the ecosystem.
Proceedings of the fifth international conference of MEDCOAST 01, 23-27 October,
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19. Zaitzev, Yu., 1992. Recent changes in the trophic structure of the Black Sea.
Fisheries Oceanography, 1(2), pp. 180-189
20. Zaitsev, Yu. P., B. G. Alexandrov, 1997. Recent man-made changes in the
Black Sea ecosystem. –In: Ozoy, E. & A. Mikaelyan [Eds.]: Sensitivity to change:
Black Sea, Baltic Sea and North Sea. – NATO ASI Series: 25-31; The Netherlands
(Kluwer Academic Publishers)
57
MACROZOOBENTHIC COMMUNITY STATUS IN THE VARNA-

BELOSLAV LAKE SYSTEM AS INDICATOR FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT1
Trayanova Antoaneta
Institute of Oceanology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
P. O. BOX 152, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria
Phone/fax: ++ 359 52 370 485
e-mail: Trayanova@dir.bg
ABSTRACT
The objective of the present study is to make an environmental quality assessment of the Beloslav
and Varna Lakes area based on the macrozoobenthic community status. The changes of
macrozoobenthic communities’ structure and the potential reasons for them are discussed in the
paper.
The alterations in qualitative parameters of macrozoobenthic community in 2000 in comparison with
1900 are analysed. The Shannon-Wiener community diversity index (H’) was calculated on the
abundance and biomass data and vary from 0.65 to 2.65 for abundance and 0.28 to 2.35 for biomass
during the investigated period. Warwick’s method of ABC - curves was applied for assessment the
disturbance of communities. The Bray-Curtis similarity index based on fourth root transformed
abundance data was calculated. A classification of stations was performed on the similarities matrix by
using the average-linkage clustering technique. SIMPER analysis was done with the same
transformation as the cluster analysis to calculate the species contributions to similarity.
According to the status of macrozoobenthic communities the overall conclusion is that environmental
quality in Varna Lake is better compared with Beloslav Lake and shows an improvement tendency
from 1990 to 2000. Taking into account the trend of environmental quality improvement after
conservation measures of biota in the lakes and restriction of antropogenic impact the study area
could reach better ecological status.
Keywords: Varna-Beloslav Lake system, Macrozoobenthic community,

environmental quality assessment, bioindicators
INTRODUCTION
Beloslav - Varna Lake system is a firth located in the Bulgarian Black Sea area,
which had undergone severe changes due to anthropogenic impact. Beloslav and
Varna Lakes were freshwater basins with a little flow into Black Sea up to 1909 when
after digging a channel between Varna Lake and the sea its salinity rose
considerably (8-13‰) (Konsulova Ts., 1992). In 1923 a channel connecting Beloslav
Lake and Varna Lake was dredged. After linkage of Varna Lake and Varna Bay with
a second navigation channel in 1976 the enhanced water exchange caused changes
in thermal regime, water quality and ecosystem of the lakes. The completion of the
new channel led to the establishment of large amount of ports, industrial complexes
and thermo-power station thus increasing anthropogenic formed sediments. Large
amount of rich organic matter, pesticides and other pollutants are supplied causing
eutrophication (Shtereva G., A. Krastev, O. Hristova, 2000). In summer released from
bottom layers H2S gas due to decomposition processes and strong thermal
stratification lead to hypoxia/anoxia conditions and mass mortality of macrobenthic
fauna (Konsulova Ts., 1992).
1
58
Macrozoobenthic communities have major advantages as indicators of the

environmental quality being composed mainly of sessile or relatively immobile
organisms and their status reflect exactly the integrated environmental conditions.
Most of the dominant species are long-lived and thus indicating the environmental
quality over a period of time rather than reflecting conditions just at the time of
sampling (Gray J. S., A. D. McIntire and J. Stirn, 1992).
Changes in soft bottom zoobenthic communities in response to the environmental

impact have been successfully implemented worldwide in pollution assessment
studies and monitoring programs (Dauer D. M., R. M. Ewing, J. A. Ranasinghe, 1898;
Pearson T. H. and R. Rosenberg, 1978; Rees H., C. Heip, M. Vincx, M. M. Parker,
1991; Warwick R. M., T. H. Pearson, Ruswahyuni, 1987).
A total of 18 macrozoobenthic samples were collected from 18 stations situated in

the area of Beloslav Lake, Varna Lake and the cannels connecting Beloslav Lake
with Varna Lake and Varna Lake with Varna Bay in March 2000 at depths ranging
from 2 to 16 m (Fig.1).
Sewage Plant
TPS
A14 Varna
A11
43.20 Port Varna A6 A12
A2 A4 A5 A15
W est Beloslav A7 A10
A3
PR A13
A9 A16
A8
A1
Provadijska River
27.65 27.70 27.75 27.80 27.85 27.90
Fig. 1. Map of sampling stations in investigated area in 2000.
The samples were collected from soft bottom using Van Veen grab with sampling
area 0.05 m2, sieved through 0.6 mm mesh and preserved in 4% formaldehyde. The
laboratory analyses were accomplished according to FAO methodology (Gray J. S.,
A. D. McIntire, J. Stirn, 1992; Holme N., A. D. McIntyre, 1984). The macrobenthic
fauna was identified to species level, excluding Nemertini, Nematoda, Oligochaeta
and Turbellaria regarded as group Varia. Abundance and biomass data were
recalculated per square meter. The Shannon-Wiener community diversity index H’
(Shanon C. E., W. Wener, 1963) was calculated on the abundance and biomass data
for each sample. Warwick’s method of ABC - curves was applied for assessment the
disturbance of communities (Warwick R. M., T. H. Pearson, Ruswahyuni, 1987). The
Bray-Curtis similarity index (Bray J. R., J. T. Curtis, 1957) based on fourth root
transformed abundance data was calculated. A classification of stations was
performed on the similarities matrix by using the average-linkage clustering
technique (Sokal R. R., P. H. A. Sneath, 1963). SIMPER analysis was done with the
59
same transformation as the cluster analysis to calculate the species contributions to

similarity.
On the basis of 18 samples a total of 35 species and groups were registered in

March 2000, 10 of which were Polychaetes, 8 Crustaceans, 9 Mollusks and 8 Varia.
In Beloslav Lake a total of 14 species and groups are registered, while in Varna Lake
they are 33, i. e. the average number of species in Varna Lake is 2.4-fold higher. For
all taxonomic groups the tendency in the rate of species number is similar varying
from 1.8 folds for Polychaetes, 2.3 folds for Crustaceans and Molluscs to 4 folds for
Varia (Fig. 2). Taking this into account we can consider that the environmental quality
in Varna Lake is better allowing of macrobenhic fauna to reach higher species
richness.
The average number of macrozoobenthic species in the study area is 8. The highest
species richness (S=18) is registered in station A15 – the second channel connecting
Varna Lake with Varna Bay, where the enhanced water circulation and lack of cargo
ship traffic and regular dredging activities to maintain the channel depth determine a
better environmental conditions on bottom (Environmental Impact Assessment
Report, 1999). There are no dead areas in winter season but the minimum of species
number (S=2) is recorded in station A6 due to thermal contamination combined with
coal dust that is spilled to the bottom of Varna lake in thick layer during the ports
activities (Konsulova Ts., V. Todorova, G. Shtereva, A. Trayanova, 2000; Trayanov
T., S. Moncheva, D. Solakov, 1991).
10
6
S
0
Polychaeta Crustacea Mollusca Varia
Fig. 2. Total number of species (S) by taxonomic groups in Beloslav

and Varna Lakes.
The total average abundance established in the present study is 6 109 ind.m-2 with
52% dominance of Molluscs followed by Polychaetes (20 %) and Crustaceans (16 %)
(Fig. 3). The comparison of the present data with data carried out in 1990 showed a
significant shift in dominant taxonomic groups. The extreme dominance of group
Varia with 78 % from average abundance in 1990 has been decreased to 12 % in
2000 (Fig. 3). The Polychaetes are present with similar abundance in both periods.
60
The increased abundance of Crustaceans and Molluscs - 285 and 168 folds
respectively indicate an improvement of macrozoobenthic community state.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1990 2000
Fig. 3. Percentage share of main macrozoobenthic taxa from average abundance by

periods.
The average registered biomass is 55.96 g.m-2 and Molluscs are dominating group
followed by Crustaceans (25 %) (Fig. 4). Concerning the Polychaetes their
dominance of 73 % in biomass in 1990 has been decreased to 8 % in 2000. The
tendency for the group Varia is similar with reduction of the percentage share from
total biomass from 26 % to 1 % (Fig. 4). The changes in biomass of Crustaceans and
Molluscs in 2000 in comparison with 1990 revealed that they follows the pattern of
changes in abundance with an increasing of 251 and 174 folds respectively. As a
percentage share from average biomass the Molluscs take 66 % in 2000, while in
1999 the percentage is only 1 % (Fig. 4), which is a sign of better ecological status of
community.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1990 2000
Fig. 4. Percentage share of main macrozoobenthic taxa from average biomass by

periods.
61
The changes in qualitative parameters of macrozoobethic community in 2000 in

comparison with 1900 are an indication of water quality improvement.
The total average abundance in Beloslav Lake is 5 700 ind.m-2 and tends to be
almost the same as established in Varna Lake (Fig. 5).
7000
6000
Abundance (ind.m )
5000
-2
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Average Polychaeta Crustacea Mollusca Varia
Fig. 5. Total average abundance and average abundance of

taxonomic groups by lakes.
The group of Molluscs, which is the most abundant, shows the same tendency. The
Polychaetes and group Varia are present with 2.9 and 2.2-fold higher abundance in
Varna Lake in comparison with Beloslav Lake. In contrary, the Crustaceans are more
abundant in Beloslav Lake due to dominance of barnacle Balanus improvisus, which
is more tolerant to harsh environment (Fig. 5).
The Molluscs are dominating with equal percentage in both lakes – 51 % from total
average abundance (Fig. 6). The most abundant bivalves in Beloslav Lake are Mya
arenaria and Abra ovata, while in Varna Lake the highest is contribution of
Cearstoderma galucum followed by Mya arenaria. The Polychaetes are better
present in Varna Lake due to the high abundance of Polydora ciliata, which is
considered as indicator of organic pollution (Pearson T. H., R. Rosenberg, 1978).
8% 10% 15% 26%
31% 8%
51% 51%
Polychaeta Crustacea Polychaeta Crustacea

Mollusca Varia Mollusca Varia
Fig. 6. Percentage share of taxonomic groups from average abundance in Beloslav

Lake and Varna Lake.
62
The average biomass in Varna Lake is 72.88 g.m-2 and tends to be 1.6-fold higher
than registered in Beloslav Lake (Fig. 7). As obvious from the figure the Molluscs
take the main part of the biomass in Beloslav Lake, while in Varna Lake the highest
is biomass of Crustaceans followed by Molluscs. The comparison between the lakes
also reveals that group Varia have the lowest biomass in both lakes.
80
70
60
Biomass (g.m )
-2
50
40
30
20
10
0
Average Polychaeta Crustacea Mollusca Varia
Fig. 7. Total average biomass and average biomass of taxonomic groups by lakes.
The extreme dominance of Molluscs in Beloslav Lake (95 %) is due to the high
average biomass of bivalves Abra ovata and Mya arenaria. In Varna Lake the
Crustaceans dominate with 50 % followed by Molluscs (37 %) and the highest is
contribution to the average biomass of barnacle Balanus improvisus and bivalve
Cearstoderma galucum (Fig. 8). Group Varia share almost equal percentage from
average biomass in Beloslav Lake and Varna Lake.

1% 3% 1% 0% 13%
37%
95% 50%
Polychaeta Crustacea Polychaeta Crustacea

Mollusca Varia Mollusca Varia
Fig. 8. Percentage share of taxonomic groups from total average abundance in

Beloslav Lake and Varna Lake.
63
The mean value of Shannon-Wiener diversity index H’(A) is 1.80 and H’(B) - 1.28, i.
e. H’(A)>H’(B), which indicates relatively stable ecological status of macrozoobenthic
community (Fig. 9). Beloslav Lake is characterized by generally lower values of H’(A)
and H’(B) than Varna Lake, which indicates healthier benthic macroinvertebrate
community.
The maximum of community diversity index H’(A) – 2.65 is registered in station A13
situated along south coast of Varna Lake at 3.5 m depth and the minimum
(H’(A = 0.65) is in station A6 situated in front of TPS, where macrobenthic fauna is
present only by two species. As for the H’(B) its maximum of 2.35 is in station A10
located along northern coast of Varna Lake at 4 m depth, where the biomass is
equally distributed among 13 species. The registered minimum of H’(B) – 0.62 in
station A3, situated in Beloslav Lake, is due to dominance of bivalve Mya arenaria.
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
BeloslavL
Varna L
PR
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
A16
KS
Average
H'(A) H'(B)
Fig. 9. Average value and values of community diversity index

by lakes (average) and by stations.
Application of ABC-curves accounting for the quantitative distribution of species and

the patterns of biomass versus abundance dominance made known the ecological
status of macrozoobenthic communities. Configurations of ABC-curves typify the soft
bottom community of Beloslav Lake and Varna Lake as undisturbed (Fig. 10), which
categorize environment as unpolluted.
Taking into account that ABC-curves method is sensitive to organic pollution we can
consider that the organic load is not the factor accountable for the community
disturbance.
64

100 100
cumulative%dominance
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 10 species rank 100 1 10 species rank 100
abundance biomass abundance biomass
Fig. 10. Abundance Biomass Comparison curves of Beloslav and Varna Lakes.
The general pattern of the macrozoobenthic communities’ structure in the system of

the interconnected Beloslav and Varna Lakes was revealed by analysis of the
similarities among 18 stations. According to the hierarchical clustering of stations
macrobenthic fauna is characterized by two groups of similarity (Fig. 11).
Group 1 comprises 6 stations with average depth 5 m situated in Varna Lake

excluding station A3 located in Beloslav Lake. The macrozoobenthic community
exhibits high species richness (S = 13), average abundance (N = 14 838 ind.m-2) and
community diversity index (H’(A) = 2.41 and H’(B) = 1.53). The average similarity is
58.6 with highest contribution of bivalves Mya arenaria (35%) and Cerastoderma
galucum (35%), both species having the highest average abundance. The average
depth of stations included in Group 2 is 10 m, average number of species, average
abundance and average community diversity index are low (S = 5, N = 1 704 ind.m-2,
H’(A) = 1.63 and H’(B) = 1.21). The average similarity within Group 2 is 51.3 with
17% contribution of polychaete Polydora ciliata followed by bivalve Cerastoderma
galucum (15%) and polychaete Neanthes succinea (15%).
A14
A11
A3
Group 1
A10
A13
A15
A9
A7
A1
A12
A8 Group 2
A4
KS
PR
A2
A16
A6
A5
20 40 60 80 100
BRAY - CURTIS SIMILARITY
Fig. 11. Dendrogram for hierarchical clustering of stations.
65
The groups are discriminated by differences in quantitative parameters of barnacle

Balanus improvisus, which average abundance is 2 ind.m-2 in Group 1 and
2 640 ind.m-2 in Group 2 and has 11% contribution to the average coefficient of
dissimilarity.
The stations A5, A6 and A16 are excluded from groups demonstrating low similarity
coefficient. This could be explained with the dominance in abundance of bivalve
Mytilus galloprovincialis in station A5, amphipod Corophium bonelli in station A6 and
polychaete Spio filicornis in station A16.
ABC-curves characterize the soft bottom community in Group 1 and Group 2 as

undisturbed (Fig. 12) and therefore the environment as unpolluted.
Group 1 Group 2
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1 10 species rank 100 1 10 species rank 100
abundance biomass abundance biomass
Fig. 12. Abundance Biomass Comparison curves of groups from investigated

area.
CONCLUSIONS
The comparison between Beloslav Lake and Varna Lake showed that macrobenthic
fauna inhabiting Varna Lake is characterized by 2.4-fold higher species richness,
which indicates that the environmental quality in Varna Lake is better allowing of
macrobenhic fauna to reach higher biodiversity.
The changes in qualitative parameters of macrozoobethic community in 2000 in

comparison with 1900 indicate an improvement of water quality.
Beloslav Lake is characterized by generally lower values of H’(A) and H’(B) than
Varna Lake, which indicates that the area of Varna Lake is inhabited by healthier
benthic macroinvertebrate community.
Differentiation of macrozoobenthic community according to hierarchical clustering of

stations revealed that Group1 composed mainly by stations situated in Eastern part
of Varna Lake is characterized by higher species richness, average abundance and
diversity index than Group 2.
66
According to the status of macrozoobenthic communities the overall conclusion is

that environmental quality in Varna Lake is better compared with Beloslav Lake and
shows an improvement tendency from 1990 to 2000. Taking into account the trend of
environmental quality improvement after conservation measures of biota in the lakes
and restriction of antropogenic impact the study area could reach better ecological
status.
REFERENCES
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southern Wisconsin. Ecol. Monogr. 27: 320-349.
Environmental Impact Assessment Report - Port “Varna” EAD, 1999.
Gray J. S., A. D. McIntire, J. Stirn, 1992. Manual of methods in aquatic environment

research. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 324, 1-51.
Holme N., A. D. McIntyre, 1984. Methods for the study of marine benthos. IBP
Handbook No.16 (2nd ed). Blackwel Scientific Publications, Oxford, 387.
Konsulova Ts., 1992. Macrozoobenthic communities present state in Varna and

Beloslav Lake adjacent to Black Sea. Rapp. Comm. Int. Mer Medit., 33:43.
Konsulova Ts, V.Todorova, G. Stereva, A. Trayanova, 2000. Benthic macrofauna

status – a relevant tool for environmental impact assessment in port areas.
Proceedings of 2nd Intern. Conf. Port Development and Coastal Environment, Vol. 1,
109-120.
Moncheva S., V. Dontcheva, G. Shtereva, L. Kamburska, D. Ruseva, S. Gorinstein,

2001. “Application of eutrophication indices for assessment of the Bulgarian Black
Sea coastal ecosystem ecological quality”. III Black Sea Int. Conf. Environmental
Protection technologies for coastal areas, Varna, Bulgaria, Book of Proceedings, 71-
82.
Pearson T. H., R. Rosenberg, 1978. Macrobenthic succession in relation to organic

enrichment and pollution of the marine environment. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev.,
16: 229-311.
Shanon C. E., W. Wener, 1963. The mathematical theory of communication, Urbana,

University of Illinois Press, 117.
Shtereva G., A. Krastev, O. Hristova, 2000. “Chemical Investigation of Varna and

Balchik Port Area”, Proceedings of 2nd Intern. Conf., Port Development & Coastal
Environment, Vol. 1, 171-180.
Sokal, R. R., Sneath, P. H. A., 1963. Principles in numerical Taxonomy. Freeman Co,
San Francisco, 359.
Trayanov T., S. Moncheva, D. Solakov, 1991. Thermal contamination of Varna Lake

from TPS Varna and its ecological impact. In: Sustainable utilization and
conservation of natural resources of Varna Region, 88-98.
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Warwick R., M., T. H. Pearson, Ruswahyuni, 1987. Detection of pollution effects on

marine macrobenthos: further evaluation of the species abundance/biomass method.
Marine Biology, 95: 193-200.
Dauer D. M., R. M. Ewing, J. A. Ranasinghe, 1989. Macrobenthic communities of the

lower Chesapeake Bay.Chesapeake Bay Program. Rep. Virg. Water Control board,
March 1985-June 1988. Norfolk, Virginia.
Rees H., C. Heip, M. Vincx, M. M. Parker, 1991. Benthic communities: Use in

monitoring point source discharges. ICES Techniques in Marine Environment
Sciences, № 16, 70.
68
ON THE RECENT CHANGES OF ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITY

STRUCTURE ALONG THE BULGARIAN BLACK SEA COAST-A
POST-INVASION EFFECT OF EXOTIC CTENOPHORES
INTERACTIONS1
L. Kamburska, V. Doncheva, K. Stefanova

Institute of Oceanology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, P.O.Box 152, 9000,
Varna, Bulgaria
e-mails: liydmilk@mail.varna.techno-link.com; vdoncheva@yahoo.com;
kstefanova@abv.bg; phone/fax : +35952 370485
ABSTRACT
The present paper focus on the mesozooplankton variability after the invasion of exotic ctenophore
Beroe ovata in the Black Sea. Till now, this species is the only one predator of other alien ctenophore
Mnemiopsis leidyi, which during the last decades has a strong negative impact on zooplankton
community evolution. Thus the ecological significance of the trophic interaction of the exotic couple
M.leidyi-B.ovata (prey-predator mode) seems to be a major reason for the recent zooplankton
structure alterations.
The analysis is based on data collected in the Northern part of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast during
summer 1998-2000. Time-spatial distribution, statistical analyses were applied on data for
zooplankton growth, dominant groups, ctenophores in order to discriminate between the years. The
results reveal a relative increase of zooplankton features (abundance, biomass, and diversity) after
1998, possibly as a post invasion effect of Beroe grazing pressure on Mnemiopsis. Reliable
prey/ predator ratios were used as indicators of food web functioning, grazing pressure and food
availability. Altogether suggest the changed predator-prey interactions and signs of mesozooplankton
recovery.
Keywords: mesozooplankton variability, exotic species, biological invasion, Black

Sea
INTRODUCTION
Black Sea has been already nominated as one of the most degraded basin among
the enclosed sensitive to anthropogenic pressure seas (Zaitzev, 1992; Mee, 1992).
The environmental crisis and consequential dramatic changes in the Black Sea
ecosystem culminating in the late 1980ies are a direct effect of both natural and
anthropogenic impact (Mee, 1992). The remarkable ecosystem alterations as a result
of anthropogenic eutrophication, overfishing, exotic species invasions have been
already well documented (Moncheva et.al, 2001; Kideys, 1994, 2002). The
undesirable effect over the ecosystem is the invasion of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis
leidyi Agassiz, 1865 in the Black and Azov Seas in the early 1980s (Vinogradov, et.
al., 1989). Introduced by ballast waters from the Northern Atlantic coast, M.leidyi
became a key-stone species, which impact on the Black Sea ecosystem in the 80ies-
90ies was superimposed to the effects of eutrophication, overfishing, environmental
deterioration, and climatic signals (Zaitzev, Mamaev, 1997; Niermann, et.al., 1999;
Kideys, 2002). The hazardous effects (environmental and socio-economic) by aliens
over the Black Sea ecosystem, suggest that ignoring problems caused by ballast
1
69
water introductions is analogous to ecological roulette (Moncheva, Kamburska,

2002).
The Black Sea ecosystem is dynamically developed during the last decade.
Recently, a new species, Beroe ovata (Mayer, 1912) belongs to class Ctenophore
has been introduced into Black Sea basin (Konsulov, Kamburska, 1998). Till now,
this species is the only one predator of M. leidyi. Signs of relative recovery of Black
Sea zooplankton diversity and dynamic in the late 90ies have been reported which
could be attributed to the efficient predation of Beroe on Mnemiopsis (Finenko et. al.,
2000; Shiganova, et. al., 2001; Kamburska, 2002; Kidey, 2002), not ignoring the role
of climatic signals and large scale weather patterns on the pelagic Black Sea
ecosystem (Moncheva, et.al., 2001).
What is the recent mesozooplankton community structure and dynamic after the
successful invasion of B.ovata and the post-invasion effect of the co-existence of
both alien ctenophores is the question put forward. In order to target the problem,
M. leidyi and B. ovata dynamics in relation to summer mesozooplankton dynamic off
the Bulgarian Black Sea coast in 1998-2000 was discussed.
Study area
The investigations were carried out during the scientific cruises of the IO-BAS in the
Western Black Sea in September 1998, 1999 (N/V “Adm.Br.Ormanov”) and 2000
(R/V “Akademik). The study was based on data collected at transect Shabla (2
stations); at transect Kaliakra (off Cape Kaliakra), where the influence of the Danube
freshwater input along the Bulgarian Black Sea coast is the strongest; at transect
Galata (off Cape Galata) which is under the indirect impact of Varna Lake-Varna Bay
current. Station grid is given on Fig. 1. Zooplankton samples were collected with a
vertical plankton Jeddy type net (36 cm diameter and 150 µm mesh size). Samples
were fixed to 4% formalin. Individual standard weights were used for biomass
calculation (Petipa, 1959).
43.80
101 102
43.60 Shabla
43.40 201 202 203

300
c.Kaliakra
43.20 Varna 301 302 303 304

c.Galata
43.00
biological station
42.80
Station Depth [m]

42.60 Burgas 101 45
102 60
201 26
42.40 202 70
203 80
300 20
42.20 301 25
302 27
303 40
42.00 304 47
27.60 27.80 28.00 28.20 28.40 28.60 28.80 29.00 29.20 29.40 29.60
Figure 1. Map of sampling stations off Bulgarian coast
70
Parameters
The following parameters were used:
• Mesozooplankton abundance (ind.m-3) and biomass (mg.m-3) dynamic, species

diversity;
• Time-space distribution of gelatinous species M. leidyi, B. ovata and

N. scintillans;
• Statistical analyses were applied to assess the zooplankton community structure

and similarity among the years. PCA analysis were applied on logarithm
transformed data matrix in order to figure out and score the most relevant
combination of parameters to discriminate between the years;
• Long-term data and prey/ predator ratios as indicators of food web functioning,
grazing pressure and food availability.
RESULTS
Species diversity
Mesozooplankton species diversity in investigated area was the lowest in September
1998 compared to the next two periods (Table 1). Over the three observations the
dominant groups were copepods and cladocera, concomitant with the benthic larvae
(meroplankton). The highest diversity was recorded in 1999. The taxonomic structure
was completed by heterotrophic dinoflagellate N. scintillans, species of
Appendicularia and Chaetognatha (Table 1). Rotifers (referred to microzooplankton)
were also presented in the samples, but not discussed in the paper.
The results for mesozooplankton dynamic reveal significant interannual summer

variability. The lowest average abundance and biomass were recorded in 1998. Both
parameters ranged from minimum of 640 ind.m-3 to 3854 ind.m-3 and from 10 mg.m-3
to 52 mg.m-3 respectively. Their space distributions demonstrate maximum values in
front of cape Kaliakra (Fig. 2). M. leidyi average abundance for the whole
investigated area was about 70 ind.m-3, with a maximum of 136 ind.m-3 also at cape
Kaliakra (Fig. 5). The ctenophore Beroe ovata were recorded only inshore at transect
Galata, where over dominated Mnemiopsis with a density of 13 ind.m-3.
A pronounced increase of average zooplankton abundance and biomass of about 8

times was demonstrated in summer 1999, when its major predator M.leidyi was
totally absent at transect Galata, in front off Shabla, and it was recorded only at
station 203 with average abundance of 3 ind.m-3. The zooplankton abundance varied
between 2300 ind.m-3 and 47720 ind.m-3, while the biomass was between
42.3 mg.m-3 to about 640 mg.m-3 (Fig. 3). The meroplankton had the biggest share
(55 %) in the total abundance. The large copepods (Table 1) contributes the biggest
part to biomass structure was (41 %). In average for the investigated area the
numerical abundance was at about 17400 ind.m-3, and the average biomass at about
266 mg.m-3. B. ovata (the predator of M. leidyi) fully dominate offshore, where it
occurred with 62% of mature individuals (over 7 cm lengths) in its age structure.
Particularly, the dominance of Beroe over Mnemiopsis continued in autumn too.
71
Table 1. Mesozooplankton taxonomic composition off the Bulgarian Black Sea

coast in summer 1998-2000.
Mesozooplankton dynamic
year 1998 1999 2000

species
Copepods
Acartia clausi (Giesbrecht, 1889) + + +
Paracalanus parvus (Claus, 1863) + + +
Pseudocalanus elongates (Boeck, 1872) + + +
Oithona similis (Claus, 1863) + + +
Oithona nana (Giesbrecht, 1892) + + +
Centropages kröyeri (Karawaev, 1895) - + +
Calanus euxinus (Claus, 1863) + + +
Anomalocera patersoni (Templeton, 1837) - + +
Pontella mediterranea (Claus, 1863) - + -
Harpacticoida sp.(Sars, 1862) + + +
Eurytemora sp. (Giesbrecht, 1881) - + +
Cladocera
Pleopis polyphemoides (Leuckart, 1859) - + +
Penilia avirostris (Dana, 1849) + + +
Evadne nordmani (Loven, 1836) - + -
Evadne tergestina (Claus, 1877) - + -
Evadne spinifera (Muller, 1868) - + -
Meroplankton
Polychaeta larvae + + +
Lamellibranchia veliger (Linne, 1758) + + +
Gastropoda veliger (Cuvier, 1797) - + +
Cirripedia nauplii (Latreille, 1816) + + +
Cirripedia cypris + + +
Decapoda mysis+larvae (Latreille, 1802) + + +
Decapoda zoae + + +
Appendicularia
Oicopleura dioica (Fol, 1872) + + +
Chaetognata
Sagitta setosa (Muller, 1847) + + +
Dinoflagellates
Noctiluca scintillans (Suriuay, 1864) + +
72
In September 2000, the average abundance for the region was comparable to that in
1998 (Fig. 4). On the contrary, the average biomass was 2 times higher than in 1998
and about 4 times less in 2000 respectively. M. leidyi average abundance for the
investigated area was similar to that in 1998, with a maximum of 280 ind.m-3 at cape
Kaliakra (Fig. 5). Unlike September 1999, Beroe was absent at sampling stations
even if afterwards in autumn it was superior to other gelatinous species in the area.
Two of the main grazers on mesozooplankton, N. scintillans and M. leidyi manifest a

peculiar dynamic mode during the investigations. In contrast to M. leidyi,
N. scintillans was absent in summer 1998 and it reached an average abundance of
950 ind.m-3 with a maximum of 3115 ind.m-3 at st.303 in 1999 (Fig. 6). In summer
2000, its average density was approximately 13 times less, with maximum at least
175 ind.m-3 to the North, where M. leidyi was with a smaller amount. Most likely, the
space distributions of both species demonstrate the opposite trends (Fig. 5, 6).
111111112
3800
3600
3400
101 102
3200
Shabla
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
201 202
2000
c.Kaliakra
1800
1600
Varna 1400
301 302 303 1200
c.Galata 1000
800
600
a)
43.80
43.70
101 102
50.00
43.60
46.00
Shabla
42.00
43.50
38.00
43.40 201 202 34.00
c.Kaliakra 30.00
43.30
26.00
Varna
43.20 22.00
301 302 303
18.00
c.Galata
43.10 14.00
10.00
43.00
27.90 28.00 28.10 28.20 28.30 28.40 28.50 28.60 28.70 28.80 28.90 29.00 b)
Figure 2. Total mesozooplankton abundance [ind.m-3] a) and biomass [mg.m-3] b)

in September 1998 off the Bulgarian coast.
73
101 1111111168
40000
Shabla
35000
30000
201 202 203
25000
c.Kaliakra
300
20000
15000
Varna
301 302 303 304
10000
c.Galata
5000
a)
43.80
43.70
101
43.60 1111111168.00
Shabla
600.00
43.50 550.00
500.00
43.40 450.00
201 202 203
c.Kaliakra 400.00
300
43.30 350.00
300.00
Varna
43.20 250.00
301 302 303 304
200.00
c.Galata
43.10 150.00
100.00
43.00 50.00
27.90 28.00 28.10 28.20 28.30 28.40 28.50 28.60 28.70 28.80 28.90 29.00 b)

74
111111112
101 102
4800
Shabla 4400
4000
3600
201 202 203 3200
300 c.Kaliakra
2800
Varna 2400
301 302 303 304 2000
c.Galata 1600
1200
800
a)
43.80
43.70
101 102
43.60 11111.10
Shabla
115.00
43.50 105.00
95.00
43.40 201 202 203
85.00
c.Kaliakra
300 75.00
43.30
65.00
Varna
43.20 301 302 303 304 55.00
c.Galata 45.00
43.10
35.00
25.00
43.00
27.90 28.00 28.10 28.20 28.30 28.40 28.50 28.60 28.70 28.80 28.90 29.00 b)

75
101
Shabla 120
201 202 203 80
300 c.Galata
Varna
301 302 303 304 40
c.Galata
a)
101 102 1111111168
240
Shabla
200
201 202 203 160

c.Kaliakra
300
120
Varna
301 302 303 304 80
c.Galata
40
b)
Figure 5. Mnemiopsis leidyi abundance [ind.m-3] in September 1998 a) and in

September 2000 b) off the Bulgarian coast.
76
101 11111111
2800
Shabla
2400
2000
201 202 203
300 c.Kaliakra 1600
1200
Varna
301 302 303 304
800
c.Galata
400
a)
101 102
1000
Shabla
160
140
201 202 203 120
300 c.Kaliakra 100
80
Varna
301 302 303 304 60
c.Galata
40
20
0
b)
Figure 6. Noctiluca scintillans abundance [ind.m-3] in September 1999 a) and in

September 2000 b) off the Bulgarian coast.
Thus, PCA analysis provided further arguments for discrepancy between the years
(Fig. 7). Two components were extracted to which ecological significance could be
attached. (PC1) and (PC2) explaining 67 % of the total variability. PC1 (a loading of
53 % in the total variance) correlates positively with mesozooplankton abundance,
major taxonomic groups and negatively to M.leidyi abundance. PC2 (14 %)
corresponds to increasing of N. scintillans abundance. The PCA plot of the
determinants scores displays a clear discrimination along PC1 between the years.
Thus September 1999 is projected at a highest total zooplankton abundance,
copepods, cladocera, and meroplankton, with the lowest M. leidyi, in contrast to 1998
and 2000. Along PC2, September 2000 corresponds to highest N. scintillans, while
1998 manifests the opposite trend partially with scores of inshore stations 1999 only.
77
2000
1999
PC2: Noctiluca
1998
PC1: Total Zooplankton abundance,Copepoda, Meroplankton,Chaetognata -M.Leidyi
Figure 7. PCA plot of the scores of selected variables
A comparison of investigated periods (1998-2000) showed a high variability of

zooplankton community parameters (diversity species, dominant groups, total
abundance and biomass, ctenophores occurrence) resulted in dissimilarity between
the years. The largest fluctuations of meroplankton, copepods and appendicularia,
contributed mostly to the overall mesozooplankton abundance deviation (Fig. 8). On
the contrary, the ctenophores, cladocera and chaetognates did not manifest large
oscillations. Benthic larvae and copepods seem to be more unstable.
22000
±Std. Dev.
±Std. Err.
16000 Mean
10000
4000
-2000
-8000
copepods meroplankton appendicularia N.scintillans B.ovata
cladocera chaetognata ZooA M.leidyi
Figure 8. Box & Whisker plot of selected parameters during summer 1998-2000.
78
Long-term dynamic of selected zooplankton groups and predator/prey ratios

The long-term summer dynamic of the dominant mesozooplankton groups in the
Black Sea (copepods and cladocera), the exotic ctenophores M. leidyi and B. ovata
at transect Galata manifested significant interannual variability (Fig. 9). Despite of
clearly 5-6 years cycle oscillations before the invasion of M. leidyi, during the 80ies-
90ies, the average abundance of both zooplankton groups sustained at a lower level
compared to the previous years (1967 - 1982). Although the dominant groups
maintained a long-term decreasing trend more explicit since 80ies (R= 0.74), most
likely the occurrence of both exotic ctenophores contributed substantially to the
recent pattern of mesozooplankton abundance variability. The coupling copepods
and cladocera - M. leidyi - B. ovata interacted in a strong trophic relationship (typical
prey-predator modes) is more significant and effective in summer-autumn period.
The long-term dynamic of prey/ predator ratios at cape Galata revealed a great
variability. Before the introduction of Beroe, the M. leidyi abundance was higher,
which led to decrease of mesozooplankton groups (Fig. 9). The ratios
mesozooplankton groups versus M. leidyi were higher in 1991-1992, and varied in a
huge range (from 3 to 1100). The lowest ratio was less than classical one of 10:1 (at
least 3), recorded in 1995. The occurrence of Beroe in the late 90ies resulted in a
sharp decline of its prey (Fig. 9). The prey-predator coupling M. leidy- B.ovata
modified the mesozooplankton growth as well. When the ratio Mnemiopsis/ Beroe
abundance was higher (Fig. 10), as a consequence Mnemiopsis grazing pressure on
copepods and cladocera abundance was reduced and an increasing of dominant
groups was evident (Fig. 9). However, that prey-predator ratio did not reach the
classical one (maximum was 5), which could suggest an effective trophic utilization of
secondary produced organic matter.
5.0 2.5
log [Copepods, Cladocera abundance]
log [M.leidyi, B.ovata abundance]

4.5 2
R=0.74
4.0 1.5
3.5 1
3.0 0.5
2.5 0
1967 1970 1973 1978 1981 1984 1987 1994 1997 2000
Copepods+Cladocera M.leidyi B.ovata years
Figure 9. Long-term abundance dynamic of dominant mesozooplankton groups

(copepods and cladocera) and the exotic ctenophores M. leidyi and B. ovata
in summer at transect Galata.
79
[log copepods,cladocera abundance 5 4
3
4.5
[log prey/ predator ratios]

2
4
1
3.5
0
3
-1
2.5 -2
1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000
Copepods+Cladocera Cop+Clad/M.leidyi M.leidyi/B.ovata
Figure 10. Long-term abundance dynamic of dominant mesozooplankton groups and

prey/ predator ratios in summer at transect Galata.
DISCUSSION
In the present paper, under discussion is the recent mesozooplankton community
structure and dynamic off the Bulgarian Black Sea coast after the successful invasion
of B. ovata and the post-invasion effect of the co-existence of both alien ctenophores.
The results given above suggest an ecological recovery of plankton fauna along the
Bulgarian Black Sea coast. The highest species diversity was recorded in 1999.
Compared to the 80ies when the diversity of major taxonomic zooplankton groups
decreased substantially in response to environmental factors, such as eutrophication,
Jellyfish blooms and extremely high predation by Mnemiopsis (Konsulov,
Kamburska, 1998a), the copepods and cladocera diversification during the last years
was evident. After a big depletion of large copepods A. pattersoni, P. mediterranea,
and C. kroyeri and O. nana during the 80ies (Konsulov, Kamburska, 1997) they were
constantly recorded in investigated area (Table 1). The same mode of species
diversity have been reported for other Black Sea regions (Kideys, et. al., 2000;
Finenko et. al., 2000; Shiganova et., al., 2001). Most likely, the mesozooplankton
diversity increased after 1998 as a response to the reduced Mnemiopsis pressure.
Further, the results for mesozooplankton growth dynamic reveal significant time-
space distribution variability. The lowest average abundance and biomass were
recorded in 1998, followed by a pronounced increase of average zooplankton
abundance and biomass of about 8 times in summer 1999. The large copepods
contributed the most to biomass structure (41 %). In September 2000, the average
abundance for the region was similar to that in 1998, in contrast to the average
biomass which was 2 times higher than in 1998 and about 4 times less compared to
2000 respectively. In general, the largest fluctuations were recorded for
meroplankton, copepods and appendicularia, in contrast to ctenophores, cladocera
and chaetognates (Fig. 8). The first variables contributed mostly to the overall
mesozooplankton abundance deviation. Obviously, benthic larvae and copepods are
more unstable.
80
Although the mesozooplankton abundance and biomass varied in a wide range

during the three investigated years, the space distributions of both parameters
permanently demonstrate maximum values in front of cape Kaliakra (Fig. 2 - 4).
Previous studies have found very high mesozooplankton component (biodiversity,
growth) as a specific feature of the area compared to the rest of the Bulgarian coast
(Konsulova et. al., 1997). Due to peculiar hydrophysical regime, together with
particular bottom relief, the combination of sandy, rocky and mud substrates, Kaliakra
area is nominated as a donor of brackish, cold water species and benthic larvae. The
meroplankton had the biggest share (in average 44 %) in the zooplankton abundance
structure.
The ecological significance of N. scintillans for the pelagic ecosystem is due to its
wide diet spectrum, included phyto and zooplankton. The numerical abundance of
N. scintillans has been found always higher in the coastal area where a higher
zooplankton biomass were also registered (Konsulov, Kamburska, 1998a). However,
the results suggest a clear decreasing trend of this heterotrophic dinoflagellate
compared to the previous years. For the period 1991-1995 the average density of
N. scintillans off the Bulgarian coast was about 18000 ind.m-3 inshore and
approximately 13000 ind.m-3 in 1996-1997. During our investigation, its maximum
reached at least 3115 ind.m-3 when M. leidyi was lightly presented. Possibly as
competitors, a negative relationship of Noctiluca and M. leidyi was found, which as
well was demonstrated by the opposite space distributions of both species supported
by PCA results. It is quite possible, the mucus excretions by Mnemiopsis to provoke
significant perturbation for the growth and distribution of Noctiluca.
The recently introduced ctenophore B.ovata, which became a unique predator of

Mnemiopsis, questioned the future Black Sea performance and scenarios.
Apparently, the Black Sea ecosystem is vulnerable to exotic attacks.
The PCA provides further arguments that exotic couple M. leidyi-B. ovata and its
trophic interaction in typical prey- predator mode is an important controlling factor,
which could explain the recent shift in mesozooplankton pattern. Thus the PC1
component explaining 53 % in the total variance correlates to decreasing of M. leidyi,
high mesozooplankton abundance, a high contribution of dominant groups too. The
1998 and 2000 corresponded to low zooplankton abundance, contrasting to 1999
(highest zooplankton component, low Mnemiopsis). Along PC2 (a loading of 14 %),
September 2000 corresponds to highest N. scintillans abundance, together with
inshore stations in 1999. The discrepancy between the years was primarily in respect
to Mnemiopsis occurrence. Obviously, Mnemiopsis distribution manifest irregular
annual fluctuations and in respect to its abundance, 1999 were identified as “poor”,
while 1998 and 2000 as “normal” years (Kamburska, 2002). Evidently, the “poor”
years are in a favour of mesozooplankton growth. Most likely the mesozooplankton
community is more vulnerable to Mnemiopsis grazing in summer due to time-lag of
Beroe occurrence and reproduction phase (Finenko, et. al., 2000; Vinogradov, et. al.,
2001; Kamburska et. al., 2002). Altogether, suggest the ecological significance of
Mnemiopsis - B. ovata interaction on the mesozooplankton development.
The prey/ predator ratios could be a reliable indicator of food web functioning,
grazing pressure and food availability (Odum, 1986). The copepods and cladocera
species are the major prey of M. leidyi (Reeve, et.al., 1989). As it has been found for
the Black Sea ecosystem, Mnemiopsis has preferences for copepods and cladocera
81
as a more caloric food too. The young individuals prefer copepods species and the
adult -cladocera because of energetic needs of species (Zichon-Lukanina,
Reznischenko, 1991). The analysis of long–term dynamic of dominant
mesozooplankton groups (copepods and cladocera), both ctenophores interacted in
a strong trophic relationship, together with prey/ predator ratios suggest that most
likely the changed predator-prey interactions after the invasion and successful
adaptation of Beroe, evolved to the degree of an important controlling factor for the
mesozooplankton dynamic. The results revealed a higher M. leidyi abundance in the
mid 90-ies, before the introduction of Beroe, which led to decrease of
mesozooplankton groups. However, even before the invasion of M. leidyi, during the
80ies-90ies, the average abundance of both zooplankton groups sustained at a lower
level compared to the previous years (Fig. 9). This could be attributed to the intensive
anthropogenic eutrophication (Zaitzev, 1992), to the drastic climatic changes in the
second half of the 80-ies also, which demonstrated long-lasting effects in the
Northern Hemisphere (Roether et al. 1996). Thus, species such as A. clausi has
been shown to be sensitive to the climate variability in the Baltic Sea (Dippner et al.
2000). According to Svendsen et al. (1995), the correlation between biological and
physical variability related to climatic changes exists on a time scale of 5 -10 years.
The ratio mesozooplankton groups/ M. leidyi was higher in 1991-1992, which was
due to its minimum recorded off the Bulgarian coast (Konsulov, Kamburska, 1998a).
Further, the lowest ratio was recorded in 1995 and it was less than classical one of
10:1, an indicator of strong grazing pressure on zooplankton. The prey-predator
coupling M. leidy- B.ovata modified the mesozooplankton growth in the late 90ies.
When the ratio Mnemiopsis/ Beroe abundance was higher (Fig. 10), the utilization of
mesozooplankton by Mnemiopsis was reduced and an increasing of dominant groups
was evident (Fig. 9). The prey-predator ratio of the exotic ctenophores did not reach
the classical one (maximum was 5), which could suggest efficient feeding on
M. leidyi.
The coupling copepods, cladocera - M. leidyi - B. ovata interacted in a typical prey-

predator modes most likely id significant and effective in summer-autumn period.
There are worldwide examples, where these two carnivorous ctenophores co-exist in
the food web structure. Thus in York-River Estuary of Chesapeake Bay, M. leidyi
reduced drastically the zooplankton biomass through the year except when it was
actively preyed by B. ovata during summer and fall (Burrell, Van Engel, 1976). Most
likely, the Black Sea pelagic ecosystem evolved to that described for Narragansett
Bay, where it has been found that M. leidyi reduces dramatically zooplankton stocks
during June-August. By the end of August/September, when B. ovata occurred and
feeds on M. leidyi, zooplankton biomass increased sharply, as a result of the reduced
grazing pressure (Kremer, 1979; Deason & Smayda, 1982). In all, it was suggested
that B. ovata has a significant impact on zooplankton dynamic in the ecosystem by
efficient grazing pressure on M. leidyi.
82
CONCLUSIONS
The results suggest a post invasion effect of the coexistence of two ctenophores
resulted in decreased Mnemiopsis leidyi density after 1998, concomitant with
zooplankton alterations. The recent performances of mesozooplankton community
structure (diversity, growth) manifest signs of recovery related to the reduced top-
down control of Mnemiopsis. Still Mnemiopsis is a key controlling factor, especially in
summer, which was illustrated by the PCA. The long–term dynamic of dominant
mesozooplankton groups (copepods and cladocera), both ctenophores interacted in
a strong trophic relationship, together with prey/ predator ratios suggest that most
likely the transformed predator-prey interactions in the Black Sea ecosystem after the
successful adaptation of Beroe, evolved to the degree of an important controlling
factor for the mesozooplankton dynamic.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study is based on data produced as apart of the Projects: CESUM-BS Contract
№ ICA1-CT-2000-70031 and NATO-SfP-971818 ODBMS Black Sea.
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85
CONCEPTION FOR RADIONUCLIDES NATURAL ATTENUATION

WITHIN CONTAMINATED LANDS1
Viktor V. Dolin
Institute for Environmental Geochemistry, 34-a, Palladin av., 03680 Kyiv, Ukraine,
mailto: vdolin@yahoo.com, Ph.: +38044 424 03 29, Fax: +38044 423 81 37
ABSTRACT
The geochemical approach to the problem of radiation contaminated lands ecological safety based on
contaminant transformation and migration rate in the environment have been developed. Rates of
radionuclide transformation in soils and surface water are in the close agreement that testifies to
common geochemical mechanism of pollutant water migration in natural ecosystems. Rates of
radionuclide radial and biogenic migration based on balance calculations are characterized with
pronounced landscape discrimination. The rate of self-restoration and self-clearing of contaminated
agricultural lands is estimated by dynamics of doses from different irradiation sources for rural
population. The velocity of these processes exceeds the decay by 3.5—10 times. Criteria of alienated
lands natural attenuation calculated by the experimental data are considered to be the constants of
radionuclides diffusion in particles, exchangeable transformation and fixation in soils, migration in the
soil-plant system and radial migration. The velocity of natural attenuation is determined by the slowest
stage of migration that is considered to be the biogeochemical flux in the soil-plant system.
Keywords: contaminated lands, radiation, Radionuclides Natural Attenuation
INTRODUCTION
Chornobyl Catastrophe gave an opportunity for the widespread scientific experiment

and for development of new methods of quantitative assessment of certain natural
factors impact on trophic chains. Radioactive isotopes of emergency release are
considered to be factors of nowadays-geochemical processes. Objectivity of the
obtained conclusions has been determined by the following: a) stipulated date of
contamination; b) absence of natural background because of man-caused origin of
the contamination; c) high sensibility of radioactive measuring; d) wide diversity of
natural landscape conditions for the Ukrainian Polissia (Woodlands). They can be
used for forecasting of artificial pollutants behavior in the environment.
During ten days after the accident, the release of radioactive elements having decay
period from some hours up to a hundred thousand years was nearly 2·1018 Bq that
caused contamination of more than 1,500,000 km2 of world areas. About 6,700,000
hectares of agricultural lands within the territory of Ukraine were contaminated with
137
Cs and 90Sr after Chornobyl accident in 1986. More than 100 thousand hectares
were removed from agricultural exploitation because of high-level radiation
contamination.
THE AGRICULTURAL LANDS SELF-RESTORATION AND SELF-CLEARING
Safety of natural & man-caused ecosystems contaminated by radioactive isotopes is

determined by the external ionizing irradiation, radionuclide incorporation by
inhalation and trophic chains contamination. Ecosystem’s destroyed functional
features reconstruction after man-caused impact have been named self-restoration
1
96
60
a 30
b
Doze, mkZv/year standartizated for 1
Doze, mkZv/year standartizated for 1

50
40
kBq/m 2 of 137Cs
NCs-137 = N0e-0.0231t 20 NCs-137 = N0e-0.0231t
kBq/m 2
30
20 10
D = 49.5e-0.166t + 98.2e-1.95t
10 D = 9.1e-0.151t + 151e-2.173t
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, years after catastrophe Time, years after catastrophe
c d
Doze, mkZv/year standartizated for
20 20
Doze, mkZv/year standartizated for

18
16
15
1 kBq/m 2 of 137Cs
NCs-137 = N0e-0.0231t
1 kBq/m 2 of 90Sr
14
12 NSr-90 = N0e-0.0238t
10 10
8
6
4 5
D = 10.5e-0.081t + 1790e-5.38t
2 D = 22.8e-0.203t
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, years after catastrophe Time, years after catastrophe
Figure 1. Interpolation of doses dynamics for rural population of Ukraine:

a — total annual exposure dose from different irradiation sources, b — external γ-irradiation
dose, c — dose from 134+137Cs ingestion intake, d — dose from 90Sr ingestion intake.
(autorehabilitation, natural remediation). In respect to anthropogenesis, the possibility
of safe economic activity within radiation-contaminated areas is considered to be a
result of the mentioned processes. In this case population exposure dose might
serve as a criterion of self-restoration rate assessment.
The dose rate dynamics for the rural population demonstrates availability of natural
processes which lead to decrease of medical-biological impact of radioactive
isotopes, restoration of functional features destroyed because of technogenic loading
onto agricultural biogeocenoses (Fig. 1).
The unique process that leads to complete removal of radionuclides from an

ecosystem is the radioactive decay. By this reason, velocity of all autorehabilitation
processes is convenient to be compared with the decay rate showed in the Figure 1
by higher curves.
Interpolation of 12-year dynamics of the total annual exposure dose for rural
population of Ukraine demonstrates that the exposure dose lower than the critical
levels of 5 and 1 mZv/year will be reached in 14 or 24 years after the accident (Fig.
1a). The decay of 137Cs is seven times slower than annual dose reduction. Dynamics
of modification of standardized annual dose of external γ-irradiation demonstrates the
rapid reduction of external irradiation during two-three years after the accident at the
expense of short-lived isotopes decay and mechanical deepening of radionuclides
during grounds ploughing (the second term of an equation) (Fig. 1b). Exposure dose
reduction during the following years is 6.5 times faster than 137Cs physical decay.
The main constituent of the autorehabilitation is natural attenuation (self-clearing,
97
natural decontamination), which is considered to be the complex of biogeochemical

processes resulting in pollutants removing out of trophic circuits limits. According to
ISO 11074-4 natural attenuation combines all those natural processes, including
chemical, physical and biological ones, which lead to reduction in contaminant
concentrations in soil and groundwater. Criterion of sustainability of ground
ecosystem against man-caused influence is the qualitative and quantitative structure
of biomass reproduction.
The velocity of self-clearing processes in a natural-technogeneous agroecosystem

may be assessed by means of interpolation of dose dynamics from 137Cs and 90Sr
ingestion intake. The velocity of natural attenuation from Cs radionuclides exceeds
137
Cs decay nearly by 10 times (Fig. 1c), and for 90Sr it exceeds the decay by 3.5
times (Fig. 1d).
NATURAL ATTENUATION OF ALIENATED LANDS
The approach based on dose criterion is unacceptable for the lands excluded from
the agricultural exploitation. Estimation of self-restoration rate for the Exclusion Zone
is made by the criteria of natural attenuation.
Radiation field of landscape.
Ecosystem`s autorehabilitation starts directly after technogenic impact and continues

up to the complete restoration of its functional properties. So, technogenic
prerequisites of landscapes contamination should be considered first of all (Fig. 2).
These factors are difficult to be parameterized and are subjected to qualitative
estimation only. From the number of measures aimed at the breakdown elimination
and its ecological consequences, the land reclamation only is unambiguously
effective.
Man-caused factors
Emergenc Anthropogenic
y
rehabilitatio
Compositio
depressing
Temporary
measures
protective
density of
Forms of
contami-
extingui-
disposal
fallouts
Water-
nation
waste
n and
Dust-
shing
Land
Fire
133 85m
Xe, Kr, lignosulpho- radioactive
sand, dolomite, boron
from the cooling-pond

dams on the left-bank
85 131
Kr, I, 132Te, nate, latex, compound
deep ploughing, soil
causewaing, coffer-
flood-lands, heads
fuel, condensative
134 137
liming, chemical
Cs, Cs, polyacrylo- s of

carbide, lead
99 95 103
Mo, Zr, Ru, nitrile, tempo-rary
fertilizers
106 140
Ru, Ba, aerosyle, waste
141 144
Ce, Ce, carbamide disposals
89
Sr, 90Sr, 238Pu, resin, oil- and
239 240
Pu, Pu, alime “Shelter”
241 242
Pu, Pu, object
242
Cm, 239Np
Figure 2. Technogenic prerequisites of contaminated lands self-restoration.
98
Physical-chemical factors.
Physical-chemical properties of fallouts, which are independent of geochemical

media, are related to physical-chemical criteria. Limitation stage of 137Cs and 90Sr
migration is supposed to be their solid-phase diffusion in fuel particles. Diffusion
coefficients defined experimentally for 137Cs and 90Sr in fuel particles of the
emergency release amount to 4·10—17 cm2/s for 137Cs, and 2·10—16 cm2/s for 90Sr.
The peak of radionuclide release from particles into soil and inclusion into biological
chains is occurring now (Fig. 3). This period will be finished by 2010 when fission
products radioactive decay will become the determinative process.
Biogeochemical factors.
Migration processes of radionuclides intaken from particles into soils are determined
by properties of soil absorbent complex and described by the scheme (Fig. 4), where
As corresponds to radionuclide content in fallout’s solid phase, W, E, F, P is content
of a radionuclide in water soluble, exchangeable, fixed forms in soils and in plant
correspondingly, kD, kM, kE, kF, kR are transformation rate constants of diffusion,
mobilization, ion-exchange transformation, immobilization (fixation) and
remobilization in soils; kP, kL are migration rate constants of biogeochemical flux [1,
2]. The values for these constants determined experimentally are given in Table 1.
70
60
Release from particles solid phase, %
Sr-90
50
40
30
Cs-137
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time, years after accident
Figure 3. Forecast of involving of radionuclides from fuel particles to

migration processes.
99
PLANTS
Biogeochemical
migration
Immobilization
kP
Mobilization
parameters: parameters:
+
H , ΣE, Cl(e), Corg., Mg(e), Mg(w), K(e/s),
Na(w), K(w), Ca(w), pH(e)
Cu(w), Zn(w), Sr(w)
RADIONUCLIDE TRANSFORMATION IN SOIL

As k → W ←→
D , kM kE
E ←
kR
→
kF
F
Radial water
migration
kL
Figure 4. Scheme of radionuclides transformation and migration in soil-plant system:

H - : hydrolytic acidity, ΣE – sum of the exchange bases, Corg. – content of organic carbon,
+
(w) – water-soluble species, (е) – exchangeable species (salt extract), s – bulk contents in
soil.
As comparing with the rates of radionuclides transformation in soils, biogeochemical

flux in the soil-plant system is the slowest stage of migration. kP is up to 100 times
smaller than radionuclide diffusion rate constants in the fallout`s solid phase, and 3-5
orders of magnitude smaller than rates of radionuclides mobilization, fixation, and
ionic exchange in soils. This constant has strongly pronounced landscape
discrimination (Figure 5).
Table 1. Constants of fission products transformation and migration rates, s—1

Soddy-podzolic Peaty bog
137 90 137 90
Cs Sr Cs Sr
—10 —9 —9
kD (8,0±2,3)×10 (3,7±0,35)×10 (1,2±0,2)×10 (4,9±0,4)×10—9
kM (6,3±3,2)×10—9 (6,3±3,0)×10—9 (7,9±1,6)×10—9 (7,9±1,6)×10—9
kE (4,25±0,05)×10—7 (1,4±0,5)×10—6 (1,6±0,25)×10—6 (7,3±2,8)×10—7
kF (5,7±2,5)×10—8 (6,3±0,05)×10—10 (1,2±1,0)×10—8 (1,0±0,15)×10—8
kR (3,9±3,6)×10—9 (5,8±3,0)×10—9 (1,2±1,1)×10—8 (4,3±2,1)×10—9
kP (6,8±6,5)×10—12 (8,3±5,0)×10—11 (2,2±2,0)×10—10 (8,2±6,8)×10—12
kL* (3.2±1.5)×10—8 (4.4±0.6)×10—9 (6.0±1.5)×10—8 (1.05±0.3)×10—8
Note: * - [cm×s—1]
100
137
Cs
0,000213 0,00088 0,00105 0,00425 0,00704
Soddy-weakly- Soddy-weakly- and Peaty-gley Soddy-gley Peaty-
podzolic sandy and medio-podzolic gleyish meadow
loamy
0,00263 0,0214 0,00097 0,00066 0,00026
90
Sr
Figure 5. kP for typical soils of contaminated areas, y—1.
Radionuclides transformation in surface freshwater systems
Along with hazards of radioactivity expansion outside the Exclusion Zone due to
partial destruction of “Shelter”
Object and from the temporary disposal facilities, radionuclides exportation with
water through the River Dnieper system comes to the forefront. Up to 80 % of
radionuclides expending outside the alienated area is determined by the water
transfer.
Since 1986, the River Dnieper system served the way of radionuclides transportation
from Byelorussian and Northern Ukrainian contaminated columbines to the Black
Sea. About 19.7 TBq of dissolved 137Cs, 8.15 TBq of suspended 137Cs, and 19.3 TBq
of dissolved 90Sr migrated to the Kiev Reservoir in 1987.
The natural attenuation of surface water systems is determined by radionuclides

transformation and migration in columbines and bottom sediments, reception to water
phase and current’s exportation. The long-term trend of 137Cs and 90Sr content in the
Kiev Reservoir head is decreased after the Catastrophe.
Temporary changing of dissolved 137Cs content is approximated by exponential

dependence. 137Cs transformation rate constant calculated by these data is 0.25 y—1
that corresponds to half-period of 137Cs speciation of 2.8 year [3].
These calculations are in good agreement with data of radionuclides speciation in

currents within the Exclusion Zone.
Constants of radionuclides transformation from dissolved to suspended species are

4.0×10—9 s—1 for 137Cs and 7.6×10—9 s—1 for 90Sr (Fig. 6).
Comparison of these constants with those for soils (Table 1) has shown that
radionuclide transformation in river water is synchronous reflection of mobile species
dynamics in soils of columbines.
101
Fig. 9. Radionuclides
100
transformation in surface water:
80 SPM – suspended particulate
matter.
60
SPM, %
SPM Cs-137 = 100e -0,126t

40
20
SPM Sr-90 = 100e -0,241t
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, years after the Catastrophe
Decreasing of ratio between dissolved and suspended 137Cs species along with the
decreasing of total radionuclide activity could be considered as natural attenuation
(self-clearing) of surface water. Correspondence of rates of river water
decontamination and transformation in ground ecosystems dynamics testifies to
common geochemical mechanism of radionuclides water migration in natural
ecosystems. Natural attenuation of ground and water ecosystems from 137Cs is 10
times faster than radioactive decay.
CONCLUSIONS
Ecosystems radiological situation forecasting and contaminated areas ecological-

geochemical mapping is based on geochemical conception of radionuclides
speciation. In accordance with this conception, pollutants water migration is going
synchronous with transformation in soils. So, constants of radionuclides
transformation in soils are considered as criteria of biogenic and abiogenous water
migration, natural attenuation of radioactive contaminated ground and surface water
ecosystems. Environmental self-clearing velocity is one order of magnitude faster
than 137Cs and 90Sr radioactive decay rates that corresponds to radiation doses
dynamics.
Correspondence of rates of river water decontamination and transformation in ground

ecosystems dynamics testifies to common geochemical mechanism of radionuclides
water migration in natural ecosystems.
Objectivity of the obtained data, possibility of its generalization for technogenesis has
been determined by stipulated date of contamination; absence of sound effects
because of technogeneous origin of the contamination; high sensibility of radioactive
measuring; wide diversity of natural landscape-geochemical conditions within the
Ukrainian Woodlands
102
REFERENCES
1. Bondarenko G.N. and L.V. Kononenko, 1996. Kinetics of transformation of stroncium-

90 and caesium-137 forms of being in soils. Mineral. Journ. (Ukraine), 18, No 3: 48–
57.
2. Dolin V.V., 2001. Rate-controlling stages of the migration of water-soluble

radionuclide species in soils. Geochemistry International, 39, 9: 873–883.
3. Bondarenko G.N., 2000 Conception of technogenic radionuclide speciation in

geochemistry. Collected Articles of State Sci. Cntr of Environ. Radiogeochemistry, 1:
26—48.
103
EFFECT OF CYCLODEXTRINS ON VOLATILE HYDROCARBON

CONTAMINANTS IN SOIL ANALYSIS BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHYA
N. Szaniszló1,2, É. Fenyvesi1, J. Balla2

1
Cyclolab Ltd., Budapest 1097 Illatos u. 7
2
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of General and
Analytical Chemistry 1111 Budapest Gellért tér 4.
E-mail: 1szaniszlo@cyclolab.hu
ABSTRACT
The cyclodextrins are potential additives in soil remediation. Their effect on the volatile hydrocarbon
contaminants in soil was studied. The change of the volatility of some typical components in the
presence of various cyclodextrins was investigated by headspace gas chromatography using Diesel
oil as a model mixture of volatile hydrocarbon contaminants. The experiments were performed by
incubation of samples at 40°C to model the conditions of a soil remediation. The effects of α-, β-, γ-
cyclodextrins as well as of random metyl- and acetyl-β-cyclodextrins were compared. The influence of
the properties of soils was also examined: experiments on loamy, sandy and clay soil were performed.
In case of selected hydrocarbons, the effect of cyclodextrins was found to depend on the type of
cyclodextrin as well as on the number of carbon atoms. The α- and βCD showed the highest volatility-
reducing effect. The substituted βCD derivatives could hardly influence the volatility of the components
studied.
Keywords: cyclodextrins, soil remediation, gas chromatography, soil analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
There are numerous possibilities for reducing the soil contamination. According to the
literature, the potential application of cyclodextrins for soil washingi and
bioremediationii has been thoroughly studied. The efficiency of these two soil-
cleaning techniques is limited by poor water solubility and strong adsorption of the
contaminants to soil particles. Tensides can be added to the contaminated soil for
increasing the solubility and promoting the desorption. Similarly to tensides,
cyclodextrins are also able to solubilize the hydrocarbon contaminants without
showing the disadvantages of the detergents (the strong adsorption to the soil, foam
producing effect, toxicity for plants, etc.). Using cyclodextrins for both soil washing
and bioremediation, the rate of soil cleaning could be enhanced. Even in case of the
hardly biodegradable compounds (PCBsiii, mazoutiv), the soil contamination can be
reduced significantly by adding as low as 0.2-1.0 % cyclodextrin. These
advantageous effects are due to inclusion complex formation of cyclodextrins with the
hydrocarbon contaminants. In this paper, we show how the cyclodextrin additives
applied in soil clean-up technology influence the volatility of selected hydrocarbon
contaminants in soil.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials
Cyclodextrins as fine chemicals are marketed by Cyclolab Ltd, Budapest, Hungary:

α-cyclodextrin (αCD), β-cyclodextrin (βCD), γ-cyclodextrin (γCD), random metyl-
a
104
(RAMEB and acetyl-β-cyclodextrin (AcβCD). Diesel oil was purchased from MOL
Hungarian Oil- and Gas Public Ltd. Company, Budapest, Hungary. Air-dry soils were
used: loamy (LS), sandy (SS) and clay (CS) soil were collected in the Buda-
mountains, Kisújszállás, and Nyírlugos, respectively.
The properties of soils are summarized in Table 1v.
Table 1: Properties of the soils
Sandy soil Loamy soil Clay soil

Code SS LS CS
Clay fraction % 3 25 49
Sand fraction % 87 19 4
Humus % 0.5 3.6 3.9
Silt % 10 56 47
Specific surface area, 8 86 135
m2/g
2.2 Gas chromatographic system
The gas chromatographic system contains a Shimadzu GC-17A apparatus equipped

with a flame ionization detector (FID) and AOC-5000 auto injector. Nitrogen was
applied as carrier gas. The separation was carried out using a column
(30m×0.25mm×0.5µm) packed with RTX-1 Silica.
2.3 Chromatographic conditions
In a headspace vial of 20 ml in volume, 10 µl of Diesel oil, 0 to 0.25 mmol

cyclodextrin and 0 to 1.0 g soil were added and diluted with 5 ml water. After
incubation for 40 min at 40°C, 2 ml sample was injected to the gas chromatograph
from the vapor phase with a syringe of 50°C.
The column temperature was 50°C at the beginning, increased to 180°C at 10°C/min
and then to 250°C at 25°C/min, finally hold for 3 min. The temperature of injector and
detector were 230°C, respectively. The optimal linear velocity of the carrier gas was
found 14 cm/min. Split/splitless technique was applied with 9:1 split ratio.
As the oil contains numerous components volatile at 40°C, nine main peaks (C6-C12
linear alkanes and two unidentified components) were selected for evaluation (Fig.
1).
105
5
4 8
6
3 9
2
1
Figure 1: The volatile components of oil at 40°C

1: hexane (C6), 2: heptane (C7), 3: unknown non-linear hydrocarbon (UHC1), 4:
octane (C8), 5: nonane (C9), 6: unknown non-linear hydrocarbon (UHC2), 7: decane
(C10), 8: undecane (C11), 9: dodecane (C12)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil itself is a complex system but the soil contaminated with oil and treated with
cyclodextrin solution, is even more complicated. Applying cyclodextrin treatment
there will be four phases in equilibrium: solid (soil), aqueous phase (CD solution),
non-aqueous phase (oil) and the vapor phase in which the concentration of volatile
components is measured. Oil is distributed between these four phases, described
with six distribution coefficients (Fig.2).
Kg, v
Vapour Aqueous CD solution
Kt, v
Kg, t Ko, v
Kg, o
Soil Oil
Kt, o
Figure 2: Distribution of oil between the different phases
The phenomenon was further complicated by the formation and dissociation of

inclusion complexes with cyclodextrin. These two processes are in dynamic
equilibrium in the aqueous phase.
106
To understand the effect of cyclodextrins in the soil, the influence of the soil and that
of the cyclodextrin were studied first, and then the complex system was investigated.
3.1 Effect of soil on the volatility of the hydrocarbons
To analyze the adsorptive effect of different soils, the area of selected components
was measured at the same oil concentration in the presence and absence of water.
Three soils of different clay content were used (Table 1). In Table 1, it can be seen,
that the specific surface area increased with growing clay content. The soil with the
highest surface area was expected to adsorb the highest amount of hydrocarbons
thus to show the largest decrease in the volatile fraction. The peak area in the
chromatogram is proportional to the volatile fraction of the given component. Fig. 3
shows the peak area of the selected components in the presence of the three air-dry
soils.
Area
C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 UHC1 UHC2
Loamy Sandy Clay
Figure 3: Peak area of the selected hydrocarbon components measured in the

presence of air-dry soils
The efficiency of the adsorption changed as it was expected in the following order:
clay>loamy>sandy soil. In the presence of water, however, no considerable
difference could be observed between the three soils studied (Fig. 4).
Area
C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 UHC1 UHC2
Loamy Sandy Clay
Figure 4: Area of selected oil components applying the same oil volume and different
soil suspensions
107
3.2. Effect of cyclodextrin on the volatility of hydrocarbons
Aqueous cyclodextrin solution (suspension) of increasing concentration was added to

the oil. The added βCD gradually dissolves in water at 40°C, while the
hydrocarbon/βCD complex is precipitating. The hydrocarbons cannot evaporate from
the complex precipitated. These results in a decrease of the volatile fraction, that is in
a decrease of the peak area of the volatile components (Fig. 5).
Area
C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 UHC1 UHC2
Without bCD 0.06g bCD 0.13g bCD 0.17g bCD 0.23g bCD 0.49g bCD 0.95g bCD
Figure 5: The effect of σΧ∆ concentration on the volatility (on the peak area) of
selected oil components
Among the selected n-alkanes, C8 showed the most considerable reduction of peak
area probably because βCD forms the strongest complex with octane among the
linear hydrocarbons. A dramatical decrease in the volatile concentration of UHC1 and
UHC2 was observed showing that there is a strong interaction of βCD with these two
components.
The effect of various cyclodextrins was compared. As an example, Fig. 6 shows that
the volatility of decane is considerably decreased by the native cyclodextrins, while
the soluble βCD derivatives had practically no influence. The volatility-decreasing
effect changed in the order of αCD≈βCD>γCD.
This can be in connection with the stability and with the solubility of the inclusion
complex formed between the given hydrocarbon components and the cyclodextrins.
The initial slope of relative area vs. cyclodextrin concentration curves was calculated
and related to unit cyclodextrin concentration to obtain the molar relative area. This
value can characterize the volatility-changing effect of cyclodextrins.
108
1.2
Rameb
1
AcβCD
0.8
Relative area
0.6 γCD
0.4
0.2 αCD βCD

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
mmol, CD
Figure 6: Relative area (A/A0) of decane peak as a function of cyclodextrin

concentration
Fig. 7 shows the molar relative area values for the selected hydrocarbons and for the
cyclodextrins studied.
C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 UHC1 UHC2
4
2
0
Molar relative area
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
aCD bCD gCD Rameb AcbCD
Figure 7: The molar relative area values for the selected hydrocarbon components
for various cyclodextrins
It can be seen that there is no considerable influence of RAMEB, HPβCD and AcβCD
on the volatility of selected normal hydrocarbons of oil except on that of the two non-
linear components. Both α- and βCD decrease very effectively the volatility of n-
alkanes. In the presence of βCD the peak area of UHC1 and 2 decreased
considerably, while αCD was ineffective in case of UHC2. In case of CD, at low
carbon number, the interaction is similar to α- and βCD but with increasing carbon
number, the impact of γCD becomes negligible. Comparing the effect of native
cyclodextrins that form insoluble complexes with hydrocarbon with that of the βCD
derivatives, which form water-soluble complexes it can be concluded that the
precipitation of the complex is necessary to achieve a decreased volatility.
3.3 Effect of cyclodextrins on the volatility of hydrocarbons in the presence of

soils
The soil and the cyclodextrin are competing for the hydrocarbon molecules, which will
be bond either by between the adsorption on the soil and the inclusion complex
109
formation. The adsorption results in a decrease of the volatile fraction, the complex
formation has similar effect if only the complex precipitates.
The properties of soils did not considerably influence the effect of cyclodextrins. This
examination was accomplished in the presence of various soils applying βCD in
increasing concentration. As an example, the relative area of UHC2 is shown in
Figure 8.
1
0.8
Rel. Area, UHC2
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
mmol, βCD
Loamy soil Sandy soil Clay soil
Figure 8: The relative area of UHC2 as a function of βCD concentration on loamy-,

sandy- and clay soils
In Figure 9, the effect of different cyclodextrins in the presence of loamy soil is shown
in the case of undecane.
1.6
1.4 RAMEB
γCD
Rel. Area, undecane
1.2
AcβCD
1
0.8
0.6
0.4 αCD
0.2 βCD
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
mmol, CD
Figure 9: Relative area (A/A0) of undecane as a function of cyclodextrin
concentration in the presence of loamy soil
It can be seen in Figure 9, that in the presence of α- and β-cyclodextrins the volatility
of undecane decreased considerably. Insoluble complexes are formed, so the guest
molecule cannot get released. Applying RAMEB, γ-cyclodextrin and acetyl-β-
110
cyclodextrin, with increasing cyclodextrin concentration the volatility was slightly

increased. It may be assumed that in the presence of these cyclodextrins the
adsorption of undecane on the surface of soil is hindered. These cyclodextrins form
complexes that are well soluble in water. During incubation, the hydrocarbon guest is
released from the complex. Similar behavior can be seen in case of UHC2
component. In this case, the volatility was decreased applying any cyclodextrins,
involved in the study (Fig. 10).
1.2
1
αCD
Rel. Area UHC1
0.8
RAMEB
0.6
0.4 γCD
AcβCD
0.2
βCD
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
mmol, CD
Figure 10: The relative area (A/A0) of UHC2 plotted against cyclodextrin
concentration
To characterize the volatility-changing effect of cyclodextrins the initial slope of the

curves similar to those on Figure 9 and 10 was calculated and related to unit
cyclodextrin concentration (molar relative area) were calculated. The molar relative
area values obtained for loamy soil are shown in Figure 11.
C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 UHC1 UHC2

5
0
Molar relative area
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
aCD bCD gCD AcbCD Rameb
Figure 11: The slope of relative area vs. concentration curve for the selected
hydrocarbon components
111
It can be seen that in case of α-cyclodextrin the initial slope of relative area vs.
cyclodextrin concentration curves is nearly identical for every hydrocarbon. The α-
cyclodextrin did not interact with UHC2 but reduced considerably the volatility of
UHC1. In case of β-cyclodextrin, a maximum can be seen in the C6 to C8 range.
There is no notable difference between the two non-linear components applying -
cyclodextrin. The bar diagram series of γ-cyclodextrin shows decreasing tendency as
a function of the carbon number of n-alkanes. The volatility was decreased at the
lower carbon number and slightly increased at undecane. The largest slope was
obtained at UHC1 component. Acetyl-β-cyclodextrin has practically no influence on
the volatility of the alkanes studied, but outstanding large slopes were obtained in
case of the two non-linear hydrocarbons. RAMEB had no notable effect on volatility
of the hydrocarbons. The slight increase in volatility can be explained by the changes
in the pores structure caused by RAMEB5.
4. CONCLUSION
The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. In the presence of air-dry soils, the peak area of hydrocarbons in the

chromatogram decreased inversely with the specific surface area of the soil
(sandy<loamy<clay). In the presence of aqueous soil suspensions, there
was no difference between the different soils.
2. Adding β-cyclodextrin to the oil the volatility of all hydrocarbons decreased.

The two non-linear components showed the strongest interaction with β-
cyclodextrin; between the linear hydrocarbons, there was a maximum in
hexane-octane range.
3. α-cyclodextrin decreased the volatility, too, but no selectivity was observed.
4. In case of γ-cyclodextrin, with increasing carbon number the volatility

decreasing effect was decreased, there was not interaction with C9 and
C10 and a slight increase in volatility was observed for C11. The volatility of
one of the two non-linear hydrocarbons decreased remarkably.
5. Between acetyl-β-cyclodextrin and hydrocarbons, the interaction was

weaker; a small maximum was obtained at octane similarly to -
cyclodextrin. The non-linear components formed the strongest complexes
with acetyl-β-cyclodextrin.
6. RAMEB has not influenced considerably the volatility; at larger carbon

number the volatility was even increased.
Two opposite effects of cyclodextrins were observed: in some cases the volatility was
decreased because of the decreased solubility of the complex formed between the
hydrocarbon and the cyclodextrin and in other cases increased slightly because of
the weaker adsorption of the hydrocarbon on the soil. With α- and βCDs the first, with
γCD, RAMEB and AcβCD the second effect was typical. According to our results, at
planning the soil clean-up technology using cyclodextrin additives, a slight volatility
112
increasing effect with certain cyclodextrins has to be taken into consideration as a

risk of the technology.
The work was supported by NATO Science for Piece Programme (Sfp-973720) and
the Hungarian Ministry of Education (BIO-00066/2000, NKFP3/002/2001), finally the
autors thank to Ibolya Megyeri for the technical help.
5. REFERENCES
i
McCray, J. E.; Brusseau, M. L.: Environ. Sci. Technol. (1998), 32 (9), 1285-1293
ii
Gruiz, K.; Fenyvesi, E.; Kriston, E.; Molnar, M.; Horvath, B.: J. Ind. Phenom. (1996),
25 (1-3) 233-236
iii
Fava, F.; Grassi, F.: Biotechnol. Tech. (1996), 10(4), 291-296
iv
Molnar M.; Fenyvesi E.; Gruiz K.; Leitgib L.; Balogh G.; Muranyi A.; Szejtli J.: J. Ind.
Phenom. (in press)
v
Muranyi A., Józefaciuk, Grzegorz, Fenyvesi É., Gruiz K.: Environ. Sci. Tech. (in
press)
113
REMOVAL OF SOME REACTIVE DYES FROM TEXTILE

PROCESSING WASTEWATER USING POWDERED ACTIVATED
CARBON1
A.Pala1, E.Tokat2, H. Erkaya1

1
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eylul
University, Kaynaklar Campus, 35160, Izmir, Turkey
e-mail : aysegul.pala©deu.edu.tr
2
Izmir Wastewater Treatment Plant, Tuzla Street, Sasalı Road, 8th Km, P.O. Box 7,
Çigli /Izmir/Turkey
ABSTRACT
In this study, the decolorization of prepared aqueous solutions of three reactive azo dyes used in
textile processing by adsorption on different types of powdered activated carbon (PAC) was
investigated. The color removal efficiencies and equilibrium adsorption isotherms for these dyes were
investigated using five commercial powdered activated carbons and two other activated carbons
prepared by physical activation of olive wooden stone (OWS), and solvent extracted olive pulp
(OWSR). The results showed that the reactive azo dyes investigated in this study adsorbed strongly
on PAC. The equilibrium is practically achieved in 60 minutes while most of adsorption took place
within the first 20 minutes. The color removal efficiency was found as high as 100% for the commercial
activated carbons while 80% efficiency was obtained using the OWS and OWSR. Since OWS and
QWSR are waste materials, their use in the synthesis of activated carbon production process will
reduce solid waste pollution and raw material costs.
Keywords : azo dyes, textile wastewater, equilibrium isotherms, adsorption,

wastewater treatment
INTRODUCTION
Synthetic dyes are used extensively for textile dyeing, printing in industries and
colour photography and as additives in petroleum products. Over 7 × 105 tons and
approximately 10000 different types of dyes and pigments are produced worldwide
annually. It is estimated that 10 to 15% of the dye is lost in the effluent during the
dyeng process (Young, L. Jian, 1997; Danis et al., 1998).
Effluents discharged from dyeing industries are highly colored and they can be toxic
to aquatic life in receiving waters (Lee et al., 1999; Kadirvelu et al., 2000 a; Kadirvelu
et al. , 2003). Increasingly stringent legislation on the decontamination of wastewater
has created on interest concerning the use of activated carbons for this purpose.
However, activated carbons are expensive and, therefore, their use may imply
carrying out regeneration and reactivation procedures (Walker and Weatherley, 1998;
Rozada et al., 2003).
Commercially available activated carbons are usually derived from natural materials
such as wood or coal. Turkey is one of the olive oil producing country in the world.
Using of the activated carbon produced from the waste of the olive oil processing
called as solvent extracted olive pulp may reduce solid waste pollution and also
1
114
minimize the cost of activated carbon production. The objective of this study was the
compare the ability of commercial activated carbon with the activated carbons
prepared from the olive wooden stone and solvent extracted olive pulp for textile
reactive azo dyes removal from aqueous streams.
Materials
Properties of powder activated carbons
Five commercial powder activated carbons (PACs) were provided from KEMWATER.
Kemisorb 430/S PW and 440/S PW were produced by physical activation of selected
wood charcoal followed by pH adjustment before being pulverized to the required
particle size. Kemisorb 480 PW and 410/S PW were produced by physical activation
of selected sawdust charcoal. Kemisorb 230 PW was produced by chemical
activation with phosphoric acid of selected wood charcoal. The properties of the
commercial PACs are given in Table 1(a and b).
Two other powdered activated carbons prepared by physical activation of olive

wooden stone (OWS), and solvent extracted olive pulp (OWSR) were provided from
the NAGREF (Institute of Technology of Agricultural Products, Greece). The
activated carbons used in this study were prepared by the physical activation of OWS
and OWSR with steam/nitrogen mixture as the activating agent. Temperatures of
carbonization and activation were kept constant at 850 0C and 800 0C respectively.
Surface area (B.E.T method) of the OWS was 700 m 2 / g and it was 800 m 2 / g for
OWSR. Micro and mesoporosity volumes of OWS were Vmicro = 0.19 cm3/g and
Vmeso = 0.12 cm3/g while they were Vmicro = 0.22 cm3/g and Vmeso = 0.35 cm3/g for
OWSR.
Table 1(a). Properties of commercial PACs
430/s 440/S
Properties PW PW 230PW
pH water extract (ASTM D3838-80) 4÷6 6÷8 3÷5
Apparent density (ASTM D2854-89) 350 g/l 351 g/l 320 g/l
Ash content (ASTM D2866-94) 7% 8% 7%
Moisture as packed (Oven Drying
ASTM D2867-91) 8% 8% 10%
1000 1100
Surface area (B.E.T. Method) m²/g 950m²/g m²/g
950 850 1000
Iodine number (JIS KI 470-67) mg/g mg/g mg/g
Methylene blue (spectrophotometric 21 20 26
method) g/100g g/100g g/100g
Decolourising power (Caramel JIS
KI470-67) 97% 90%
Particle size distribution< 75µm(laser
diffraction) 90% 85% 90%
115
Table 1(b). Properties of commercial PACs
480
Properties PW 410/SPW
pH water extract (ASTM D3838-80) alkaline alkaline
Apparent density (ASTM D2854-89) 350 g/l 360 g/l
Ash content (ASTM D2866-94) 5% 6%
Moisture as packed (Oven Drying ASTM
D2867-91) 3% 3%
1050 1100
Surface area (B.E.T. Method) m²/g m²/g
950 1000
Iodine number (JIS KI 470-67) mg/g mg/g
Methylene blue (spectrophotometric 22 24
method) g/100g g/100g
Phenol value (AWWA B600) 1.5 g/l 1.3 g/l
Particle size distribution< 75µm(laser
diffraction) 90% 80%
Properties of reactive azo dyes and synthetic wastewater preparation
Reactive azo dyes used in this study are Remazol Gelb 3RS (yellow), Remazol
Rb133 (red), Remazol Schwarz B133 (blue). They were obtained from a textile
processing factory. The properties of Remazol Gelb 3RS and Remazol Schwarz
B133 are given in Table 2. Characteristic data on Remazol Rb 133 are not obtained
from the textile processing factory except that it is a reactive azo dye.
Synthetic wastewater was prepared as aqueous solutions of three reactive azo dyes
by adding the tap water. pH of the aqueous solutions was 7.93 for Remazol Gelb
3RS, 7.43 Remazol Rb133 and 7.40 Remazol Schwarz.
Table 2. The properties of reactive azo dyes (Dystar)
Properties Remazol Gelb 3RS Remazol Schwarz B133

form powder Granules
colour red to brown black
odour no odourless
Bulk density 454 kg/m3 600 kg/m3
Solubility in water 50 g/l at 20єC >100g/l at 25єC
pH value 7 (10 g/l at 25єC) 4.5 (10g/l water)
COD value 520 mg/g 794 mg/g
Fish toxicity (Lco) 100 mg/l Test species: Brachydaniorerio 10-100 mg/l Test species:Brachydaniorerio
Duration of test : 96h Duration of test : 48 h
Acute bacterial toxicity (Ec10) 1000mg/l
Test organism : activated sludge microorganism
116
Methods
Analysis
The removal of dyes was determined spectrophotometrically (Pharmacia Biotech,

Novaspec II). The absorbance values of the dye, before and after treatment were
measured at their respective maximum wavelengths of 405 nm for remazol Gelb
3RS, 520 nm for Remazol Rb133 and 585 nm for Remazol Schwarz B133.
Absorbance and dye concentration relationship was determined from the exponential
equations. Maximum absorbances and absorbance-dye concentration relationship
are given in Figure 1 (a), (b), and (c).
Yellow(Remazol Gelb 3RS)

Yellow
2,5
2 150 mg/L
Absorbance
250 1.169
1,5 100 mg/L 200 y = 70.363x
(m g /
D y e C 2
1 50 mg/L 150 R = 0.934
0,5 20 mg/L 100
0 50
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0
λ 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000

Absorbance
(a) Remazol Gelb 3RS
Red(Remazol RB133)
Red
4
A b so rb
Dye Conc. (mg/l)
3
250 y = 26.253x 1.6413
2 150 mg/L 200
100mg/L 150 R2 = 0.9383
1
100
0 50 mg/L 50
20 mg/L 0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000
λ
Absorbance
(b) Remazol RB133
117
DarkBlue(Remazol Schwarz B133)

DarkBlue
5 150 mg/L 2,8735

y = 5,7279x
A b so rb
250
4 100mg/L 2
200 R = 0,9406
3
DyeConc.
50 mg/L
(mg/L)
150
2 20 mg/L
100
1
50
0
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000
λ Absorbance
(c) Remazol Schwarz B133
Figure 1. Maximum absorbances and absorbance – dye concentration relationship
Adsorption experiments
Two different dye concentrations of 100 and 150 mg/L were tested by using seven
powder activated carbons in adsorption experiments. 1-6 g/L adsorbents were taken
in a 100 ml conical flasks including aqueous solution of dyes and agitated at 150 rpm
at 250 C . The conical flasks were withdrawn at 24 h and the supernatant was
separated by centrifugation at 6000 rpm and was used for spectrophotometric
analysis.
Results obtained for each adsorbate adsorption ( qe in mg of adsorbate/g of

adsorbent) starting at different initial concentration in the equilibrium ( ce in mg of
adsorbate/L of solution) were fit to two adsorption isotherm models; Langmuir and
Freundlich. A least-squares fitting procedure was followed to get each model
characteristic parameters and the determination coefficient corresponding to
experimental data.
Langmuir equation is based on a theoretical model and its linearized form is given in
equation (1)
Ce 1 1
= +  Ce (1)
qe ab  a 
Where a is a constant relative to the adsorptive capacity and b is a parameter related

to the adsorption energy.
However, the Freundlich equation (2) is an empirical model that considers

heterogeneous adsorptive energies on the adsorbent surface.
1
Logqe = LogK F +   LogCe (2)
n
118
Yellow Yellow
1.8
1.91 1.7
L o g
230 pw 1.6
Log q
1.71 1.5
480 pw owsr
1.51 1.4 ows
410/s pw 1.3
1.31
430/s pw
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 1
440/s pw
Log Ce Log Ce
Red Red
2.5 2
1.8
2 230 pw
L o g
Log q
1.6 owsr
1.5 480 pw 1.4 ows
410/s pw 1.2
1 1
430/s pw
-5.2 -3.2 -1.2 0.8 440/s pw -5.2 -0.2
Log Ce Log Ce
Blue Blue
2.2 2
2 1.8
L o g
230 pw owsr
Log q
1.8 1.6
1.6 480 pw ows
1.4 1.4
410/s pw
1.2 1.2
430/s pw
-10.8 -5.8 -0.8 440/s pw -1.8 0.2
Log Ce Log Ce
Where the KF parameter is relative to the adsorption capacity and n makes

references to the process intensity. Figure 2 represent Freundlich model fitting of the
adsorption data and Figure 3 represent fitting adsorption data with Langmuir model.
119
Figure 2. Freundlich İsotherms
Yellow Yellow
0.15 0.7
0.1 230 PW 0.6
Ce/q
owsr
C e
0.05 480 PW 0.5
ows
410/S PW 0.4
0
430/S PW 0.3
0 5 10 15 440/S PW
5 25 45
Ce
Ce
Red Red
0.06 0.7
0.04 230 PW 0.5
Ce/q
owsr
C e
0.02 480 PW 0.3

ows
410/s PW 0.1
0
430/s PW -0.1
0 2 4 440/s PW 0 20 40
Ce Ce
Blue Blue
0.009
0.007 0.6
230 pw
0.005 0.4 owsr
C e
Ce/q
480 pw
0.003 0.2 ows
0.001 410/s pw
-0.001 430/s pw 0
0 0.5 440/s pw 0 20 40
Ce Ce
Figure 3. Langmuir isotherms
The coefficients of determination ( r 2 ) of the data fittings to each of the isotherm

models are shown in Table 3 together with the values of the characteristic
parameters for each of the two models studied.
120
Table 3. Results from fittings to Langmuir and Freundlich models
Activated Langmuir Freundlich

Carbons a b R 2
Kf 1/n r2
Remazol Gelb 3rs
230 pw 144.92 0.971 0.692 56.558 0.1895 0.673

480 pw 116.28 0.860 0.967 49.670 0.1726 0.792
410/s pw 192.30 0.565 0.549 64.417 0.6525 0.948
430/s pw 94.33 1.000 0.742 48.820 0.1652 0.738
440/s pw 149.25 0.175 0.722 25.905 0.5498 0.922
owsr 50.00 0.089 0.734 14.279 0.2683 0,528
ows 48.30 0.923 0.739 14.608 0.2557 0.506
230 pw 105.26 15.833 0.997 88.756 0.2846 0.989
Remazol Schwarz B133 Remazol Rb133
480 pw 92.59 12.000 8224 229.985 0.6388 0.844

410/s pw 101.00 110.000 0.888 105.974 0.1677 0.870
430/s pw 104.10 19.210 0.999 87.801 0.2619 0.983
440/s pw 101.00 24.750 0.998 67.748 0.1305 0.897
owsr 59.88 0.350 0.935 33.304 0.1147 0.842
ows 59.87 0.440 0.930 34.729 0.1124 0.846
230 pw 117.64 21251 0.999 137.151 0.0842 0.921
480 pw 117.64 17000 0.999 122.095 0.0077 0.968
410/s pw 123.45 162000 0.776 182.389 0.0945 0.644
430/s pw 117.64 4250 0.999 115.611 0.0776 0.887
440/s pw 116.28 2866 0.999 129.449 0.1253 0.906
owsr 70.42 2.180 0.999 44.565 0.1257 0.970
ows 83.33 2.100 0.999 50.35 0.1115 0.990
Considering the values of the determination coefficient for the linear fit (r2), it was
observed that the experimental data were more suitable to the Langmuir model than
to the Freundlich model. Although commercial activated carbons were found more
efficient adsorbents to remove the residual dyes from wastewater the results of this
study are promising to use the activated carbons produced from olive stone and
solvent extracted olive pulp which are abundant agricultural by products of Turkey.
REFERENCES
• Young, L. and Jian Yu (1997); Ligninase-catalyzed decolorization, Wat. Res.

Vol. 31, No.5 pp. 1187-1193.
• Daniş, Ü.; Gürses, A.; Canpolat, N. (1998) : Removal of some azo dyes from
wastewater for using PAC as adsorbent, 1st International Workshop on
121
Environmental Qulaity and Environmental Engineering in the Middle East

Region, Konya, Turkey.
• Lee, C.K.; Low, K.S.; Gan, P.Y:, (1999): Removal of some organic dyes by
acid treat spent bleaching earth. Environ. Technol. 20, 99-104.
• Kadirvelu, K.; brasquet, C. , Cloirec, P. (2000 a) : Removal of Cu (II), Pb (II)

and Ni (II) by adsorption onto activated carbon cloths. Langmuir 16, 8404-
8409.
• Kadirvelu, K.; Kavipriya, M.; Karthika, C.; Radhika M.; Vennilamani, N.;
Pattabhi, S. (2003): Utilization of various agricultural wastes for activated
carbon preparation and application for the aqueous solutions, Bioresource
Technology 87 (2003) 129-132.
• Walker, G.M.; Weatherley, L.R. (1998): fixed bed adsorption of acid dyes onto
activated carbon. Environmental Pollution 99, 133-136.
• Rozada, F.; L.F. Calvo; A.I Garcia; J. Martin Villacorta ; M. Otero (2003) : Dye
adsorption by sewage sludge-based activated carbons in batch and fixed-bed
systems, Biosource Technology 87 (2003) 221-230.
• Tokaty, E. (2001): Residual dye removal from textile processing wastewater by

activated carbon adsorption, Final term project (42 pages), Advisor: Prof. Dr.
Ayşegül Pala, Dokuz Eylül University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental
Eng. Dept. (in Turkish).
122
COMPARISON OF SORPTION OF Cu(II),Cr(III) AND Cr(VI) ON

INORGANIC AND ORGANIC SORBENTS1
János Lakatos(1), Mihaela Ulmanu(2), Ildiko Anger (2), Colin E. Snape(3)

1)
University of Miskolc, Institute of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry,
Miskolc-Egyetemváros, H-3515, Hungary.
2)
Institute for Non – Ferrous and Rare Metals, Bd.Biruintei 102,
73957 Bucharest, Romania.
3)
University of Nottingham, School of Chemical, Environmental and Mining
Engineering, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
ABSTRACT
Cu(II), Cr(III) and Cr(VI) ion removal characteristics of different kind of synthetic sorbents: aluminas,
activated carbons and natural materials: clay minerals, zeolites and coals was determined and
compared. It was found that, the sorption of cations on clay minerals and zeolites have different pH
sensitivity than on aluminas and organic sorbents (coal, activated carbon). The Cr(VI) can be removed if
the solid surface positively charged (alumina) or the solid can take part in electron transfer reaction
forming Cr(III) cation (coals, activated carbons).
Keywords: sorption of Cu(II),Cr(III) and Cr(VI), purification, mining, waste deposit
INTRODUCTION
The sorption phenomena of transition and heavy metals on inorganic and organic
materials play important role in the dispersion of the contaminants in soil. However the
ion sorption character of these materials can be used for purifying contaminated water
and the leachates of mining and other waste deposits.
Due to the variety of the functionalities exist on the surface and the difference of their
concentration and accessibility solids exhibit different sequence of loading and capacity.
Sorbents can interact with the ions using different mechanism [1-5]. Beside the ion
exchange and chelation some of the functionalities can take part in electron transfer
reaction as well. This reaction will modify the valence state of the acting ion, which can
result improvement in loading or alteration in the ion toxicity [6-8]. To improve the
efficiency of ion removal in a multi component system and to make the process less
sensitive to the experimental variables (pH, composition) need such kind of tailored
sorbents which unify the advantageous characters of the components. The aim of this
comparison is to determine the expected advantageous feature of a inorganic-inorganic
and inorganic-organic composits.
1
123
EXPERIMENTAL
Batchwise ion exchange experiments were conducted in different media: distilled water,
0.1 mol dm-3 sodium-acetate-acetic-acid 1:1 buffer, (NaAc-HAc), (pH≈ 5), 0.1 mol dm-3
acetic acid, (HAc), (pH≈3) and 0,05 mol dm-3 sulphuric-acid, (H2SO4), (pH ≈ 1). 1:40
solid to liquid ratio was used. The contact time was five days. The slurries were agitated
once a day. The concentrations remained in the solutions were determined by flame AA
spectrometry.
The ion loading on different materials (aluminas, clay minerals, synthetic and natural
zeolites, lignites and activated carbons) was studied at four different pH, Figs. 1-12. The
aim was to provide comparison at different experimental condition. Increasing the pH
can result decrease in amount of the competitive H+ ion in the system, therefore the
metal ion loading become more probable. However the effect of the pH can not be
explained so simply since the pH can influence the chemical form of the transition metal
species in the solution as well (hydrolysis and hidroxo- complex formation can occur). A
clear reversed pH dependence of transition metal ion removal was found on alumina
and on the organic sorbents, (Figs 1,4,5,8), however the clay minerals and zeolites
shows less loading at pH≈5 in buffer than at pH≈3 in 0.1 M acetic-acid, (Figs.2,3,6,7).
This finding indicates that the order of the H+ ion in the sequence of loading is different
in the two sorbent groups. The H+ ion loading is more preferred at aluminas and the
organic sorbents compared to the Na+ ion. Therefore the effect of the Na+ ion, which are
present in the sodium acetate acetic acid buffer, is marginal. The reverse situation exists
at the clay minerals and zeolites. Using these sorbents the transition ion removal
expected to be more interfered by the alkaline or alkaline earth ions than the H+.
In neutral condition (distilled water) all of the sorbents, except the zeolites, provide high
removal efficiency. In acidic medium only the bentonites and organic sorbents provide
proper capacity. The behaviour of synthetic zeolite need further investigation, (Figs. 3,
7).
The aluminas provide good sorption capacity for Cr(VI) and if the pH is adjusted the
Cr(III) and Cr(VI) can be separated from each other, Figs.5, 9. Positive surface charge
was not obtained on the clay minerals and on zeolites even if the pH was set quite low
(pH≈1), therefore no Cr(VI) removal was detected at the studied condition.
Those organic sorbents which carbon atoms can take part in electron transfer reaction
able to remove Cr(VI), however the mechanism will differ from the mechanism which
governs the sorption on alumina. On organic sorbents the reduction of Cr(VI) take place,
Fig. 13. It become more effective at low pH, however the sorption of Cr(III) will be
decreased. This can explain that why the maximum of Cr(VI) removal was found at pH
3. Concerning the Fig. 13 there are many cases where all the Cr(VI) is reduced. This
provide a chance to compare the manner of sorption of Cr(III) and the in situ formed
Cr(III) since the initial concentrations are equal. Comparison of Fig.8 and Fig.12 a
difference can be established. Larger Cr(III) loading was found in Cr(VI) case. There are
124
two possible explanation for this finding: the oxidation of the organic surface increase (or
decrease see the Fisher gas activated carbon) the functionalities which responsible for
the Cr(III) loading, or the in situ formed Cr(III) loading character is different. The first
explanation is the most probable.
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
Sorbed Cu(II), mmol g-1
0,12
Al2O3 (Brookman I)
Al2O3 (Brookman II)
0,1
Al2O3 (TLCReanal)
Al2O3 (200-400 um)
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Dist.water 0.1M HAc-NaAc 0.1M HAc 0.05M H2SO4
Fig. 1. Sorption of Cu(II) by aluminas. Initial concentration 5 mM CuSO4. Solid/solution

ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 Kaolinite
Illite (Mad)
0,1 Bentonite(Egyhбzaskeszх)
Bentonite( Kirбlyhegy)
0,08 Bentonite(Mad)
Montmorillonite(Istenmezeje)
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
125
Fig. 2. Sorption of Cu(II) by clay minerals. Initial concentration 5 mM CuSO4.

Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
Sinthetic Zeolite
ZeoliteN (Mad)
0,1 Zeolite I (Mad)
Klinosorb
0,08 Ersorb
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 3. Sorption of Cu(II) by Zeolites. Initial concentration 5 mM CuSO4. Solid/solution

0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 K1composite
Hambach lignite
0,1 Bьkkбbrбny lignite
Visonta lignite
0,08 Fisher decolor AC
Fisher Gas Ac
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 4. Sorption of Cu(II) by coals and activated carbons. Initial concentration 5 mM

CuSO4. Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
126
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
Sorbed Cr(III), mmol g-1
0,12
Al2O3 (Brookman I)
Al2O3 (Brookman II)
0,1
Al2O3 (TLCReanal)
Al2O3 (200-400 um)
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 5. Sorption of Cr(III) by aluminas. Initial concentration 5 mM Cr(III) as Cr2 (SO4)3.

0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 Kaolinite
Illite (Mad)
0,08 Bentonite(Mad)
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 6. Sorption of Cr(III) by clay minerals. Initial concentration 5 mM Cr(III) as Cr2

(SO4)3. Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
127
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
Sinthetic Zeolite
ZeoliteN (Mad)
0,1
Zeolite I (Mad)
Klinosorb
0,08 Ersorb
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 7. Sorption of Cr(III) by zeolites. Initial concentration 5 mM Cr(III) as Cr2 (SO4)3.

0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 K1composite
Hambach lignite
Visonta lignite
Fisher Gas Ac
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 8. Sorption of Cr(III) by coals and activated carbons. Initial concentration 5 mM

Cr(III) as Cr2 (SO4)3. Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
128
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
Sorbed Cr(VI), mmol g-1
0,12
Al2O3 (Brookman I)
Al2O3 (Brookman II)
0,1
Al2O3 (TLCReanal)
Al2O3 (200-400 um)
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 9. Sorption of Cr(VI) by alumina. Initial concentration 5 mM Na2CrO4. Solid/solution

0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 Kaolinite
Illite (Mad)
0,08 Bentonite(Mad)
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig. 10. Sorption of Cr(VI) by clay minerals. Initial concentration 5 mM Na2CrO4.

129
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
Sinthetic Zeolite
ZeoliteN (Mad)
1
Zeolite I (Mad)
Klinosorb
0,8 Ersorb
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Fig. 11. Sorption of Cr(VI) by zeolites. Initial concentration 5 mM Na2CrO4. Solid/solution

0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12 K1composite
Hambach lignite
Visonta lignite
Fisher Gas Ac
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig.12. Sorption of Cr(VI) by coals and activated carbons. Initial concentration 5 mM

Na2CrO4. Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
130
0,2
0,18
0,16
0,14
Reduced Cr(VI), mM
0,12 K1composite
Hambach lignite
Visonta lignite
Fisher Gas Ac
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
Fig.13. Reduction of Cr(VI) by coals and activated carbons. Initial concentration 5 mM

Na2CrO4. Solid/solution ratio:1/40. Contact time: 5 days.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Comparison of the Cu(II) and Cr(III) cation removal capacities there was not
found large difference between the studied sorbents. The zeolites was found the
less effective.
2. There was found a clear reversed pH dependence of transition metal ion

removal on alumina and on the organic sorbents. On the clay minerals and on
zeolites the transition metal ion removal expected to be more interfered by the
concentration of alkaline or alkaline earth ions than the H+.
3. Only the aluminas and the organic sorbents are effective in Cr(VI) removal,
however the mechanisms are different.
4. Composits of aluminas and clay minerals or composits of clay minerals and

organics is promising in removal toxic component existing cationic and reducible
anionic forms at the same system.
131
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support from the Hungarian Research Foundation (OTKA T-031959), TET
foundation (RO-2/00) and the European Coal & Steel Community (Contract No. 7220-
PR070) is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Garcia-Sanchez A., Alastuey A., Querol X. Heavy metal adsorption by different
minerals: application to remediation of polluted soil. Sci. of Total Envir. 242, 179-188
(1999).
[2] Celis R. Hermosin M.C. Cornejo J. Heavy metal adsorption by functionalised clays.
Environ Sci. Techn. 34, 4593-4599, (2000).
[3] Baley S. E. Trudy J. Olin T J. Bricka R. M. Adrian D. D. A review of potentially low

cost sorbents for heavy metals. Water Res. 33, 2469-79, (1999).
[4] Lakatos B. Tibai T. Meisel T. EPR spectra of humic acids and their metal complexes.
Geoderma , 19, 319-329 (1977).
[5] Stuart A. D. selective cation exchange using acidic groups in coal and oxidised
coal.Fuel, 65, 1003-7, (1986).
[6] Szilagyi M. Valence change of metal ions in the interaction with the humic acid.
Fuel, 53, 26-28 (1974).
[7] Huang C. P. Wu M. H. the removal of Cr(VI) from dilute solution by activated carbon.
Water Res. 11, 676-679 (1977).
[8] Lakatos, J., Brown, S.D., Snape, C.E. Coals as sorbents for removal and reduction
of hexavalent chromium from aqueous waste streams. Fuel; 81, 691-698 (2002).
132
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN TEXTILES via BIOTECHNOLOGY1
Michaela Dina STANESCU1, Mircea Sorin BUCUR1, Magda FOGORASI1,

Alina POPESCU2
1
«Aurel Vlaicu » University, Bd. Revolutiei 81, 2900 Arad, Romania
2
INCDTP, Lucretiu Patrascanu 16, Bucharest, Romania
ABSTRACT
The concept of sustainable development had been introduced in order to diminish pollution, and there is a
continuous pressure for the application of this concept. In this respect a number of new technologies,
more environmentally friendly are developed.
Textile processes are usually polluting one. The finishing of textile materials generates a large amount of
waste waters having organic as well as inorganic residues. A pH with acid or alkaline values is also often
observed. A possible alternative to the classical polluting technologies is the application of biotechnology
in textile finishing.
Keywords: sustainable development, textiles industries, biotechnology
INTRODUCTION
The idea of sustainable development is not new. Such type of development has been
introduced by the forest industry a century ago, and developed as a key issue in 1980 in
connection with the concern about the degradation of natural resources [1].
The environment and the crisis generated by the industrial development have been
pointed even before this. The book of Harvey and Hallett [2] is a complete analysis of
the new, global attitude, toward the environment. The important steps, in this respect,
mentioned by these authors are the following:
• Malthus papers concerning the population growth (1789, 1803),
• a number of published books concerning the development and environment policy

(e.g. “The Closing Circle” of B. Commoner, “Population, Resources, Environment” of
P Erlich, etc.).
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The concept of sustainable development was put firmly on the international agenda in
1987, by the World Commission on Environment and Development. In its report
“Our Common Future”, known also as Bruntland Report, the following demands [2]
were mentioned:
• meeting the essential needs of the poor world – jobs , food energy, water and
sanitation;
1
133
• unification of economics and ecology in decision making;
• improving the quality of development, while conserving and enhancing the resource
base;
• effective citizen participation in decision making;
• a sustainable level of population;
• establishment of sustainable patterns of trade and development.
The sustainable development was defined by the World Commission on

Environment and Development as:
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” [3].
The sustainable development is also considered a:
“Development that provides economic, social, and environmental benefits in the long
term, having regards to the needs of living of the future generation” [3].
The concept of sustainable development has the following characteristics [4]:
• eco-centrist:
• embracing ethical norms;
• introducing a social reform;
• establishing bio-economic equilibrium;
• realizing the control of the conditions of production;
• implementing a new economics.
Thus, the concept of sustainable development had been accepted and there is a
continuous pressure for the application of this concept. In this respect a number of new
technologies, more environmentally friendly are developed. According Pearce [5], the
resources are limited and the cost of the production is high so that a new way of
development has to be established. Such new development implies the highest yields
with the lowest costs.
APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Textile finishing processes are polluting due to the large amount of waste waters having
organic as well as inorganic residues. High acid or alkaline conditions are often met
generating the corresponding wastes.
134
A possible alternative to the classical polluting technologies is the application of

biotechnology in textile finishing. Enzymes application in textile finishing leads to a new,
clean technology. Bryne underlined that biotechnology application may be considered as
the third industrial revolution [6].
Integrated biotechnological processes could make a contribution to conserving energy

and water, shortening the process and reducing the polluting emissions. Beside the
ecological issue, the use of enzymes instead of chemical reagents led to economical
advantage [7].
The use of enzymes in textile processing [8] is ancient history. Thus, in 1857 the use of
malt Amylases for woven cotton de-sizing has been used. Methods for production of
industrial Amylases starting from the fungus Aspergillus oryzae and the bacterium
Bacillus subtilis were developed at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1919 a
commercial product for cotton de-sizing, namely Diastafior appeared on market.
In 1910 the first application of enzymes in wool treatment is described.
In 1950 the first detergent with a bacterial Protease was developed. The use of
Proteases, Cellulases and Lipases as components of after-care detergents started in
1960.
A great number of applications of enzymes in textile industry are known today. New
impetus in these applications has been given by genetic engineering [8], which
introduces the possibility of optimizing the production of modified or new enzymes of
commercial importance.
ENZYMES AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Enzymes are catalysts with a main proteinaceous structure, having a number of special
properties, like:
• high catalytic activity;
• reaction specificity;
• high substrate selectivity;
• high regio- and stereo-selectivity;
• working in mild conditions;
• depend on the reaction conditions (pH, temperature, surfactants, chelators, salts,

etc.);
• bio-degradability.
135
Their reaction specificity is illustrated by the classification in six classes [9],

namely:
1. Oxidoreductase - catalyzing transfer of H, O or electrons;
2. Transferase - making transfer of specific group from one molecule to another;
3. Hydrolase - splitting molecules with water;
4. Lyase - performing non-hydrolytic addition or removal of groups from

substrates;
5. Isomerase - leading to intramolecular rearrangement;
6. Ligase - join together two molecules by synthesis.
Each enzyme was given a systematic name, accurately describing the catalyzed
reaction. In textile material processing enzymes belonging to the class of Hydrolases
are mostly used, the Oxidoreductases being also used for specific processes.
TEXTILE FIBERS OBTAINED BY ENZYMATIC TREATMENTS
A number of fibers have been prepared, by treatment with hydrolytic enzymes. Thus, by
treatment with Proteases the natural silk was isolated, by the sericin component
elimination [10]. New procedures for retting of flax, based on enzymatic treatment with
mixture of enzymes, have been experienced [11]. Wool carbonization with Proteases is
also an eco-friendly option [12].
FINISHING TECHNOLOGY WITH ENZYMES
In cellulose finishing, the enzymatic treatment may be applied for the following
operations:
• de-sizing with Amilases which replaced the treatments based on acids or strong
alkalis, having a number of advantages, like: mild conditions, bio-degradability, mild
treatment for the fiber [13];
• cotton bio-scouring for pectin elimination with Pectinases, avoids strong alkaline
treatments [14, 15];
• modification of the surface by Bio-polishing [16] or Bio-stoning, was realized by

treatment with Cellulases. The first treatment led to a low pilling, while the second
avoided the corrosive stone procedure used for bleaching and surface modification
giving rise to new materials [17].
For wool treatment, the enzyme application is still at laboratory stage. A number of
problems are generated due to the inside fiber attack of the enzyme. Some results have
been obtained in the following processes:
136
• wool bleaching with proteolysis enzymes[18];
• anti-shrinking treatment realized by combining chemical and enzymatic treatments

[19];
• dyeing after enzyme treatments [20].
In order to avoid an advanced destruction of the wool fiber on treatment with enzymes, a
new approach has been developed using immobilized enzymes. Heine, Berndt and
Hocker [21] immobilized a proteolytic enzyme on a Dextrin support, by covalent bonding.
The stability of the enzyme has been increased. Romanian researchers [22] have tried a
different kind of immobilization, namely entrapment in a silicate matrix. The wool treated
with such biocatalyst had better handle and whiteness and presented better dyeing
properties. A longer activity of the enzymes was also evidenced in this case.
The interest for the application of biotechnology in textile is reflected in the European
research program COST 847, Textile Quality & Biotechnology, initiated in 2000. It has
five working groups and a management committee, some Romanian researchers being
present in the program.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The application of biotechnology in textile industry represents the future of this industry
which has pollution problems for the classical procedures. Biotechnology seems to be a
good solution for a clean, eco-friendly technology. Development of biotechnology for
textile materials needs further investigations for realizing a complete understanding of
the enzymatic transformation. All the factors involved into the reaction mechanism have
to be known, in order to obtain the reaction control. Simpler, non-destructive methods
(e.g. spectroscopic methods) to follow and control the enzymatic transformations are
needed.
Genetic engineering offers new opportunities for new enzymes with better properties.
Immobilized enzymes proved to be a promising alternative for the textile processing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is part of the 2002-2004 contract realized into the Biotech national research
program coordinated by INCPTP
REFERENCES
1. D. Burning ham, J. Davies, “Green Economics” Heinemann Educational

Publishers, Oxford, 1995.
2. B. Harvey, J.D. Haslett, “Environment and Society an Introductory Analysis”, Mc.

Milan Press Ltd, London, 1977.
137
3. A. Gilpin “Dictionary of Environment and Sustainable Development”, J.Wiley &

Sons,New York, 1996, p.206.
4. J.A. Palmer, “Environmental Education in the 21st Century. Theory, Practice,

Progress and Promise”, Routledge, London, 1998, p. 92.
5. D. Pearce, “Economic Values and the Natural Word” Earthscan Publication Ltd.,
Londra, 1993.
6. C. Bryne, Proceedings of Textile Institute Dyeing and Finishing Group

Conference, Nottingham, UK, 1995.
7. M. Etschmann,, P. Gebhardt, D.Sell, "Economical and Ecological Advantages of

Appling Biotechnological Processes in Industrial Applications. A Case of History
from the Textile Industry" in DECHEMA Environmental Biotechnology Network;
www.kapp.chemie.de.
8. M.D. Stanescu, Enzymes in Textile Finishing in Proceedings of World Textile

Conference. 2nd AUTEX Conference, Bruges, Belgium, 1-3 July 2002, pp.446-
453, and citation there in.
9. E.J. wood, W.R. Pickering, “Introducing Biochemistry”, 4th edition, Alden Press,
London, 1989.
10. M.L. Gulrajani, Rev.Prog. Coloration, 1992, 22, , 79-89.
11. D.E. Akin, R.B. Dodd, W. Perkins, G. Henriksson, K-E.L. Eriksson, Textile Res.J.,
2000, 70, 486-494.
12. M.S. Bucur, M.D. Stanescu, Enzymatic Treatment of Cotton a Model for Wool
Carbonization, Proceedings of the 10th International Wool Conference, Aachen,
2000, EN-P4, pp.1-4.
13. Novo Nordisk, Technical Information on Desizing, 1992.
14. E. Bach, E. Schollmeyer, Textil Praxis, 1993, 220-225.
15. M.H. Deyert, P. Viallier, D. Wattiey, JSDC, 1998, 283-286.
16. E. Heine, H. Hocker, Prog. Coloration, 1995, 25, 57-63, and citation there in.
17. M. Schmidt, Melliand International, 1995, 116-118.
18. R. Levene, JSDC, 1997, 113, 206-211.
19. D.P. Bishop, J. Shen, E. Heine, B. Hollfelder, , J.Text.Inst., 1998, 89 Part I, 546-
553.
20. A. Riva, J.M. Alsina, R. Prieto, JSDC, 1999, 115, 125-129 and citation therein.
138
21. E. Heine, H. Berndt, H. Hocker, D.W.I. Rep., 1990, 57-63.
22. M..D. Stanescu, M.S. Bucur, M. Raileanu, M. Badea, Scien.Tech.Bull., Series:

Textile Science, 2000, 6, 21-29; M.D. Stanescu, M. Raileanu, L. Stanciu, C.
Parlog, M.S. Bucur, S..Mihuta, F. Chiraleu,.: Wool Finishing with Enzymes
Immobilized by Entrapment, Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Bucharest, 2001, vol Organic Chemical
Technology, Biochemistry and Organic Chemistry, pp. 278-283
139
INTRAPHASE CORRELATIONS OF CONCENTRATIONS OBTAINED

BY SEQUENTIAL EXTRACTION OF “NIKOLA TESLA A” PLANT
COAL ASH1
Aleksandar Popovic1,2, Dragana Djordjevic2, Predrag Polic1,2
1
Department of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, POB 158, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
and Montenegro; e-mail: apopovic@chem.bg.ac.yu
2
IChTM - Chemistry Center, Njegoseva 12, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia and
Montenegro.
ABSTRACT
Six composite samples of filter coal ash from “Nikola Tesla A” power plant located in Obrenovac near
Belgrade were subjected to sequential extraction. Five extractants were applied (in the following
order): distilled water (for the adsorbed fraction), 1 M ammonium acetate (ion-exchangeable fraction),
0.2 M ammonium oxalate / 0.2 M oxalic acid (in order to reduce and dissolve the fraction bound to
(oxy)hydroxides of iron and manganese, but also some alumosilicates), acidic solution of H2O2 (for the
organic fraction), and 6 M HCl (which was shown to dissolve a significant portion of the alumosilicate
fraction).
Concentrations of the elements obtained in the experiment where correlated in order to establish
possible connections between different trace and major elements washed during sequential
extraction. It was found that alumosilicates of magnesium (substrates of lead and chromium), silicates
of potassium (substrates of lead and nickel), alumosilicates other than that of magnesium (substrates
of lead and zinc), mixed aluminates of iron and magnesium (substrates of arsenic, copper and
chromium) and other compounds of iron (substrate of manganese and zinc) were dissolved in the fifth
phase of sequential extraction. In the third phase of sequential extraction, alumosilicates of potassium
associated with copper as well as compounds of iron connected with zinc were extracted.
Keywords: power plant, Obrenovac, intraphase correlations
INTRODUCTION
Coal is a complex combination of organic materials (those that burn) and inorganic
materials (those that produce ash). The inorganic materials can be further subdivided
into mineral grains and organically-associated inorganics. The mineral grains consist
of particles ranging in size from microscopic to sand-sized and even larger-sized
materials. Both the size and chemistry of these mineral particles control where the
ash will end up in a combustion system.
A growing human population, reliant on coal combustion for electricity generation, will
increase the amount of this effluent produced in the future. Until recently, the
potential dangers of coal ash to wildlife have been underestimated, but relatively
recent studies indicate that coal ash may pose significant physiological and
ecological problems that warrant attention from the scientific and regulatory
communities. Organisms inhabiting coal ash basins, downstream areas, and nearby
terrestrial habitats accumulate high levels of trace elements in their tissues.
Moreover, chronic exposure to coal ash results in impairment of multiple

physiological and developmental systems in amphibians, reptiles, and aquatic
1
140
invertebrates. Observed effects include deformities, abnormal behaviours, endocrine

disruption, modified energy budgets, and inhibited metamorphosis [1].
The physical and chemical properties of this industrial waste product, in general, are
quite variable, as they are influenced by coal source, particle size, type of coal
burning process, and degree of weathering.
The fly ash consists of many small (0.5 - 100 µm diameter) glass-like particles of a
remarkably spherical character, a finely crystalline material or as a more coarsely
crystallised ceramic, depending on composition [2]. The bulk of the fly ash consists of
silicon, aluminium, calcium oxide, and iron oxide. It also contains organic residues
including polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans [3].
Coal burning is major energy source in ex-Yugoslavia, contributing more than two
thirds of total energy needs of the country. There are nine power plants in ex-
Yugoslavia, eight of them are located in Serbia, while one is in Montenegro.
Though coal is important as energy source, its translation to energy yields large
amount of coal ash that is only marginally used, thus representing one of the largest
environmental problems in the country. Although leaching of inorganic constituents
from Yugoslav power plant’s coal ash has been widely recognised as threat to
surrounding soil and ground and surface waters, the analysis of potential influence
was usually limited to trace elements [4-6].
EXPERIMENTAL
In this work, six composite samples of coal ash obtained by coal burning in power
plants “Nikola Tesla A” were subjected to extraction procedures with extractants
dissolving different constituents.
Five extractants were applied (in the following order): distilled water (for the adsorbed
fraction), 1 M ammonium acetate (ion-exchangeable fraction), 0.2 M ammonium
oxalate / 0.2 M oxalic acid (in order to reduce and dissolve the fraction bound to
(oxy)hydroxides of iron and manganese), an acidic solution of H2O2 (for the organic
fraction), and 6 M HCl (which was shown to dissolve a significant portion of the
alumosilicate fraction). Obtained concentrations of trace and major elements in
phases of sequential extraction where inorganic matrix is being dissolved, e.g. third
and fifth (discussed from ecochemical standpoint in [7]), were then statistically
analysed.
RESULTS
Correlational parameters (correlational coefficient R and significance of correlation p)

obtained by correlational analysis of concentrations of trace and major elements
leached in the fifth and third phase of sequential extraction of coal ash samples from
“Nikola Tesla A” power plant are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Correlations that are
shaded represent those with significance of correlation p ≤ 0.05.
141
Table 1: Correlational parameters (R and p) obtained by correlational analysis of

concentrations of trace and major elements extracted in fifth phase of sequential extraction.
Mg Al Si K Fe Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn As Cd Pb
Mg R 0.96 0.85 0.56 0.92 0.99 0.56 0.63 0.92 0.78 0.98 0.60 0.74
7 5 5 0 5 7 1 7 0 7 7 6
P 0.00 0.03 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.17 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.20 0.08
2 0 2 9 0 0 9 8 7 0 1 9
Al R 0.96 0.93 0.67 0.88 0.95 0.59 0.75 0.98 0.87 0.98 0.62 0.84
7 3 2 4 2 4 0 3 3 1 5 6
P 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.21 0.08 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.18 0.03
2 7 4 0 3 4 6 0 3 1 5 4
Si R 0.85 0.93 0.89 0.73 0.82 0.54 0.93 0.97 0.82 0.90 0.72 0.93
5 3 0 8 9 1 1 5 1 7 5 8
P 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.09 0.04 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.10 0.00
0 7 7 4 2 8 7 1 5 3 3 6
K R 0.56 0.67 0.89 0.41 0.52 0.35 0.95 0.77 0.55 0.64 0.65 0.83
5 2 0 2 3 5 6 2 7 3 8 4
P 0.24 0.14 0.01 0.41 0.28 0.49 0.00 0.07 0.25 0.16 0.15 0.03
2 4 7 7 7 0 3 2 1 9 6 9
Fe R 0.92 0.88 0.73 0.41 0.91 0.81 0.51 0.86 0.86 0.93 0.59 0.64
0 4 8 2 9 6 3 1 0 0 7 0
P 0.00 0.02 0.09 0.41 0.01 0.04 0.29 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.21 0.17
9 0 4 7 0 8 8 8 8 7 1 1
Table 2: Correlational parameters (R and p) obtained by correlational analysis of

concentrations of trace and major elements extracted in third phase of sequential
extraction.
Mg Al Si K Fe Cr Mn Ni Cu Zn As Cd Pb
Mg R -0.72 -0.66 -0.59 -0.34 -0.38 0.66 0.59 -0.44 -0.19 0.53 ------ ------
9 4 6
P 0.11 0.15 0.22 0.51 0.46 0.14 0.21 0.38 0.72 0.27 ------ ------
0 6 1 4 0 6 4 7 4 3
Al R -0.72 0.95 0.98 0.44 0.33 -0.70 -0.71 0.88 0.24 -0.52 ------ ------
7 3 7 9 9 2
P 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.51 0.12 0.11 0.01 0.64 0.28 ------ ------
0 3 0 4 1 2 2 8 4 6
Si R -0.66 0.95 0.92 0.45 0.12 -0.76 -0.79 0.93 0.26 -0.47 ------ ------
7 9 6 1 7 5
P 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.82 0.07 0.06 0.00 0.61 0.34 ------ ------
6 3 7 3 0 8 4 6 1 7
K R -0.59 0.98 0.92 0.45 0.37 -0.63 -0.64 0.90 0.26 -0.49 ------ ------
3 9 9 1 2 5
P 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.47 0.17 0.16 0.01 0.61 0.32 ------ ------
1 0 7 9 0 7 8 4 1 8
Fe R -0.34 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.60 -0.20 0.13 0.51 0.95 -0.78 ------ ------
7 6 9 4 1 5 3
P 0.51 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.20 0.70 0.80 0.29 0.00 0.06 ------ ------
4 4 3 9 4 9 5 6 3 9
DISCUSSION
As it can be seen from Table 1, there are significant correlations between

concentrations of magnesium, silicon and aluminum leached in the fifth phase of
sequential extraction, and it is possible to assume that those elements are present
combined in some form (alumosilicates of magnesium and/or combined aluminates
and silicates of magnesium and alumosilicates not containing magnesium) that is
leached in the fifth phase of sequential extraction. Three of the examined
microelements are significantly correlated with magnesium, silicon and aluminum,
142
and those are chromium, copper and arsenic. It can be assumed that proposed
mineral matrix containing magnesium, silicon and aluminum that is being dissolved in
the fifth phase of extraction, is a substrate of chromium, copper and arsenic.
It is possible to conclude from results of correlational analysis that there are at least
two more silicone-containing substrates dissolved in the fifth phase of sequential
extraction. As it was postulated in previous paragraph, alumosilicates are present in
the form of alumosilicates of magnesium, but also in non-magnesium form - substrate
of elements that are significantly correlated with silicon and aluminum, but not with
magnesium. Such elements are zinc and lead. Finally, there is another form of silicon
that is leached during the fifth phase of sequential extraction, and that form is silicon
that is correlated with potassium. Concentrations of nickel and lead leached in the
fifth phase of extraction are significantly correlated with concentrations of both silicon
and potassium and this fact can serve as a pretext to conclude that silicates of
potassium are substrate of lead and nickel.
Concentrations of iron dissolved in the fifth phase of described experiment are

significantly correlated with concentrations of magnesium and aluminum, but not with
concentrations of silicon leached in the same phase of extraction. This fact supports
a conclusion that iron is present in the form combined with aluminum and magnesium
that can be dissolved in the fifth phase of extraction. These compounds (mixed
aluminates of iron and magnesium and/or aluminates of iron, aluminates of
magnesium and compounds of iron and magnesium not containing aluminum) are
substrates of trace elements (chromium, copper and arsenic) that are significantly
correlated with magnesium, aluminum and silicon. Iron is present in the form not
associated with other major elements examined in this paper, too. Scavengers of
such form of iron, according to correlational analysis, are manganese and zinc.
Concentrations of aluminum, silicon and potassium dissolved in the third phase of

sequential extraction are significantly correlated. This fact can mean that compounds
of these three elements (alumosilicates of potassium and/or aluminates of potassium,
silicates of potassium and alumosilicates not containing potassium) are being
dissolved in the third phase of sequential extraction. Copper is the only element that
is scavenger of this (or these) substrate(s). Zinc dissolved in the third phase of
extraction is associated with compounds of iron extracted in the same phase.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.uga.edu/srel/framecoalashmain.htm
[2] R. Carpenter, R. Clark, S. Yin-Fong, APCA J., 30, 679-681, 1980.
[3] K. Fytianos, H. Schroder, Chromatographia, 46, 280-284, 1997.
[4] P. Polic, I. Grzetic, A. Popovic, D. Djordjevic, D. Kisic, Z. Zbogar, in

“Environmental Geotechniques”, vol. 1, pp. 229-234, Balkema Publishers,
Rotterdam, 1998.
[5] A. Popovic, D. Djordjevic, P. Polic, Toxicol. and Env. Chemistry, 75, 141-150,
2000.
143
[6] A. Popovic, D. Djordjevic, P. Polic, Environ. International, 26, 251-255, 2000.
[7] A. Popovic, D. Djordjevic, B. Jovancicevic, P. Polic, II European Meeting on

Environmental Chemistry, book of abstracts on CD-Rom, p. 91, Dijon, France,
2001.
144
REMOVAL OF CHROMIUM FROM TANNERY SOLID WASTE1

Cristina MODROGAN, Liliana BOBIRICĂ, Constantin BOBIRICĂ,
Cristina COSTACHE, Rodica STĂNESCU
Politehnica University of Bucharest,
Department of Inorganic Technology and Environmental Protection
ABSTRACT
Romanian tanneries face important financial problems due to internal and external markets. Some of them
store important quantities of solid waste with a chromium high content. These wastes can not be safely
disposed without removal of chromium.
Our study investigated possibilities of chromium removal from solid tannery waste and its recovery as
compounds to be recycled in tanning process. The removal of chromium from sludge was made using
sulphuric acid. The main goal of the research is determination of optimum conditions of obtaining a
chromium low-content sludge that could be safe disposed on land.
Keywords: chromium removal, tanneries, waste management, reuse, safe disposal,

sludge
INTRODUCTION
In tanning industry about 90% of leathers are tanned with chromium salts, even if it can
be performed with different tanning agents.
For a minimum impact to environment, the sound tanning technologies have to consider
low emissions (wastewaters, sludges, solid wastes, gases etc) and recovery and reuse
of chromium. The presence of chromium in primary sludge has to be avoided by
separately collecting of tanning float for an eventually chromium recovery.
Wastewaters and liquors, which have very different compositions, are collected
separately for a proper treatment.
The average values from table 1 and 2 emphasize the importance of separate collection
of wastewaters from different processes. Sulphides presence in the mixed sludge
causes the release of highly toxic hydrogen sulphide gas to the atmosphere. In the
deliming and pickle liquors the sulphides can easily be oxidised with hydrogen peroxide,
sodium metabisulphite or sodium bisulphite, precipitated with iron (II) salts and aeration,
etc.
The content of mixed sludge used by us in the experimental work has a high content of
sulphides and acidulation released important quantities of H2S.
1
145
Table 1. Averages of loads of emissions to wastewater for the first process units as
percentages of total loads as summary from various references for salted bovine hides
with chrome tanning (IPPC, 2001)
Bovine Wate SS COD BOD TKN S2- Cr Cl-
r
m3/t % % % % % % %
Beamhouse 7-25 ca.80± ca.75±1 ca.75±1 ca.80±5 100 ca.75±5
5 0 0
Tanning 1-3 ca.>5 ca.<10 ca.<10 ca.<5 - ca.70±5 ca.20±5
operations
Post-tanning 4-8 ca.>10 ca.15±5 ca.15±5 ca.>10 - ca.30±5 ca.<5
Finishing 0-1 ca.<5 ca.<5 ca.<5 - - - -
Table 2. Averages of loads of emissions to wastewater for goat skins and ovine skins
from beamhouse, tanyard, post-tanning and finishing operations as percentages of total
loads (IPPC,2001)
Bovine Water SS COD BOD TKN S2- Cr Cl- SO42-
m3/t kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t kg/t
Beamhouse* 7-25 70-120 120-160 40-60 9-14 4-9 - 120-150 5-20
Tanning 1-3 5-10 10-20 3-7 0-1 - 2-5 20-60 30-50
operations
Post-tanning 4-8 10-20 15-40 5-15 1-2 - 1-2 5-10 10-40
Finishing 0-1 0-5 0-10 0-4 - - - - -
TOTAL 12-37 85-155 145-230 48-86 10-17 4-9 3-7 145-220 45-110
* Soaking to bathing
The wastewater equalization and sedimentation, it results a sludge with high organic
content and variable humidity; the water content has to be remove before sludge
disposal as much as possible in a thickling stage. The chromium content depends on
wastewaters collection and its treatment. If spent liquor from tanning process is mixed
with the rest of wastewaters, the primary sludge will have a high concentration in
chromium (III) in liquid phase. Cr(III) concentration varies as a function of the tanning
method used; tanning may be followed by washing. Also, it could contain high quantities
of sulphides from unhairing process.
Considering the tanneries with a high design capacities but low productions and with
wastewater pre/treatment stations that can not be exploited for sporadic production
(1/10-1/3 of designed capacity), the most applied pretreatment consists of equalization
and homogenization in a settler, sedimentation, discharge in effluent of the supernatant
and sludge evacuation and storage on concrete platforms. A coagulation-flocculation
stage can be adds but the costs are even higher and unaffordable for the tanneries with
financial problems.
If tanning and unhairing exhaust liquors are mixed with the other wastewaters, the
sludge will can not be safe disposed on soil. This is a residue that is accumulated in
tanyard, most of the time in improper conditions. The humidity and organic content of
this sludge varies with weather conditions, from season to season. Usually microbial
processes could take place at very low rate contributing to air pollution.
146
Even if the wastewater treatment plants will be rehabilitated and the tanneries will
operate at full capacities, the existing sludges have to be safely disposed. One of the
techniques recommended for small quantities is incineration. It is possible only if there is
a suitable incinerator that is provided with a proper flue gas purification system.
The oldest and most frequently used method for removal of trivalent chromium from
wastewater is the precipitation (Joseph,1985; Marie,1977; Constantin, 1980; Daigle,
1986; Boast, 1988; Santiago, 1993) Research on the efficiency of various alkali such as
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, calcium carbonate,
basic magnesium carbonate and magnesium oxide, showed that chromium in tanning
liqours can be converted into denser precipitates when less soluble precipitants are
used.
Figure 1. Flow Diagram of chrome recovery by precipitation with sodium

hydroxide/carbonate (Ludvik, 2000)
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This work proposed an approach for removal of chromium from “mixed sludges” and
bring it into an easy chromium recoverable form. It is based on chromium removal from
sludge in sulphuric acid solution, precipitation and solubilisation of chromium hydroxide.
The studied sludge content is highly variable and it is generated through mixing of all
wastewaters and liquors in a tannery from Bucharest. The quantities are moderate
present in the tanyard but an urgent sludge disposal is needed. The sludge treatment
and chromium removal and recovery have to be done with:
147
• minimum costs;
• minimum volumes of waters discharged in effluents or sewage collecting system;
• low values for content indicators of wastewater discharged.
The proposed scheme for processing the above mentioned particular sludges (call
forward "mixed sludge") is presented in figure 1. The "mixed sludge" is treated with
sulphuric acid solution, filtrated, chromium precipitated with sodium hydroxide solution
and eventually chromium hydroxide separation and its dissolution as chromium sulfate.
Chromium can be recovered from sulfate solution by specialized treatment plant.
The "mixed sludge" was supply by the tannery and it had the following characteristics:
humidity 78.9%
ash 10.2%
chromium (as Cr2O3) 1.1%
Figure 2. Chromium recovery scheme from “mixed sludge”
Cr Removal from Sludge
Chromium is present as Cr(III) in solution and in collagenic structures from sludges

resulted in tanning process. The rate of removal of chromium depends on different
parameters like:
• acid concentration;
148
• temperature;
• sludge particle granulation;
• mixing;
• age.
The available sludge had a very fine granulation (below 0.1 mm) and it was collected
from five different points of the deposit surface. The sludge was a relatively fresh one
and the difference in properties could be very important in chromium removal process. It
was very difficult to get a representative sample due to the low accessibility on top of
sludge deposit.
The solid particle dimensions can reach 2-3 cm and it could act as a limitation of Cr3+
internal diffusion from collagenic structure when proper conditions are provided. To
ensure a high rate of external diffusion a sufficient mixing rate has to be maintain.
The experimental conditions have been chosen after many preliminary tests which
provided information about parameter ranges to be covered. The experiments have
been done using sulphuric acid with concentration between 5 and 20%, temperature 20,
30 and 40°C, and continuous mixing at a rate of 300 rpm. The temperature was
maintained at a constant level using a water thermostat (GFL-Velp) and the mixing was
achieved using an overhead stirrer (Heidolph RZR2021) for 30 minutes.
The experiments were conducted to determine conditions for a high chromium removal
contacting 10g sludge with 100 ml sulphuric acid solutions. The chromium sulphate
solutions was filtered on low porosity filter paper and analyzed.
Cr(OH)3 Precipitation
The oldest and most frequently used method for removal of trivalent chromium from
wastewater is the precipitation (Joseph,1985; Marie,1977; Constantin, 1980; Daigle,
1986; Boast, 1988; Santiago, 1993) Research on the efficiency of various alkali such as
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, calcium carbonate,
basic magnesium carbonate and magnesium oxide, showed that chromium in tanning
liqours can be converted into denser precipitates when less soluble precipitants are
used.
Chromium can be recovered from the exhaust liquors by addition of sodium hydroxide
lead to a fast precipitation and voluminous sludge but polyelectrolytes can be added to
facilitate coagulation. The precipitated hydroxide is separated from the supernatant,
which is discharged to the effluent. The precipitate has to be re-dissolved as soon as
possible, because it becomes less soluble with time. The fresh chromium hydroxide
sludge is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to get a chromium sulphate
concentrated solution.
149
Chrome recovery by precipitation is a simple and effective process (chromium hydroxide

has a very low solubility product Ksp=6.7x10-31), but special analytical control and
equipment is needed to control the pH value and to dewater the chromium hydroxide
sludge.
The removal of Cr(III) from sludge has to be done with a minimum of reagents (low
content of final discharged wastewater) and a high removal rate. The results of the first
investigation step revealed that the variation of concentration between 5 and 20% of
sulphuric acid does not produce an important increase in removal rate. Therefore, the
solution of chromium sulphate was prepared contacting 60 g sludge with 600 ml 5%
sulphuric acid at 40°C. Afterwards, the system was filtered and in the solution the
chromium hydroxide was precipitated with 20% NaOH solution until pH=7.5 (pH-meter
Sper Scientific). The precipitated hydroxide was separated from the supernatant
(concentration 0.5 mg/l), in the first step, in a settling operation and in the second step
the resulted sludge was doubled centrifugated (centrifuge Hettich Universal 32) and
supernatant removed. The sludge could be utilized to prepared baso-chrome for reusing
in the tanning process. Therefore, chromium hydroxide sludge was weighted (32.5g) and
re-dissolved in 4 ml concentrated sulphuric acid to get a chromium sulphate
concentrated solution (1.26%).
Analytical Methods
Chromium was analyzed as total chromium(VI) using a standard method (STAS 7884-
91). Chromium(III) was oxidized with potassium permanganate in acid solution and
resulted chromium(VI) reacted with diphenylcarbazide resulting a red-violet complex.
Previously the presence of Cr(VI) in sludge has checked. Its concentration was below
method detection limit (0.02mg/l). The red-violet complex was colorimetered at 545 nm
using a spectrophotometer UV-VIS CINTRA 5.
The sludge content in total chromium was determined using the above mentioned
method after digestion in sulphuric acid 96% (ρ=1.84 g/cm3). The water content of
sludge has been determined through heating at 110°C in an oven (Carbolite 303), and
the ash content heating a sample at 1100°C in a furnace (Carbolite).
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The mixed sludge from the tanyards of some Romanian tanneries, accumulated during
the improper wastewater collection, has to be safe disposed after the removal of as
much as possible chromium(III). The investigation presented in this work emphasized
that the temperature in the range between 20 and 60°C and sulphuric acid concentration
between 2.5 and 20% have not a great influence on chromium removal efficiency (see
figure 2).
Removal efficiency laid in a range between 75 and 90%. Therefore, to be able to reach
low costs in "mixed sludge" treatment, we consider that a 5% sulphuric acid
concentration and 40°C represent reasonable conditions for achieving a satisfactory
removal of chromium. Higher temperatures and sulphuric acid concentrations could
promote the unbinding of the collagen-chromium bonds.
150
95
Chromium removal efficiency, %

90
85
20 grd C
80 40 grd C
75 60grd C
70
65
60
0 5 10 15 20 25
Acid concentratiion, %
Figure 3. Dependence of chromium removal efficiency on temperature and sulphuric

acid concentration
The final chromium sulphate solution concentration was quite low, but filtering in filter
press are known for giving very good results in water removal. Also the sludge could be
thickled adding polyelectrolites at chromium precipitation stage. Further experimental
works will assess the possibility of chromium concentration in solutions and its recycling.
REFERENCES
Boast D. A., Large scale chrome recovery from chrome wash liquors. J. Amer. Leather
Chemists Assoc., 83, 17-23, (1988).
Constantin J. M. and Stockmann G. B.; Partial replacement of chromium, Technicuir, 14,

49-51, (1980).
Daigle R. P. and Benett D. J., Effluent chrome recovery., J. Amer. Leather Chemists
Assoc., 81, 305-311, (1986).
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) 2001, Reference Document on Best
Available Techniques for the Tanning of Hides and Skins, European IPPC Bureau,
http://eippcb.jrc.es
Joseph S. and Langerwerf A., Trivalent chromium, a recyclable raw material of the
leather industry: a questionable genotoxic substance, J. Soc. Leather Tech. Chemists,
69, 166 Ludvík J., Chrome management in the tanyard, UNIDO (2000)
Maire M. S., A comparison of tannery chrome recovery systems, J. Amer. Leather

Chemists Assoc., 72, 404-418, (1977).
Santiago C. M., Jr., Isaac D. B., Anglo P. G., Garcia B. M., Silverio C. M., Esguerra R. L.,
Rodillo F. C. and Bigol M. B., Chromium from leather tanning effluent, Philippine J. Sci.,
122, 41-58, (1993).-174, (1985).
151
A NEW REVOLUTIONARY BINDER
GYPCEMENT®
Made of Gypsum (Ca S04)
www.gypcement.com 1
Gil – Gypscement International Limited
Yves Kupfermunz
GIL International
27-30 Merchant’s Quai – Dublin 8
Republic of Irland
www.gypcement.com
E-mail yves.kupfermunz@alta.be
dr. ing. Anca Tuhai
ENINVEST SA
Bdul Lacul Tei nr. 1 - 3, sector 2, Bucuresti
Tel. +40-1-211 94 46 / Fax +40-1-211 58 92
www.eninvest.ro
atuhai@eninvest.ro
Two types of Gypsum
• Natural Gypsum (can be found in mineral form in most countries)
• Industrial Gypsum can be found as industrial waste as follows:
The Challenge:
• Plasters are fragile and the noble part of plaster
production, Anhydrite III, is very unstable
• The dehydratation phenomenon of gypsum
Ca S04 2H20 during heat treatment does not follow
well established stages
• Anhydrite III detected during the research on
classical methods can not be produced consistantly
A new technology: YES
The objectives of the new technology
• Transform totally or almost totally calcium
sulphate into stabilized anhydrite III.
• Reach 80 % minimum of stabilized anhydrite III
to annihilate any forming of semi-hydrates.
Research and experiments
The research and experiments were lead jointly by:
• Mr. Dussel, Mr. Jean COUTURIER – Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées
• The mineralogy and crystallography laboratory of Toulouse, FR
• The laboratory LERM of ARLES, FR
• The Scientific and Technical Centre of Buildings Industry“C.S.T.B.”, FR
• The CEMETE/E.D.F. (Electricity De France), FR
The solution
ANHYDRITE III GYPCEMENT®
• Thanks to an innovative process technology, specific and patented, which allows the super
crystallisation of the gypsum crystals, a generation of new hydraulic binder allowing
extremely diversified and promising applications is now on the market
• The invention (3 patents) concerns the production of stabilised and soluble Anhydrite III
with revolutionary mechanical properties and characteristics.
• Gypcement ® is neither a plaster nor a cement and thus requires a particular admixture and
additive approach
• Specific “GYPCEMENT®” can be tailor-made for specific objectives and applications combining
Anhydrite III with mineral loads or admixtures
• Gypcement® is a generic name of the products.
RESULTS
• An exceptional mechanical strength
• to compression: 20 to 95 MPa at 28 days subject mix
• to flexion: 10 to 20 MPa subject mix
• Very high initial strengths at 6 hours and at 7 days
• Weight and thickness reduction
• An adjustable setting time from 4 minutes to 4 hours, resulting in a considerable
gain of time at the implementation or at the prefabrication or moulding.
• Remarkable adherence to all supports.
• Very strong thermal insulation and soundproofing.
• Very low shrinkage : lower as 0,2 mm/m
• Water absorption at 48 hours: 3 to 4 percents
• Chemical : SO3 content > 60 %
Anhydrite III content > 85 %
• Physical: fineness in the order of 7 m2/g
Grain size at 63 µm 0 %
at 40 µm 19 %
at 25 µm 61 %
Specific gravity 2,48 g/cm3
Apparent density 0,98 g/cm3
Comparative table
Behaviour with setting time (binder)
Improvement to compression
MPa/1 h MPa/2 h MPa/3 h MPa/4 h MPa/5 h MPa/6 h MPa/7 h MPa/8 h
0,5 10 16,5 20 22,5
0 0 0,5 2 4,5 8 11 13,5
Gypcements
Cements Portland
Plasters & Cements mechanical strenght
Compression strenght and strenght increase
Mechanical compression strenght improvement datas
MPa/2 days MPa/4 days MPa/6 days MPa/8 days MPa/12 days
Gypcements 40 62 64 67 70
Portland cements 30 35 38 39 43
Plasters & Gypcements 22 27 32 34 36
Plasters 10 12,5 15 16 16
legend
blue curve Gypcements ®
purple curve Portland cements
yellow curve Plasters & Gypcements ®
green curve Plasters
GYPCEMENT®
Applications
TECHNICAL FORMULATIONS
PERFORMANCES AND U N° OMEGA N° MORTARS N° FIBER GLASS N° CONCRETES N° HARD
KARACTERISTICS 2 GYPCEMENT 6 FLOORS 9 COMPOSITES 7 23 PLASTERS
A Compression strength MPa 95 39 32 78 80 45 37 33
B Bending strength MPa 17 5 4 13 17 11 4 3
C GYPCEMENT® % 7 15 30 7 8 15 25 100
D CEMENT % 23 15 23 22 15 75 P*
E AGGREGATES Sand % 23 70 70 20 28 28
8
Gravel % 45 42 42
Dross %
F ADDITIVES Hydro % 1,5 1,5 2,5 1,5 1,5
Fluid % 1,0 1,5 1,5 2,0 1,5 1,5
Slower % 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
G HYGROMETRY % 4 3,5 3,5 3 3,5 4 10 10
H WATER PROOF % 93 80 80 93 80 50 15 20
I EXPANSION MIC 150 130 120 120 125 125 150 120
J SHRINKAGE MIC 75 40 40 40 39 37 40 40
K WATER % 16 20 20 16 19 19 22 20
L CLAY CONCRETES %
M FAST SETTING (Hour) H 1 1 3/4 3/4 1 1 1/5 1/5
N FIBER GLASS % 3 3 3
O GYPCEMENT / CEMENT % 20/80 50/50 100 20/80 20/80 50/50 25/75 100
Nota : All theses results must be checked up with all kind of GYPSUMS and aggregates
* P : PPlaster
Benefits for the environment
•Recycling industrial gypsum
•Inerting of flying ashes
•Inerting of industrial sludge
•Cleaning up sludge of polluted sea
•Clay concretes
•Use in agriculture fertilization
•GYPCEMENT is not aggressive to human being
Ecological factories
Without chimneys
• Without odors
• Without noises
• Without pollution
• Economic: amortization in 3 – 4 years for medium size factory
• Small dimensions entirely flexible, from 10.000 mT / year to 300.000 mT/ year
• Fast manufacturing process : approx 40 minutes
• Potential of small mobile factories
The Gypsum International Research Center with its pilot
production unit and its laboratory is located in Arles,
France.
GIRC is equiped to conduct:
• Analysis of natural and industrial Gypsum
• Technical description for selected applications
• Test
• Research and experiment of new application
• Sampling
• Change analysis
GIRC is supported by a tecnical and scientific committee
PARTNERSHIPS
Partnerships can be entered into and be based upon licence contracts
Potential partners for a specific geographical area can be :
• Companies having raw materials at their disposal
• Companies willing to produce Anhydrite III for their own use or for resale
• Investors drawn by the economical advantage
A NEW REVOLUTIONARY BINDER
GYPCEMENT®
Made of Gypsum (Ca S04)
www.gypcement.com
EXPERIMENT REGARDING ESTABLISHING THE HOUSEHOLD

WASTE STRUCTURE IN A TOWN1
Florian Grigore, Vladimir Rojanschi

Ecological University of Bucharest – Basarabia str., Nr. 250
Tel: 0212556256; E-mail: gdflorian@k.ro, vrojansc@fx.ro
ABSTRACT
In Romania the household waste has usually turned into a problem due to their increased quantity and
negative impact on our environment. This experiment of identifying household waste structure implies
the following stages:
- gathering main data
- choosing samples
- sample locations
- gathering samples
- filing samples
- physical-chemical analysis
- assessment
Data about the resulted waste quantity, structure and origin are required in order to have an effective
waste management planning in a town.
1
741
FIBROID SORBENTS FOR PURIFICATION OF AIR,

WASTE WATER AND DRINKING WATER1
1
R. A. Khaydarov, 1O. U. Gapurova, 1R.R. Khaydarov, 2S. Y. Cho
1
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
2
Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT
Method of making ion exchange sorbents using dust polyester fibroid filters as the raw materials was
developed. Chemical properties of the sorbents were studied. Capacity of the obtained cation-
exchange sorbents is 0.25 meq/g (for Cu2+) and anion - exchange is 0.45 meq/g (for Cr6+). The filters
can be used for removing metal ions (Zn, Ni, Cu, Sb, Co, Cd, Cr, etc.) and organic compounds (M-
32
P, M- 131I, M-99Mo+99mTc, etc.) from water and also organic and inorganic chemical compounds (e.g.
phenols, formaldehyde, ammonia, HCl, HF, SO2 , SO3) from air.
Keywords: air purification, fibroid solvent, filters, pollution
INTRODUCTION
Purification of air, waste water and drinking water from radionuclides, heavy metal
ions, and organic contaminants is one of the most important problems at present day.
One of widely used methods for solving this problem is the ionic exchange method
based on using different types of resins and fibroid sorbents.
An advantage of the fibroid ion-exchange sorbents over resin is in high velocity of a

sorbtion process, effective regeneration and small value of pressure drop of the
sorbent layer for purificated water and air flow [1,2]. The specific surface of the
fibroid sorbents is (2 – 3). 104 m2/ kg, i.e. 102 times greater than that of the resin (102
m2/ kg). Owing to that fact the velocity of the sorbtion process on the fibroid sorbents
is much greater than that on the resin. For the same height of layer (0,01 m) and the
air flow rate (0,2 m/s) the pressure drop of the resin is two times greater and the
filtration surface of the filters is 10-30 times less than those of the fibroid sorbents.
The air permeability for this filters is 140 - 500 L/m2. s, the pressure drop is 200-300
Pa. The main drawback of the fibroid sorbents has a very low specific weight value of
50 - 200 kg/m3.
A number of types of fibroid filters are produced in various plants, but most of them
are intended only for purification of air from dust and aerosols, and they do not have
ion-exchange properties. The purpose of this work is developing the technology of
producing dust fibroid filters to give them ion-exchange properties. This approach is
economically more effective in many cases because that does not require
construction of new plants.
One of the widely produced dust filters is the polyester fibroid filter. The process of
the filter production includes their treatment by acrylonitrilic emulsion for improving
1
153
mechanical characteristics. This feature can be used in the technology of producing

the cation- and anion-exchange sorbents.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
Polyester fibroid filter with surface density of 0.270 kg/m2 and thickness of 10 mm
was utilized as the raw material for making ion–exchange sorbents. Mass of
polyacrylonitrilic layer on the surface of fibers was 15% of total mass of the filter.
1-10% solutions of NaOH and 0.5-5% solutions of polyethylenimine (-NHCH2CH2-)x[-

(CH2CH2NH2)CH2CH2-]y were used for treatment of the polyester fibroid filters to
make ion-exchange sorbents.
The 0.001M CuCl2 solution labeled by 64Cu and K2Cr2O7 solution (pH 2) labeled by
51
Cr were used to find out the best technology of making cation- and anion-
exchange sorbents, respectively. Radionuclides 64Cu and 51Cr were made by
irradiating CuCl2 and K2Cr2O7 at the nuclear reactor of the Institute of Nuclear
Physics (Tashkent, Uzbekistan). Ge(Li) detector with a resolution of about 1.9 keV at
1.33 MeV and a 4096-channel multichannel analyzer were used to detect γ-quantum
from radionuclides. The areas under γ-peaks of radionuclides 64Cu (half-life T1/2 is
equal to 12.8 h, energy of the γ-peak Eγ is equal to 0.511 MeV) and 51Cr (half-life T1/2
is equal to 27.72 d, energy of the γ-peak Eγ is equal to 0.320 MeV) were measured to
calculate the amount of Cu and Cr respectively.
Other radionuclides used in the investigations of sorbents characteristics as the label

of ions and organic substances are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Radionuclides used as labels

Elements Radionuclides T1/2 Eγ , MeV
M-32P 32
P 14.3 d Eβ=1.7
51
Cr(VI) Cr 27.73d 0.320
60
Co(II) Co 5.27 y 1.17, 1.33
65
Ni(II) Ni 2.5 h 1.480
64
Cu(II) Cu 12.7 h 0.511
65
Zn(II) Zn 244.1 d 1.115
82
Br(I) Br 35.3 h 0.776
89
Sr(II) Sr 50.5d 0.909
M-99Mo+99mTc 99
Mo+99mTc 66 h (6.0h) 0.140
115
Cd(II) Cd 53.5 h 0.336
124
Sb(II) Sb 60.2 d 1.691
M-131I 131
I 8.04 d 0.364
134
Cs(I) Cs 2.07y 0.605
The exchange capacity Q , meq/g, was calculated by Equation (1):
Q = (A0 – Ae )/(A0 – AB) . B/W, (1)
154
where B is amount of carrier, meq; W is weight of exchanger, g; A0 is the count rate

of the original solution, Ae is the count rate of the solution at equilibrium, AB is the
background count.
The distribution coefficient Kd and the percent adsorption P were calculated by

Equations 2,3:
Kd = ((A0 – AB )/ (Ae – AB) – 1). V/W, (2)
P = 100(1 - (Ae – AB) /(A0 – AB)), (3)
where V is total volume of the solution, ml.
The sorption processes of ions from water in dynamic conditions were studied by
using columns with diameter of 12 mm; the weight of sorbents was 1 g.
Equipment for studying the sorption process of chemical substances from air
consisted of following parts: Air Pump model GAST of MGF Corporation, Flowmeter
LPM AIR, Gas Chromatograph "Cvet-2" or Gas Spectrophotometer. Air and studied
gas from balloon were mixed in bulb to produce necessary concentration of gas.
Valves regulated relation between gas and air. The pump produced vacuum and
mixed air with gas passing through the cartridge with filter and bulb for sampling gas
for analysis by gas chromatography or spectrophotometer. The velocity of the gas
passing through the filter with surface density of 70 mg/cm2 was in a range from 0.5
cm/s to 1 m/s. Sorption of phenol, formaldehyde, ammonia was studied.
An alteration of quality of linkage between the polyester fiber and polyacrylonitrile

layer after chemical treatment of the polyester filters was determined by the following
method. Air from the compressor passed through tested filter with diameter of 60 mm
and through the paper filter within 1 hour. The mass of taking away particles of the
polyacrylonitrile layer was determined by weighing the air filter AFA – X11-18 (made
in Russia) with diameter of 60 mm and used as the value to characterize the quality
of linkage between the polyester fiber and polyacrylonitrile layer and to change the
most attractive technology.
RESULTS
Kinetics of saponification of the fibers and the alteration of quality of linkage between
the polyester fiber and polyacrylonitrile layer after chemical treatment of the filters
were studied in the range of NaOH solution concentration from 1 to 10%. For
example, the results for concentration of 5% are given in Fig.1 and Fig. 2. Increasing
the temperature of treating solution and duration of treatment cause filter capacity
increase, but linkage between the polyester fiber and polyacrylonitrile layer is
attenuated and layer begins scattering. Thus the treatment by 5% solution of NaOH
at 45-50oC during 1 hour was selected as the optimal condition of the cation-
exchange sorbents production. Capacity (Cu2+) of the sorbents is 0.25 meq/g.
Anion-exchange sorbents are made by treatment of cation - exchange filters in H-

form by water solution of polyethylenimine. Amine groups attach to carboxy groups
by electrostatic forces. Kinetics of anion-exchange groups' formation at
concentrations of polyethylenimine from 0.5 to 5% and the temperature range from
20o to 70oC were studied. Fig. 3 demonstrates kinetics curve at 40oC and
155
concentration of polyethylenimine 1% and Fig. 4 shows dependence of exchange

capacities against the concentration of polyethylenimine at 40oC and treatment time
of 8 hours. The treatment of the cation-exchange sorbents by 1% solution of
polyethylenimine at 40oC during 8-10 hours was selected as the optimal condition for
the anion-exchange sorbents production. Capacity (Cr6+) of the sorbents is 0.45
meq/g.
Removing heavy metal ions (Zn, Ni, Cu, Sb, Co, Cd, Cr, etc.) and organic molecules
labeled by radionuclides (M- 32P, M- 131I, M-99Mo+99mTc, etc.) from water was studied.
Dependence of the distribution coefficient Kd for different ions and organic
substances against pH of the solutions is presented in Table 2. Specific behavior of
Kd of Co(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) is explained by dependence of relation between Mn+
form and hydrolyzed forms in the solution with pH [3]. Influence of additional foreign
cations Na+ and K+ on the adsorption of different metals at pH=7 is presented in
Table 3.
Table 2
Distribution coefficient Kd (mL/g) for different ions and organic substances

(C0 = 10 mg/L, V=50mL, W=0.5 g)
Eleme Exchan pH of solutions

nts ger 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Co(II) Cationic 300 260 230 200 170 100 126 138 150 160
Ni(II) 0 0 0 0 0 0 430 510 780 1000
Cu(II) 125 600 870 920 990 750 650 560 460 340
Zn(II) 140 400 600 480 400 560 170 140 900 800
Sr(II) 230 200 400 500 400 190 0 0 600 900
Cd(II) 11 0 0 0 0 0 190 800 0 17
Sb(II) 980 25 45 100 300 100 0 0 46 35
Cs(I) 260 830 680 520 380 0 97 75 70 11
Cr(VI) Anionic 190 150 130 120 240 115 90 150
M- 32P 200 100 200 900 190 120 400 400 0
M-131I 150 100 0 320 0 0
99
Mo+ 320 300 270 0 150
99m
Tc 0 0 0 250 110 300 150
310 280 260 0 190 0 500 140
0 0 0 230 0 190 500
290 280 0 210 0
0 0 240 023 200
0 00 0
156
Table 3
Influence of additional foreign cations Na+ and K+
on the distribution coefficient Kd (mL/g) of different ions at pH=7
Elements Na+ K+ Na+ + K+

10 mg/L 100 mg/L 10 mg/L 100 mg/L 100+100
mg/L
Co(II) 130 140 130 140 140
Ni(II) 510 300 520 420 500
Cu(II) 600 460 550 530 530
Zn(II) 1700 800 1700 800 800
Cd(II) 38 34 50 32 20
Sb(II) 115 115 115 115 115
Adsorbed ions were eluted with 1M HCl solution at a flow rate of 2 mL per minute
and 1 mL fractions were collected each time for radiometric measurements. As
example in Fig. 5 it is shown the elution profiles of copper, cobalt and cadmium
where activity in count per minute (CPM) per fraction are plotted against the volume
of eluant. About 95% of adsorbed ions were recovered by elution with 30 mL HCl
solution. The capacity decrease ∆Q % against a number N of regenerations was
studied. Test results are given in Fig. 6.
Removing the acidic gases is based on reactions of interaction salts of weak acids
with stronger acids appearing in the water which contains in the sorbent:
RCOONa + SO2 + H2O → 2RCOOH + Na 2SO3 (1)
RCOONa +HF → RCOOH + NaF (2)
RCOONa + HCl → RCOOH + NaCl (3)
and SO3 is removed by means of the reaction
RCOONa+SO3 +H2 O → RCOOH + NaHSO4 , (4)
where R is polymeric matrix of carboxylic chemosorbent.
The salts remain on the sorbent's fibroid surface, the sorbent can be regenerated by
diluted solution of alkali or soda.
Efficiency of the sorbent depends on the air humidity as the reaction between the
sorbent and gas is realized through the stage of the interaction the gas and water
containing in the sorbent. Polarity of the gases influence on their interaction with
water. HF and HCl owing to their high velocity of dissolving can be used at the lower
air humidity than SO2.
Test results of cation-exchange filters for removing SOx, HF and HCl are presented in
Table 4. The surface density of the filter was 52 mg/cm2, the velocity of the air was
26 cm/sec. Tests show that in case of low concentration of SOx, HF and HCl their
percent removal is greaterr than in case of those high concentration. Fig. 7
demonstrates dependence of the removal percent of HCl, HF and SO2 against the
157
volume of air passed through the sorbents (mass of the sorbent is 1 g, concentration
of gases is 6 mg/L). Regeneration of the sorbents can be made by 0.1M solution of
Na2CO3 or NaOH.
Table 4
Test results of the sorbents for removal of SOx, HF and HCl from air
Parameter Influent Effluent Percent Capacity,

Concentration, Concentratio of mg/g
mg/m3 n, Removal
mg/m3 %
SO2 210 10 95 5.8
6800 1200 82
SO3 130 5 96 3.0
HF 55 1,1 98 6.3
8170 1480 82
HCl 120 2,4 98 6.8
6300 1300 80
Sorption of phenol, formaldehyde, ammonia from air by described sorbents in

dynamic conditions was studied. Some characteristics of the sorbents in Cu form are
given in Table 5. The velocity of air passing through the sorbents with surface density
70 mg/cm2 was 0.85 cm/s.
Table 5
Test results of the sorbents in Cu-form for removal of phenol,
formaldehyde and ammonia from air
Influent Effluent Percent of Capacity,

Concentratio Concentration, Removal mg/g
n, mg/m3 mg/m3 %
Phenol 8,7 0,064 99,3 24
Formaldehyde 16,9 2,9 82,2 20
Ammonia 23,5 1,2 95,0 24
Dependence of the removal percent of phenol and ammonia against the volume of
air passed through the sorbents (mass of the sorbent is 0.5 g, concentration of
ammonia and phenol is 0,34 mg/L) is given in Fig.8. Water was used for desorbtion
of ammonia and 0.01N solution of NaOH was used for desorbtion of phenols.
CONCLUSIONS
Described results of investigations show that the chemically modified polyester fibroid
filters have satisfactory adsorption characteristics. These cation- and anion-exchange
filters can be used for removing metal ions (Zn, Ni, Cu, Sb, Co, Cd, Cr, etc.) and
organic compounds (M- 32P, M- 131I, M-99Mo+99mTc, etc.) form water and organic and
inorganic chemical compounds (from phenols, formaldehyde, ammonia, HCl, HF,
158
SO2 , SO3 ) from air. Capacity of the cation-exchange sorbents is 0.25 meq/g (Cu2+)
and anion - exchange is 0.45 meq/g (Cr6+).
At present new developed ionic-exchange sorbents are used in drinking water filters
and mini-systems for removing organic and inorganic contaminants, in the equipment
for waste water purification from oil (at atomic power stations, car-washing stations,
etc), from heavy metal ions (at electroplating plants, matches plants, leather and skin
treating plants).
REFERENCES
1. M.P. Zverev, Fibroid chemosorbents, Chemistry, Moscow, 1981.
2. A. Ashirov, Ion-exchange purification of waste water, solutions and gases,

Chemistry, Leningrad, 1983.
3. J. Kragten, Atlas of Metal-Ligand Equilibria in Aqueous Solution, Ellis Horwood

Ltd., Chichester, 1978.
159
APPENDIX
Fig.1. Kinetics of saponification of the fibers in 5% NasOH solution at 250C (1), 300C
(2), 400C (3), 500C (4), 700C (5) and 900C (6).
Fig.2. Change of quality of linkage between polyester fibers and polyacrylonitrile

layer after chemical treatment during t minutes at 300C (1), 500C(2), 600C (3) and
700C(4).
160
Fig.3. Kinetics of anion-exchange groups formation at 40oC in 1% polyethylenimine

solution.
Fig.4. Dependence of exchange capacities against the concentration of

polyethylenimine at 40oC.
161
Fig. 5. Elution profiles of copper, cobalt and cadmium against the volume of eluant.
Fig.6. The capacity ∆Q decrease against a number N of regenerations.
162
Fig.7. Dependence of the removal percent of HCl (1), HF (2) and SO2 (3) against the
volume of air passed through the sorbents.
Fig.8. Dependence of the removal percent of phenol and ammonia against the
volume of air passed through the sorbents.
163
ENERGY EFFECTIVE METHOD OF WATER AND AIR

PURIFICATION FROM BACTERIA1
R.R. Khaydarov1, R.A. Khaydarov1, R.L. Olsen2, S. E. Rogers3

1
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
2
CDM, Denver, USA
3
Rogers Associates, Denver, USA
ABSTRACT
The investigation described in this article examined an oligodynamic water disinfection
method employing metal ions (Ag+, Cu2+, Au) generated by an electrolytic process. The
efficacy of using different silver/copper/gold combinations (within the limits of current drinking
water regulations) for killing E. coli, Legionella pneumophila, Salmonella, and other pathogens
was examined. The study investigated the dependence of bacteria killing time against metal
ion concentration, different initial bacteria concentrations (from 103 to 1012 CFU/L), and the
influence of different ion (Cl-, SO42-, S2-, Fe2+, Fe3+)) concentrations on the disinfection
process.
Keywords: disinfection, oligodynamic method, pathogen, water.
INTRODUCTION
Potable water supply systems, water storage systems, cooling water in air-
conditioners, and swimming pools are some of the most attractive and
vulnerable targets for bioterrorism. Moreover, in many developing countries,
fresh water resources are limited and unevenly distributed, and drinking water
often contains extraordinarily large quantities of bacteria.
One of the water disinfection methods used to mitigate those potential threats
is the oligodynamic method. And one of its modifications is based on using
electrochemical processes: electrolytically introducing into the water reactive
metal ions from an electrode (Kulsky 1982). Electrodes are placed into the
water stream and a current is applied to the electrode to cause the controlled
release of metal ions. Metal ions bind to the bacterial cell wall, causing cell-
wall disruption and lysis during the disinfection process, although studies have
shown that bacteria have many means to defend against heavy metal intrusion
(Silver 1996).
Different materials are used as the electrodes: silver (Kulsky 1982), copper
(Munson et.al. 2000), and alloys of silver and copper in varying proportions
(generally ranging 10 percent silver/90 percent copper to 30 percent silver/70
percent copper (Munson et. al. 2000; Silver Institute 1999). For example,
more than 125 leading hospitals in the United States have installed
silver/copper ionization systems to eradicate L. pneumophila from their hot
water systems (Silver Institute, 1999).
The concentration of electrolytically introduced metals in the disinfected water

is of significant concern, particularly for potable applications. Maximum
1
164
concentrations of metals in drinking water are regulated at various levels in

different countries. For example, copper is regulated in the United
States at a concentration of 1.3 mg/L (which is an action level, not a Maximum
Contaminant Level); silver is regulated at a concentration of 0.1 mg/L as a
secondary (i.e., non-enforceable) constituent because of its aesthetic effect,
the discoloration of plumbing fixtures. The German and Russian drinking
water regulation limit is 0.1 mg/L for Cu, and 0.01 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L for Ag,
respectively. The concentration of metal ions required for disinfection is
sometimes greater than the regulatory limits and as a result, the oligodynamic
method cannot be used (Rohr et. al. 2000). Moreover, the concentration and
relation of metal ions in water (i.e., its disinfecting efficacy) strongly depend on
factors such as the composition of electrodes, the water flow rate near the
electrode surface (to eliminate the gradient of ion concentrations in the layer
of water near the electrode surface), and the concentration of cations and
anions in the water.
The objective of this investigation was to find the optimal alloy for different
bacteria, and to improve existing oligodynamic methods.
Experiments were conducted with following bacterial cultures: E. coli (272),

(Strain 33218), (NCTC 10538), S. typhimurium (251), Fecal Coliforms, Typhoid
– Paratyphoid, L. pneumophila, Salmonella, and V. cholera at the temperature
range from 18 °C to 36 °C. The cultivation, culture enrichment and the testing
bacteria were performed following the Standard Methods (USSR, Russia) for
Testing Chemical Procedures (Drinking Water. Hygienical requirements and
quality control, 1982) for the evaluation of disinfection.
Electrodes with different alloy compositions (Ag from 39 to 100 percent, Cu

from 0 to 60 percent, Au from 0 to 0.2 percent) were tested. The electrodes
had various shapes: a ball with diameter of 5 mm, a disc with diameter of 20
mm and a rectangle 20 mm x 30 mm. Alloy electrodes were placed into the
water pipe and a current was applied to the electrode to cause the release of
Ag and Cu as ions, and Au as a colloidal element. The distance between
electrodes was varied from 8 mm to 20 mm. The test water was recirculated
through the test apparatus. A control valve regulated the flow rate across the
electrodes. A constant-current generator established a stable electric current
between the electrodes, independent of water conductivity.
A portable experimental water-disinfecting device was constructed. It consists

of a 12 V battery, the constant-current generator and electrodes with the alloy
composition Ag/Cu/Au in the ratio - 79.9 percent /20 percent /0.1 percent
(Khaydarov et al., 1997, 2001).
Deluxe Meter with Ion Measurements (Cole-Parmer Benchtop pH Meter) and

Cole-Parmer Combination Ion Selective Electrodes were used to determine
concentrations of Ag and Cu ions in the water. Concentrations of Cu and Au
were determined by neutron activation analysis. Water samples were
irradiated at the nuclear reactor of the Institute of Nuclear Physics (Tashkent,
Uzbekistan). Ge(Li) detector with a resolution of about 1.9 keV at 1.33 MeV
165
and a 6144-channel multichannel analyzer were used. The areas under the γ-
peaks of the radionuclides 64Cu (half-life of 12.8 h, energy of the γ-peak is
0.511 MeV) and 198Au (half-life of 64.8 h, energy of the γ-peak is 0.412 MeV)
were measured to calculate the concentrations of Cu and Au, respectively.
Disinfecting efficiency of the electrodes was tested in several certified

independent labs and universities during the period of 1998 through 2002.
Natural waters typically contain concentrations of the chloride (Cl-) ion.

During the electrolytic process, the concentration of Ag+ ions in thin water layer
near the surface of anode increases considerably and AgCl is formed
(solubility product of 1.8 x 10-10), controlling the concentration of Ag+ to low
levels. Similarly, metal hydroxides (e.g., Cu(OH)2 ) are formed near the
cathode. Thus, the concentrations of metal ions (Ag+, Cu2+) in solution and
their relation usually differ from their relation in the electrode alloy and from the
value calculated by Faraday's laws of electrolysis.
The concentration of metal ions (Ci) in water can be increased up to the value
corresponding to the complete dissolved mass of the electrodes (∆me) by
using the water flow between electrodes. The minimum value of the water
flow rate, Vmin, (when the concentration Ci is not less than the value
corresponding to the dissolved mass of the electrodes 0.9 ∆me) can be
described by empirical formula:
Vmin = a i, (1)
Where i is the electric current density, Amp/m2. The factor a = 0.06 ± 0.02,
and the confidence limit corresponds to the level of significance of 99 percent.
The standard deviation of a is large here because of influence of flow
turbulence.
Disinfection can be described by the following empirical formula:
N(t) = N0 exp (-Ct/K) (2)
or Ct = -K ln(N/N0)
Where N0 is the initial concentration of bacteria; N is the final concentration of

bacteria; C is the effective concentration of metal ions in the water for a given
ion collection, mg/L; K is the coefficient of resistance for a given ion collection,
depending on bacteria types and the concentrations of cations and anions in
the water (that can react with disinfecting metal ions); t is the time after
introducing the metal ions into the water, i.e., disinfecting time, sec. This
formula shows that the concentration of metal ions C and time t necessary for
water disinfection depend logarithmically on the initial concentration of
bacteria, N0.
Experimental results presented in Table 1 demonstrate the synergistic

disinfecting effects obtained by using alloys with various silver/copper/gold
166
combinations. In this table, the coefficient K is given for each composition of

electrodes. The coefficient K has a large standard deviation (with p = 0.68)
because of the low reproducibility of determining the concentrations of
bacteria. Concentrations of disinfecting ions in the water can be recalculated
by using the value of concentration of Ag ions for each composition of
electrodes.
Table 1 shows that the best disinfection is obtained by using an alloy of

silver/copper/gold composition with concentrations of metals in the ratio 70 to
90 percent/10 to 30 percent/0.1 to 0.2 percent, respectively. These particular
compositions allow reaching the minimum value of the coefficient K, and
provide the considerable reduction of metal ions concentrations in the water in
comparison with other combinations.
Table 2 summarizes coefficients K for different pathogens and disinfecting

times when employing the electrodes described above.
The influence of different cations and anions (e.g., Cl-, SO42-, S2-, Fe2+, Fe3+)
in the water on disinfecting process was investigated. Test results using the
electrodes described above are given in Table 3. Initial concentration of E. coli
in these experiments was 107 CFU/L, and the concentration of Ag+ ions in the
water was 0.1 mg/L. These results show that only Cl- and Fe2+ ions react with
disinfecting metal ions and increase the disinfecting time (i.e., increase the
coefficient K).
The portable experimental device with the electrode alloy described above
has been tested within last 5-year period in different laboratories and
universities. The study investigated the dependence of disinfecting time
against effective concentration C, initial bacteria concentration N0 (from 103 to
1012 CFU/L), and organism type. In the Central Sanitary and Epidemiological
Laboratory of the Ministry of Defense of Uzbekistan, this device was tested on
two contaminated water samples containing 108 and 109 CFU/L E. coli.
Electrode insertion times of 3 minutes, 5 minutes, and 10 minutes were
evaluated over a 20-day period following disinfection, to determine the rate of
bacterial regrowth. The electric current between electrodes was set at 5 mA.
Some of test results are given in Table 4. It should be noted that insertion
time in these experiments is greater than obtained in laboratory tests. This is
a consequence of the formation of oxide films on the electrode surfaces.
Similar tests of the experimental device with alloy electrodes were performed
by the Department of Pathology of the University Sains of Malaysia in 1999.
Pond water samples (5 L) were each contaminated with 5 grams of fecal
matter. Initial bacteriological quality was estimated at 5 x 1012 CFU/L
coliforms. Insertion time was 30 minutes. Samples were evaluated 1 hour, 3
hours, 1 day, and 1 week following treatment. “No growth” was reported for
each of these samples, compared to mixed coliform growth in the control (i.e.,
undisinfected) samples. Tests of the portable experimental device made in
Moscow Medical Academy (Russia) and at EN Technology, Inc. (Korea) have
confirmed the results described above.
167
One of the prospective uses of the method described here could be its
application to air purification in building heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems by disinfecting the water used in recirculating
systems. The method described in this paper has been tested in air
conditioners and the equipment for treatment of potable water
CONCLUSION
The test results of these investigations demonstrate the efficacy of the

described oligodynamic method for water disinfection.
This method can be used for preventing bacterial contamination in potable

water systems, water storage systems, cooling water in air-conditioners,
swimming pools and other inviting targets for bioterrorism.
Future plans include the evaluation of this method for the inactivation of
bacteria spore forms.
REFERENCES
Journals
Munson G.P., et al. “Identification a copper-responsive two-component

system on the chromosome of E. coil K-12”, J. Bact 2000 Oct: 182 (20).
Silver S; Phung LT “Bacterial heavy metal resistance: new surprises” Annu

Rev Microbiol 1996; 50:753-89.
Rohr U., et al. “Impact of silver and copper on the survival of amoeba and
ciliated protozoa in vitro.” Int. J. of Hygiene and Environmental Health 2000,
March; 203(1):87-9.
The Silver Institute, Washington D.C. “Silver. The Healthful Metal”, December
31, 1999.
Textbooks/Manuals
Drinking Water. Hygienical requirements and quality control. GOST 2874-82.

of Russian Federation.
Khaydarov R.A., Malyshev S.B. Patent of Russia, “Water Disinfecting Device”,

N 2163571, 27.02.2001.
Khaydarov R.A, Yuldashev B., Korovin S., Iskandarova Sh., Patent of

Republic of Uzbekistan “Water disinfectant device”, N5031, 08.09.1997.
Kulsky L.A. “The Silver Water”, Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1982.
168
APPENDIX
Table 1
Minimal concentration of disinfecting metal ions
for killing E. coli with initial concentration 1000 1/liter
(final concentration ≤ 1 CFU/L) within 30 minutes
Composition of electrodes, percent Concentration K,

Ag Cu Au of Ag ions, mg.c/L
mg/L
100.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 390 ± 120

99.9 0.0 0.1 1.5 390 ± 120
99.8 0.0 0.2 1.5 390 ± 120
90.0 10.0 0.0 0.1 26 ± 8
89.9 10.0 0.1 0.05 13 ± 4
89.8 10.0 0.2 0.05 13 ± 4
80.0 20.0 0.0 0.05 13 ± 4
79.9 20.0 0.1 0.03 8±3
79.8 20.0 0.2 0.03 8±3
70.0 30.0 0.0 0.05 13 ± 4
69.9 30.0 0.1 0.04 10 ± 3
69.8 30.0 0.2 0.04 10 ± 3
50.0 50.0 0.0 0.5 130 ± 40
49.9 50.0 0.1 0.3 80 ± 25
49.8 50.0 0.2 0.3 80 ± 25
40.0 60.0 0.0 1.0 261 ± 80
39.9 60.0 0.1 0.8 210 ± 60
39.8 60.0 0.2 0.8 210 ± 60
169
Table 2
Coefficient K and disinfecting time (initial concentration 1000 CFU/L)
.
Pathogen K, mg c/L t, min
Typhoid – Paratyphoid, 15 – 30 60
Legionella pneumophila
Salmonella 8 – 15 30
V. cholera 8 – 15 30
Table 3
Influence of cations and anions on disinfecting time of E. coli (107 CFU/L
initial concentration)
Ions Conce Time after water treatment

ntratio 15 30 60 90 2 24
n of min min min min hours hour
ions, s
mg/L
Cl- 2 300 3 <1 <1 <1
6 1200 23 3 <1 <1
20 2400 220 4 <1 <1
60 5000 2800 170 10 <1
350 104 5000 890 70 12 <1
2-
SO4 1.5 230 <1 <1
25 290 <1 <1
250 250 <1 <1
S2- 0.01 1000 120 <1 <1
0.05 1200 120 <1 <1
0.15 1600 140 <1 <1
0.30 1800 150 <1 <1
Fe2+ 1.5 5700 2700 1600
15 104 7900 3800
Fe3+ 1.2 2000 40 20 <1
11.12 2200 110 9 <1
Table 4
Test results of the portable experimental device
Initial concentration 109 CFU/L Initial concentration 108 CFU/L

Time E. coli E. coli
after 3 min 5 min 10 min 3 min 5 min 10 min
treatment insertion insertion insertion insertion insertion insertion
30 min 100-150 100-150 100-150 90-100 50 45
2 hours 100-120 30 3 70 6 5
2 days 15 <1 <1 2 <1 <1
3 –20 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
days
170
INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSPORT COST ON THE ANIMAL WASTES

MANAGEMENT OPTIMISATION1
Ioan BITIR-ISTRATE, Olivier LE CORRE, Mohand TAZEROUT

Ecole des Mines de Nantes
Energy Systems and Environment Department
4, rue Alfred Kastler, La Chantrerie,
44307, Nantes, France
tel: 0033251858295; fax: 0033251858299
ABSTRACT
The aim of the paper is to study the influence of the wastes transport cost on the global financial balance
of the treatment project. Mathematical approach has been presented. Three solutions are considered for
the wastes treatment: local destruction, part-centralised plants and for centralised plant. The algorithm has
been applied for the poultry farms in Bretagne region - France. As result, optimal solution for the wastes
treatment in function of the transport tariff variation. This study proves the importance of a good estimation
for the wastes transport cost. Wastes management projects should consider this parameter as input data
for determining the optimal level of the treatment.
Keywords: waste transport cost, cost optimisation, animal waste, France, Bretagne
region
INTRODUCTION
The wastes issued from the animal farms processes represent a very important pollution
factor for the environment. In the majority of the European countries, it exists the
obligation of the wastes treatment, leading to the organic content destruction [1-4].
For a higher efficiency of the animal farm wastes management, the problem has to be
studied at a regional level. Centralised plants should be the optimal solution. Feasibility
studies realised till this moment have revealed that the transport cost from sources to
storage and treatment locations has a major influence to the financial balance of the
project [6,7,9].
Part-centralised schemas could be considered as possible solution. These projects keep

a part from the advantages of the centralised treatment (low specific investments, good
efficiency), but one reduces significantly the wastes transport cost.
Decision concerning the size and the location of the treatment plant has to be the result
of an optimisation algorithm. The aim of this paper is to study the influence of the
transport cost variation for the size and the centralisation level of the treatment process.
The social acceptance regarding the plants position was not considerd in this study. The
posibile locations have been determinated by the regional authorities.
1
171
MATHEMATICAL APPROACH
Any study concerning the financial balance of a project supposes at least two solutions:
the reference one and the proposed schemas. For this paper, reference solution is
considered the local treatment of the wastes, on-farm (fig.1.a). There are not transport
costs. Wastes conversion for energy production is minimal, because of the small size of
each unit. Part-centralised solution (fig.1.b.) proposes to group the farms in order to built
medium size plants for wastes treatment. The size of the units increases and the energy
production is possible. Transport costs are introduced in financial balance and it
depends on the distances from farms to the storage and treatment units.
F2 x13 x1k
x12 1
F1 F3 x11
P1 xCPkCPxCP1
x22 xCP2
Fk F4 x21 x23 xCP3
CP
Fn xm2 P2 xCP7 xCP5 xCP4
x2k xCP6
F5 xm1 xm3 2
xmkPmm xm4
c)
a) b)
Figure 1 Solutions for the study: local treatment (a), part centralised (b) and centralised
plants (c)
Centralised solution (fig.1.c.) proposes one plant for the treatment of the entire wastes
production. Transport distances are maximised and the specific cost of the treatment is
minimised. This concept allows an important energy production using wastes.
Considering F1,…,Fn the farms analysed in this study, the total annual amount of wastes
is:
172
n
Qan = ∑ qi [tons/yr] (1)
i =1
where, qi represents the annual wastes production of the farm “i”. Total annual costs can
be expressed for each solution separately. For the reference case, it can write the
following equation:
n
Cref = ∑ qi ⋅ c(qi ) [€/yr] (2)
i =1
where, c(qi) represents the specific cost of the wastes treatment (€/tons). In this
analysis, it considers that c(qi) includes the revenues from electricity and/or fertilisers
sold.
For the part centralised solution, the costs equation is:
n  kj  m
C B = ∑ xiB ⋅q i ⋅ tr (qi ) + ∑ c ∑ ql  ⋅ [€/yr] (3)
i =1 j =1  l =1 
where, xi B are the distances for the wastes transport for each farm “i” - fig.1.b - (km),
tr(qi) – specific cost of the transport function of the wastes amount (€/tons·km).
For the centralised solution, the costs equation is:

n
CC = ∑ xiC ⋅ qi ⋅ tr (qi ) + Q ⋅ c(Q ) [€/yr] (4)
i =1
where, xiC are the transport distance from farm “i” to the treatment location – fig.1.c-
(km). Specific costs will be expressed as following:
n
∑ q ⋅ c(q )
i i
c ref = c trans
ref +c treat
ref = 0+ i =1
[€/yr·tons] (5)
Q
n  kj  m
∑ xiB ⋅q i ⋅ tr (qi ) ∑ c ∑ ql 

j =1  l =1  [€/yr·tons]
c B = c Btrans + c Btreat = i =1 + (6)
Q Q
∑x iC ⋅ qi ⋅ tr (qi )
cC = c trans
C +c treat
C = i =1
+ c(Q ) [€/yr·tons] (7)
Q
173
CASE STUDY – POULTRY FARMS IN BRETAGNE, FRANCE
For the study of the influence of the transport cost for the centralisation level, the
authors have selected the case of Bretagne, France (figure 2).
Poultry farmers from this region have ordered a study concerning the optimal solution for
the wastes treatment. Annual amount of poultry litter is about 50 000 tons/ year
produced in 30 farms [1].
Reference solution applied for this case is the local treatment of the wastes for each
farm. Part-centralised solution proposes to concentrate the wastes treatment in 4
locations.
In this case, transport distances have been calculated at about 1,300 km. Centralised
solution proposes a single plant with transport distances about 2,200 km (table 1).
Figure 2 Map of Bretagne - France
174
Table 1
Distances for wastes transport for the Bretagne region (km)
Solution B Solution C
Farm 1 20 20
Zone 1 Farm 2 15 15
Farm 3 0 0
Farm 4 30 30
Farm 5 40 120
Farm 6 36 140
Farm 7 64 150
Zone 2 Farm 8 100 150
Farm 9 26 100
Farm 10 0 75
Farm 11 97 150
Farm 12 0 85
Zone 3 Farm 13 68 140
Farm 14 45 85
Farm 15 25 40
Farm 16 25 45
Farm 17 50 75
Farm 18 34 64
Farm 19 26 50
Farm 20 60 65
Farm 21 23 43
Farm 22 0 27
Zone 4 Farm 23 68 64
Farm 24 75 92
Farm 25 86 105
Farm 26 31 52
Farm 27 62 34
Farm 28 38 42
Farm 29 61 85
Farm 30 87 62
The dependence of the specific treatment cost by the plant size is given in figure 3. It
has been obtained by analysing the financial results of the existing projects of poultry
litter treatment in different countries. Depending on the size, the technology adopted for
the treatment is incineration or gasification, followed by thermal energy recovery for
electricity production. For the centralised plant, specific cost for wastes treatment has
been considered about 10 €/ton [1,5,8]. For part-centralised plants, the same parameter
is in the range 17÷24 €/ton [8,9].
Wastes transport costs are very variable in the analysed studies. Software has been
developed for the study of the transport costs influence to the centralisation level of the
175
treatment. Specific total costs variation has been obtained for a range of the transport
tariff between 20÷45 c€/ton⋅km. The results are given in figure 4.
40
Specific treatment costs
35
30
(euro/ton)
25
20
15
10
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000
Wastes treatment capacity (tons/yr)
Figure 3 Specific costs of the wastes treatment for different plants capacity
130
Specific costs variation (%)
120
110
cref
100
90 cB I II III
80
cC
70
60
0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.44
T ransport tariff (€/tonkm)
Figure 4 Specific costs for the analysed solution in function of transport tariff
For transport tariff less to 27 c€/ton⋅km, centralised solution is optimal. It gives the best
financial results, comparing to the reference solution. In the range 27÷43c€/ton⋅km, part-
centralised solution offers the best results for the wastes treatment. Tariffs bigger than
43 c€/ton⋅km lead to the local treatment as optimal solution.
This example proves the big impact of the correct estimation for the transport cost in the
case of the wastes treatment. Part-centralised units could replace centralised plants,
optimal solution from technical point of view, when distances and transport tariffs are
important enough.
176
CONCLUSIONS
For the wastes management planning, the transport costs have to be considered as
input data. A good estimation of the transport tariff will lead to the right choice on the
treatment level. The analysed example proves that the important variation of this
parameter can change the decision from the centralised plant to a part-centralised
solution or even to the local destruction. This method could be used by the regional
authorities before deciding the architecture of the waste treatment management plan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Bitir, I and Tazerout, M., « The use of food industries wastes for energy production »,
Report of Bretagne Region, Internal Report of Ecole des Mines de Nantes
[2] Buffinga, G.J et Knoef, H.A.M., « Implementation and demonstration of an embedded

small-scale poultry manure CHP process », Report of BTG biomass technology group
BV ;
[3] Dagnall, S.P., Poultry Litter as a Fuel in the U.K. - A Review, 1992 ;
[4] J.L. Glancey et S.C. Hoffman, «Physical Properties of Solid Waste Materials»
Applied Engineering in Agriculture 12 (4), 1996, pp. 441-446 ;
[5] K.W. Kwant, «Status of Gasification in the countries participating in the IEA
Bioenergy gasification activity» Mars 2001, IEA Bioenergy Gasification Country Report;
[6] H. Lundberg, M. Morris et E. Rensfelt, «Biomass Gasification for Energy Production»

ALTENER – PROGRAMME BIOMASS EVENT, September 1-5, 1997, Jyvaskyla,
Finland;
[7] Maryland Environmental Service, « The engineering and economic feasibility of using
poultry litter as a fuel to generate electric power at Maryland ;
[8] Reardon, J.P., Lilley, A., Browne, K. and Beard, K., « Demonstration of a small
modular biopower system using poultry litter », DOE SBIR, Contract DE-FG03-
01ER83214, Community Power Generation ;
[9] ***, « Economical and Technical Feasibiliy of Energy Production from Poultry Litter
and Nutrient Filter Biomass on the Lower Delmarva Peninsula », Northeast Regional
Biomass Program, CPNEG Ploicy Research Center, Inc. Final Report, August 2nd,
1999.
177
STUDIES UPON THE POSSIBILITIES TO ENHANCE THE MUNICIPAL

WASTEWATER DENITRIFICATION PROCESS USING
PRE-FERMENTED PRIMARY SLUDGE1
Eliza Leonte-Pena*, Ileana Ghiţă*, Diana Dobre*, Cătălina Andreuţă*, Lucia

Dumitru**, Ana-Maria Faghi**, Gabriela Teodosiu**
*
National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology – ECOIND
Bucharest, 90-92 Panduri St., sector 5, 76231 Bucharest
**
Institute of Biology of the Romanian Academy, 296 Splaiul Independentei, 79651
Bucharest
ABSTRACT
The denitrification experiments were conducted in batch bioreactors fed with municipal wastewater
supplemented with pre-fermented primary sludge in the first experiment and with sodium acetate in
the second one. There were elaborated the process kinetic parameters describing the rate of
substrates S1 (BOD5) and S2 (NO3-) removal and biomass growth.
It was emphasized that the pre-fermented sludge, as supplementary organic source, induces the NO3-
removal rate higher than acetate. The uptake rate is lower and it assures a sufficient carbon source for
a Smin value smaller than in the acetate experiment.
The time for exponential growth of substrate uptake rate was 7 hours. It means that the optimum HRT
for denitrification must be of 7 hours also.
The microbiological analysis of activated sludge samples drawn from the experimental batch
bioreactors shows that the addition of pre-fermented primary sludge leads to a rise of denitrification
bacteria number at similar values as a result of acetate addition.
REFERENCES
1. Ekama G.A., Wentzel M.C., 1999 – “Denitrification kinetics in biological N and P

removal activated sludge systems treating municipal wastewaters”,
Wat.Sci.&Tech. Vol.39, No.6, pp.69-79
2. Van Loosdrecht M.C.M. and Jetten M.S.M., 1998 – “Microbiological conversions

in nitrogen removal”, Wat.Sci.&Tech. Vol.38, No.1, pp.1-9
3. Moser-Engeler R., Udert K.M., Wild D., Siegrist H., 1998 – “Products from primary
sludge fermentation and their suitability for nutrient removal”, Wat.Sci.&Tech.
Vol.38, No.1, pp.265-275
4. Pavan P., Battistoni P., Traverso P., Musacco A., Cecchi F., 1998 – “Effect of
addition of anaerobic fermented OFMSW (organic fraction of municipal solid
waste) on biological nutrient removal (BNR) process:preliminary results”,
Wat.Sci.&Tech. Vol.38, No.1, pp.327-335
1
178
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AQUATIC COMMUNITIES AND

WATER QUALITY IN THE LAKE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (OLT
RIVER BASIN), DOWNSTREAM OF THE WASTEWATER
DISCHARGES1
Elena Voinea#, Irina Lucaciu, Margareta Nicolau, Maria Taralunga

#
Biotests and Ecotoxicological Researches Laboratory
National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology – INCD -ECOIND
90-92 Sos.Panduri, sect.5, 76231 Bucharest, Romania
e-mail: icpear@sunu.rnc.ro, phone: 4100377, fax: 4100575
ABSTRACT
As a component of the lower Danube tributaries ecosystem complex (it self a part of the Danube –
Danube Delta-Black Sea ecologic system), Olt River is representative for all south Carpathians Rivers.
[1]
From this point of view, in order to identify the anthropic activity influence on the biotic and non-biotic
components of the lake aquatic ecosystems [2] the physical-chemical and biological parameters have
been monitored for the samples drawn from three sampling sites. These are located upstream and
downstream the main wastewater discharges, so that both the natural ecosystems heterogenity and
the modifications induced by these punctual pollutants incomes can be monitored.
In this paper, we focus on the knowledge biocenosis composition and on the non-biotic factors of
the environment as well as on their impact upon the biotic components of aquatic ecosystems, also
including their relation with biocenosis.
Taking into account the obtained data we may conclude that:
- there weren’t identified any exceeded concentrations of the pollutants (the main nutrients –
nitrogen and phosphorus) into the pelagial reservoir represented by water.
- the qualitative and quantitative structure for phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic
macroinvertebrates isn’t severaly modified according to the chemical indicators specific for the
trophic stage (nutrients concentrations).
Keywords: biotic and non-biotic components, nutrient inputs, anthropic influence,

lake aquatic ecosystems, pelagial reservoir.
REFERENCES:
[1] Woodiwiss, F.S., 1980, “Biological monitoring of surface water quality”,

Summary Report Commission of the European Commmunities ENV/787/80-EN.
[2] Vanclay F., Bronstein, A., 1995, “Environemntal and Social Impact
Assessment”, chapter 9.
1
179
APPLIED TAXONOMIC STUDIES IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL PROCESSES IN MUNICIPAL WWTPs1
Ileana Ghiţă, Eliza Leonte-Pena, Diana Dobre, Cătălina Andreuţă

National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology – ECOIND
Bucharest, 90-92 Panduri St., sector 5, 76231 Bucharest
ABSTRACT
The implementation of the phosphorus removal process from the influents of the municipal treatment
plants became necessary after NTPA 001 came into force. The accordance of the municipal effluents
with NTPA 001 implies the obtaining of effluents with a maximum content of 1 mg/l total P and 4 mg/l
PO43-. These concentration limits can be constantly obtained both by the re-technologization of the
classical treatment plants and especially by the monitoring of the functioning of the biological basins in
which the dephosphatation processes take place.
This work aims to develop a unitary biological method and to verify the possibilities to apply it in
dephosphatation process control. The elaborated method is based on the correlation of Godeanu-
Catană [1] and Biotic indices [2] methods, by specific pigmentation of the polyphosphates and
polyalcanoates granules from the bacterial cytoplasma. [3].
The results obtained by the application of this method allow a description of the morphological,
biochemical and physiological characteristics of the microorganisms involved in the phosphorus
removal process and also of the biocenosis unbalanced steady-state due to the sequential aeration
process and give information regarding the biological systems functioning.
REFERENCES
1. Godeanu S., Cristina Catană, 1968 – “Încercări de reprezentare grafică a evoluţiei

biocenozelor nămolului activ”, Studii de protecţia şi epurarea apelor, Bucureşti.
2. Madoni P., 1994 – “A sludge biotic index (SBI) for the evaluation of the biological
performance of activated sludge plants on microfauna analysis” Wat.Res.., vol.
28, no.1, pp.66-75.
3. Drakides Ch., 1978 – L’observation microscopique des boues activees appliquee

a la surveillance des installations d’epuration”, T.S.M. L’eau, pp.85-98, 1978.
1
180
MONITORING OF UNDERGROUND WATER QUALITY

IN THE AREA OF THE ECOLOGICAL PIT1
eng. Elena Gârban, biol. Genţiana Rusu, chem. Ecaterina Grosu,

chem. Simona Cantea
INCD- ECOIND - Bucureşti
ABSTRACT
Actually, in Romania, the most important problems are the waste management in general, and the
urban waste, in special. The negative effects of waste upon the environmental media and the
humanity health are obvious.
In the last time the interest of construction of the ecological pits that assure the protection of the
environmental media and humanity health are increased.
In this paper, the results of the chemical and biological underground water monitoring in area of the
ecological pit are presented.
The underground water monitoring are consisted of monthly sampling from the drills situated up and
down of the pit.
The underground water quality was estimated comparing with the actual Romanian environmental
legislation.
Keywords: underground water pollution, monitoring, pit
1
181
PROFICIENCY TESTING FOR AIR POLLUTION TEST

LABORATORIES BY INTERLABORATORY COMPARISON
SCHEMES1
Chim. Rodica Debiasi, Chim. Margareta Nicolau, Chim. Elisabeta Mitran, Chim.
Mihaiela Bichir, Ing. chim. Ileana Nicolescu
NATIONAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INSTITUT FOR INDUSTRIAL
ECOLOGY – ECOIND Bucharest
ABSTRACT
The quantification of atmospheric pollutants at the stationary sources and for the air quality involves
measurements that, after sampling, consist in quantitative chemical analyses.
In the environmental Romanian legislation there are Maximum Value Concentration for over 100
pollutants for the atmospheric stationary emission sources and for 29 pollutants for air quality.
At national level there are standardised only few chemical methods for pollutants concentration
determination at the stationary emission sources and the air quality standardised methods were made
long time ago and don’t respond to the needs concerning the domain applicability and detection limits.
The National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology and Technical Committee 53
“ Air Quality” include in their activity the elaboration of SR / ISO standards and of the Romanian
standards for the concentration determination at the stationary sources and for the air quality
standardised methods optimisation.
The prove of the traceability and of the accuracy of the analyses results is made by Certified
Reference Material – CRM - use or by the interlaboratory analysis.
This issue presents the activity of Air Pollution Laboratory from INCD ECOIND, financed by the
INFRAS program, concerning organisation and the co-ordination of a proficiency testing scheme on
“split samples” for five pollutants of the atmosphere: NO2, Cl-, CN-, Co, Ni.
There are presented the interlaboratory analysis, performed in nine laboratories, of the Synthetic
Reference Solutions prepared by INCD ECOIND followed by the statistical interpretation of the results
and the elaboration of “The 2002’ Proficiency Testing Report” which represent, for our clients and for
the National Accreditation Organism in accordance with SR EN ISO / CEI 17.25:2001, the prove of the
participation to this kind of activity.
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STUDY REGARDING THE NITROPHENOLS DEGRADATION IN

DIRECT AND HOMOGENOUS UV PHOTOLYSIS PROCESS1
Cristiana Cosma, Margareta Nicolau, Ines Nitoi, Aurelia Ballo

The National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology-ECOIND,
Bucharest
Str. Panduri 90-92; sector 5; 7623; Phone: 40.1.410.67.16 / 410.03.77; Fax:
410.05.75; email: icpear@sunu.rnc.ro; http://www.rnc.ro/ICPEAR
ABSTRACT
The aromatic nitrocompounds as well as nitrophenols are included in the category of the recalcitrant
substances due to their toxic effect on the aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, the presence of such
pollutants in the surface water must be avoided, advanced treatment of wastewater containing
nitroderivates being necessary before final discharging. The UV photolysis is one of the advanced
oxidation processes with certain future in the treatment of wastewater, some of experimental research
in this field being realized: degradation of 2,4 nitrotoluene in homogeneous system - UV/H2O2 [1],
comparative studies of UV/O3 and UV/H2O2 efficiency in the photodegradation of 4-chloronitrobenzene
[2], systematic studies of the photocatalitic oxidation in heterogeneous system, UV/TiO2 [3].
The aim of this study is to assess the behavior of nitrophenols isomers in the photochemical oxidation
process in direct UV photolysis and homogenous system (UV/H2O2).
In direct photolysis, the removal yield of nitrophenols are: o-NPh=22%; m-NPh=67%; p-NPh=32-
67%, in specific operating conditions (pH=11, exposure time=180 min). The main consequence of the
partial degradation of initial structures is reflected by the increasing of TOC and N-organic
concentration values for the treated samples, especially in the case of m-NPh (yield of TOC
increasing =55%). The majority of oxidation intermediaries are of organic nature, taking into account
the maintaining of COD-Cr concentrations in the range of initial values. It must be mentioned also a
slight mineralisation of organic nitrogen from nitro groups, emphasized by the identification of
inorganic compounds such nitrites and nitrates (range concentrations - mg/l). The improving of
photolysis efficiency by increasing of hydroxyl radicals concentrations, is possible in homogeneous
system (H2O2/UV, H2O2/NPh ratio = 14/1), at exposure time of 120 minutes. In these experimental
conditions, the following results are obtained:
− high degradation yield of all nitrophenols isomers (over 95%);
− the decreasing of COD-Cr, TOC and N-organic concentrations (η ≤ 75%);
− the increasing of nitrates and nitrites (tens mg/l).
REFERENCES
1. Ho Patience C. - Manage Hazard Toxic Wastes Process Industries, p. 563-636,

1988
2. Guittonneau S., De Laat J. - Ozone Science Engineering, vol. 12, nr. 1, p. 73-93,
1990
3. Chen Dingwang, Ray Ajay K. - Water Research, vol. 32, nr. 11, p. 3223-3234,
1998
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ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR ORGANOCHLORINATED

HYDROCARBONS RECOVERY FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER1
Cristiana Cosma, Viorel Patroescu, Ines Nitoi, Aurelia Ballo

The National Research and Development Institute for Industrial Ecology-ECOIND,
Bucharest, Str. Panduri 90-92; sector 5; 7623; Phone: 40.1.410.67.16 / 410.03.77;
Fax: 410.05.75; email: icpear@sunu.rnc.ro; http://www.rnc.ro/ICPEAR
ABSTRACT
The discharging of wastewater containing aliphatic organochlorinated hydrocarbons in natural water
must be avoided taking into account the European Directives in force regarding the dangerous
substances (76/464/EEC, 88/347/EEC, 90/415/EEC).
The industrial wastewater evacuated from chlorinated solvents synthesis methylene chloride,
trichloroethylene) must be treated before discharging, the recommended processes being as follows:
- steam stripping - biological anaerobic treatment or air stripping - adsorption on specific materials-
thermal desorption with volatile substances recovery [1, 2];
- adsorption on different sorbents (activated carbon, polymeric compounds, etc.) [3];
- photochemical oxidation (O3/UV, TiO2/UV, ZnO/UV) [4, 5].
The work presents the recovering technologies elaborated for the advanced treatment of wastewater
discharged from methylene chloride and trichloroethylene synthesis based on adsorption on nonionic
synthetic resins in specific conditions (pH, contact time).
The main products recovered in the steps of resin regeneration by steam stripping -cooling-phases
separation-purification are:
• methylene chloride synthesis: chloroform;
• trichloroethylene synthesis: trichloroethylene and tetrachlorethane.
REFERENCES
1. Wilson James N., (Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc), U.S. US 5,246,584 (Cl
210-603; CO2F1/20), 21 Sep.1993, Appl.920, 961; 28 Jul.1992, 8 pp.
2. Sivavec Timothy M. – Method for recovery of volatile organic compounds,

(General Electric Co.USA) U.S. US5,595,586 (Cl95-143, BO1D53/04), 21
Jan.1997, US Appl.23,457; 27 Feb.1993, 11 pp.
3. Hamamoto Shiro, Tanaka Toshibo – Porous carbon materials suitable for

adsorption and removal of impurities in water, Jpn.Kokai Tokkyo Koho, JP 10
25,110 (Cl CO1B31/08), 27 Jan. 1998, Appl.96/175,090; 4 Jul.1996, 4 pp.
4. xxx – Decomposition of organic pollutants in waters, wastewaters, and waste

gaps using UV irradiation, International Biotechnology Laboratoires GmbH,
Ger.Offen.DE 4,016,514 (Cl A62/D3/00), 28 Nov.1991, Appl. 22 May 1990, 10 pp.
5. Tanaka Keischi, Hisanajo Temaki, Harad Kenji – Photochemical wastewater

treatment with semiconductor, Jpn.Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 01 94,998
(ClCO2F1/72), 13 Apr.1989, Appl.87/251; 5 Oct.1987, 3 pp.
1
184
CONTRIBUTION TO SOME HEAVY METALS REMOVAL FROM

AQUEOUS SOLUTION USING PEAT1
Mihaela Ulmanu(1), Ildiko Anger(1), Janos Lakatos(2), Guţă Aura(1)

(1)
Institute for Non – Ferrous and Rare Metals, Bd.Biruintei 102, 73957
Bucharest, Romania
(2)
University of Miskolc, Department of Analytical Chemistry,
Miskolc- Egyetemvaros, H – 3515
ABSTRACT
The horticultural peat available in Romania has been evaluated with respect to the selectivity and
removal characteristics of Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) ions from aqueous solution.
The kinetics, the sorption capacities, the selectivity and pH dependence of sorption were determined.
The investigation proved that the horticultural peat is a suitable material for the studied heavy metal
ion removal from solution and could be considered as a potential material for purification of effluent
polluted with Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) ions.
Keywords: heavy metals removal, Romania, removal solutions
INTRODUCTION
Many industries discharge waste solutions containing heavy metals such as

chromium, cadmium, lead etc.
Since the early 1970 there has been growing concern over the effect of heavy metals
on humans and aquatic ecosystems.
Cadmium, for example, damages the kidneys, lead adversely affects red blood cells,
the nervous system and the kidneys. Acute systemic poisoning can result from high
exposure to hexavalent chromium.
Legislation on the limiting concentrations for toxic metal ion discharged in wastewater
is now very strict in Romania. To fulfill these requirements efficient and cost effective
methods need to develop. The conventional method used at present to remove
heavy metal ions from solutions is the precipitation. Since the solubility product of
metal hydroxides is high the remaining ion concentration followed by precipitation
exceeds the limits determined by the above legislation. Furthermore, the increasing
costs and liability issues associated with contaminated sludge management is a
burgeoning deterrent.
Combined and alternative methods can provide a satisfactory decrease of the toxic
ion concentration. Adsorption and/or ion – exchange onto low cost particulate media,
such as peat, now offers an attractive and inexpensive option for the removal of
dissolved metal ions.
Peat is defined as a fibrous mass of organic matter in various stages of

decomposition, of spongy consistency, as an unconsolidated, hydrophilic
carbonaceous sediment formed by the accumulation of partially fragmented,
decomposed and commonly heterogeneous plant remains which retain more than
1
185
75% inherent moisture and loss than 12% mineral matters in saturated natural
deposits. Peat moss is a rather complex material containing lignin and cellulose as
major constituents. These constituents, especially lignin, contain polar functionalities,
such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and acids, which can be involved in chemical
bonding of cations, [1].
The abundance and the availability of peat makes it an economical reliable, however
in raw form, the physical characteristics such as low mechanic strength, high affinity
for water, poor chemical stability and a tendency to shrink and/swell [2] must be
considered also as restrictive feature in the industrial application.
Because of the very polar nature of this material, the specific adsorption for dissolved
solids, such as metals, is reported to be quite high.
Peat has a greater cation exchange capacity than mineral soil and inorganic soil
component. Due to this it was shown by several investigators that peat is an effective
adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater [3 – 7]. The aim of this
study was to evaluate the effectiveness of locally available horticultural peat for
removal of cadmium, chromium and lead ions from aqueous solutions.Laboratory
batch studies were conducted for determine the effect of contact time, pH and initial
metal concentration in the efficiency of removal.
Horticultural peat available in Romania was used for the investigations. Peat was
dried at room temperature (25oC) and screened to eliminate the non – peat materials.
The peat was grinded and sieved and the 0.25- 0.45 mm fraction was used in
sorption experiments. The characteristics of as received horticultural peat are
presented in table 1.
Table 1 The characteristics of horticultural peat
Characteristic Anions mmol/l Cations mmol/l

extract extract
Organic materials - 90% Cl- 0.3 NH4+ 1.4
Ash - 20% SO42- 0.9 K+ 0.8
Humidity max. - 70% PO43- 0.74 Ca2+ 0.8
Conductivity - 1400
µsiemens NO3- 1.4 Mg2+ 0.4
pH (aq) 5.5 – 6.5
Surface area - 0.95 m2/g
Porosity - 0.76
Stock solutions containing 1000 mg.dm-3 heavy metal were prepared by dissolving
potassium dichromate, cadmium sulphate and lead nitrate. “Analytical grade”
chemicals were dissolved in distilled water. Solutions contacted with the peat
(sample solutions) were prepared from these stock solutions by diluting appropriate
aliquots with distilled water.
Batch type sorption experiments studies were conducted at room temperature, using
Erlenmayer flasks. 1 g dried peat was contacted with 100 ml solution of heavy metal.
186
Batch kinetic studies
For kinetic study 1g peat was mixed with 100 ml metal solution. At the end of each 1
hour period of contact time the solution was filtered and analysed for Cd(II), Cr(VI)
and Pb(II) by atomic absorption spectroscopy, during the different number of hours
study period. Duration of equilibrium is defined, as the contact time required for the
heavy metals concentrations in the solution to reach a constant value.
Batch studies at different pH
The peat – solution system was the same as above: 1 g peat was contacted with 100
ml heavy metal solution. The pH in the range 2.5 – 7.5 was adjusted by the addition
of either 1M sulfuric acid solution (for Cd(II) and Cr(VI) containing samples), and 1M
nitric acid solution (for Pb(II)) or 1M sodium hydroxide solution. The samples at the
end of equilibrium time, which was determined, previously were separated and the
heavy metal concentration in the filtrates were determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
Batch studies at different concentration of heavy metals
The influence of initial heavy metal concentration on the sorption was studied at the
same solid solution ratio as above: 1 g peat: 100 ml solution. The solution
concentration was varied in the 10 – 620 mg/l heavy metal concentration range. The
pH was adjusted to the optimal for each cation and the equilibrium time was those,
which was determined during the batch kinetic studies
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Batch kinetic studies
Figure 1 presents the influence of contact time on the Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II)
sorption.
16
Capacity, mg metal/ g peat
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time, hours
Pb Cd Cr
Figure 1. The influence of contact time on sorption capacities of peat towards Cd(II),
Cr(VI) and Pb(II) ions. Initial metal ion concentration: 100 mg/l for Cd(II) and Cr(VI)
solutions and 150 mg/l for Pb(II) solution; initial pH : 7 for Cd(II), 6 for Pb(II) and 3.5
for Cr(VI) solutions.
187
Figure 1 indicates that the duration to reach the equilibrium is different at the studied
ions and decreasing in the order of Cr(VI)>>Cd(II)>Pb(II)
Viraraghavan and Ganesh [5] have found that tha equilibrium need for Cr(VI) was
shorter than it is shown by the Fig.1, however Sharma and others [7] result was
similar as our findings. The difference in equilibrium time may be due to the
difference in the experimental conditions, the initial concentrations etc. (in the
experiments of [5] the initial concentration was 1 mg/l, in our experiments 100 mg/l
Cr(VI) it was found that much shorter time need to reach the equilibrium (only 30
minutes) in case of Cd(II) and Pb(II). This is good agreement with the results of Chen
and others [8].
Batch pH studies
In this study the pH was set in the pH 2.5 to 7.5 interval. Beside the sorption, pH has
effect on the peat and metal ion stability. At high pH the humic acid component of the
peat becomes dissolved, the metal ions will precipitated as metal hydroxides. The
effect of pH on the sorption of Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) is given in figure 2.
16
Capacity, mg metal/ g peat
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
pH
Pb Cd Cr
Figure 2. The influence of solution pH on the sorption capacities of peat towards

Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) ions Initial ion concentrations : Cd(II) and Cr(VI) 100 mg/l
and Pb(II) 150 mg/l.
Contact time: Cd(II) – 3 hours; Cr(VI) – 6 hours and Pb(II) 1 hour
The influence of pH on sorption efficiency of peat towards Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) is
illustrated in figure 3.
Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate that the effect of pH on ion removal is different for the
studied cations (Pb(II), Cd(II) and anion Cr(VI) cases). Further investigation needs for
Pb(II) at larger initial concentration since all of the Pb(II) was removed at the all
studied pH, however the Cd(II) shows the expected pH dependence. The higher pH
results higher metal ion loading since the dissociation of the low acidic functionalities
of the peat become more efficient. At the same time the metal ion in the solution
forms such kind of hidroxo compounds, which has higher sorption affinity than the
ion.
188
100
90
Sorption efficiency, %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
pH
Pb Cd Cr
Figure 3. The influence of pH on removal efficiency of Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) onto
peat.
The pH dependence of Cr(VI) removal differs from the previous case. It shows a
maximum curve. The explanation of this findings need more detailed consideration
the ion loading mechanism. The peat is not suitable sorbent for the anions since the
carboxyl functionalities using the ion exchange and chelation mechanism able to
bound only cations. Positively charged surface can form at very low pH, which
probably a possible way for Cr(VI) anion sorption if the matrix of sorbent is resistant
against oxidation. Concerning the structure and the chemical stability of peat it must
be suppose during the peat Cr(VI) interaction the Cr(VI) will be reduced and the
formed Cr(III) as will be bound similarly as the other tested cation.
The shape of the pH dependence of Cr(VI) removal can be explained as the sum of
pH dependence of Cr(VI) reduction and the pH dependence of Cr(III) loading. Since
the two processes show adverse pH dependence a maximum shape is expected.
Batch studies at different concentration of heavy metals in solution
Having in view the high affinity of peat from lead, the concentration range for this
metal was different in comparison with those used for cadmium and chromium; so,
lead initial concentration in solution ranged between 150 – 600 mg Pb/l, and
cadmium and chromium initial concentration ranged between 10 and 300 mg/l.
All samples were buffered to the optimum pH previously determined as follows: 3.5
for chromium (VI) containing solution, 7 for cadmium containing solution and 6 for
lead containing solution.
The equilibrium time was those previously determined for each metal.
The results are presented in figure 4.
For all concentration the dependence is linear in the case of Pb(II); for Cd(II) and for
Cr(VI) this dependence is linear for concentration less that 200 mg/l; for higher
concentration, a nonlinear dependence appears.
189
60
Capacity, mg metal/g peat

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Initial concentration, mg metal/l
Pb Cd Cr
Figure 4. The influence of heavy metals concentration in solution on sorption

capacities of peat towards Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) ions
pH for Cd(II) was 7, for Cr(VI) 3.5 and for Pb(II) 6. Contact time for Cd(II) 3 hours, for
Cr(VI) 6 hours and for Pb(II) 1 hour
The sorption isotherm (the dependence between sorption capacity and equilibrium
ion concentration in the solution) is presented in the figure 5. The data represented in
this figure was determinate in the condition above mentioned.
60
Capacity, mg metal/g peat
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150
Equilibrium concentration, mg metal/l
Pb Cd Cr
Figure 5. Sorption isotherms corresponding to the Cd(II), Cr (VI) and Pb(II)- peat
systems
The nature of metal binding onto peat has received extensive investigation, but a
common consensus on the exact mechanisms has not yet to be reached.
190
All authors agree that the natural capacity of peat to retain cations is related to the
pH of the solution; the optimum pH varies depending on the metal to be removed.
A general assumption that can be used for the sorption of most ions onto peat is that
the pH should be within the range 3 – 8 (Brown and others) [9].
Studying the sorption of Cu(II), Cd(II) and Zn(II) onto peat, Gordon McKay and others
[6] found that the more electronegative ions were attracted to the peat surface more
strongly.
Our results concerning Pb(II) and Cd(II) uptake confirm this observation; the
electronegativity (according to Pauling) corresponding for these metals being 1,8 and
1,7 , respectively (Cr(VI) was not included, being present in solution like anion).
CONCLUSIONS
Horticultural peat is a suitable material for Cd(II), Cr(VI) and Pb(II) uptake from
aqueous solutions.
The equilibrium time differ from a cation to other as follows: Cr(VI)>>Cd(II)>Pb(II)
Optimal pH is different, depending on the nature of cation, as follows: 7.5 for Cd(II),
3.5 for Cr(VI) and no influence of pH between 4.5 – 7 was observed for Pb(II).
Sorption capacities increased with increasing metal concentration in solution; the

uptake capacities of peat towards these heavy metals (using an initial solution
containing 300 mg heavy metal/l) are: 0.288 mmol Cr(VI)/g peat, 0.178 mmol Cd(II)/g
peat and 0.145 mmol Pb(II)/g peat.
We can conclude that peat may be an efficient material in wastewater containing

heavy metal treatment for purification.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was financed by Romanian Ministry of Education and Research.
REFERENCES
1. Couillard D. The use of peat in wastewater treatment, in Water Research, 28(6),

1261 – 1274, 1994
2. Coupal B. And J.H.Lalancette. The treatment of wastewaters with peat moss, in

Water Research, 10, 1071 – 1076, 1976
3. Bunzl K., W. Schmidt and B. Sansoni. Kinetics of ion exchange in soil organic
matter. IV Adsorption and desorption of Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn and Ca by peat, in Journal
of Soil Science, 27, 32 – 41, 1976
4. Chaney R.L. and P.T. Hundemann. Use of peat moss columns to remove
cadmium from wastewater, in Journal of Water Pollut. Control Fed., 51(1), 17 –
21, 1979
191
5. Viraraghavan T. and A.K.Rao Ganish. Adsorption of cadmium and chromium from

wastewater by peat, in International J. Environmental Studies, 44, 9 – 27, 1993
6. Gordon McKay and J.F.Porter. Equilibrium parameters for the sorption of copper,
cadmium and zinc ions onto peat, in Journal of Chem. Techn. Biotechnol., 69,
309 – 320, 1997
7. Sharma D.C. and C.F.Forster. Removal of Cr(VI) using sphagnum moss peat, in
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192
ENVIRONMENTAL-ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF WASTE

GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY UNDER DATA UNCERTAINTY AND
VARIABILITY1
A. Halog, M. Sagisaka, A. Inaba

Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment, AIST
16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8569 Japan
Email: halog-anthony@aist.go.jp
ABSTRACT
Process design and life-cycle analysis (LCA) methods do not usually account data variability and
uncertainty which may contribute to misleading estimates of pollution prevention, performance, and cost of
potentially promising new environmentally conscious technologies. To account this weakness, this
research attempts to develop a novel assessment methodology for evaluation of the risks and potential
pay-offs of new technologies that avoid pollutant production; and demonstrates the methodology via a
case study of gasification of municipal solid wastes. Based upon the previous works in emissions’
estimation, exposure assessment, and risk assessment, a methodology for simultaneous characterization
of both variability and uncertainty is developed here. Probabilistic modeling is explored here to represent
uncertainties in any process technology. Thus, assessments of advanced process technologies that are in
early developmental stages should be based on proper understanding and representation of uncertainties.
Keywords: ASPEN Modeling, Data Uncertainty & Variability, Waste Gasification, LCA,
Probabilistic Simulation
INTRODUCTION
Waste gasification technology is important to Japan’s national interest. This aids in

addressing the environmental problem of pollutant emissions, growing waste volumes,
and the shortage of landfill sites. Gasification systems are promising approach for clean
and efficient electricity generation as well as for the polygeneration of a variety of
products, such as steam, sulfur, hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, and others. Currently,
Japan has around 2000 sites that handle municipal waste of which 180 sites generates
power and plans to build additional facilities that generate electricity from waste, which is
set at a target of 4.17 million kW by 2010 [Sasaki et al., 2002].
Currently, much research is underway for development of effective technologies that

counteract the accumulation of solid wastes. However, assessment of the success of
gasification technology economically and environmentally should be based on a proper
understanding and representation of data uncertainty and variability.
The inability of existing process design and life-cycle analysis (LCA) methods to account
for variability and uncertainty may contribute to misleading estimates of pollution
prevention, performance, and cost of potentially promising new technologies such as the
case of waste gasification. It is hypothesized that the quantification of variability and
1
193
uncertainty, in combination with detailed process simulation, LCA and integrated

assessment, will yield new insights regarding how to minimize the risks and maximize
the pay-offs of new technologies.
Nearly all analyses of energy and environmental control technologies that are in early
phases of research involve uncertainties. Rand Corporation [Hess and Myers, 1989]
reported that accurate assessment of the costs of advanced technologies has always
been one of the most difficult and uncertain tasks facing R & D planners. Predictions of
the future commercial-scale performance of a new technology such as gasification
process are often based on limited experimental data from small-scale or laboratory
testing. Some performance and cost estimates of a new technology, however, are
inherently uncertain because of the lack of large-scale experience to verify expectations.
On the other hand, foretelling future cost is typically expressed as deterministic point-
value estimates based on assumed values of key performance and design variables,
without regard to their uncertainty [Frey and Rubin, 1992].
Rand and others have also identified a systematic tendency for the performance of
advanced process technologies to be overestimated and for costs to be underestimated
[Merrow et al., 1981]. Misleading estimates of the performance and cost of new
processes can have deleterious implications for research planning and the allocation of
resources to the development of alternative technologies.
As defined by Frey et al. [1998], variability is the heterogeneity with respect to time,
space, or a population. Variability in emissions arises from variation in feedstock
compositions; inter- and intra-variability in design, operation, and maintenance. On the
other hand, uncertainty arises due to lack of knowledge regarding the true value of a
quantity. Uncertainty typically arises due to statistical sampling errors, measurement
errors, and systematic errors. Since in most cases, emissions’ estimates are both
variable and uncertain, a methodology for simultaneous characterization of them based
upon previous works in emissions estimation, exposure assessment, and risk
assessment are explored here.
The objectives of this research project are to develop a new assessment methodology
for evaluation of the risks and potential pay-offs of new technologies that avoid pollutant
production; and demonstrate the methodology by a case study of gasification technology.
METHODOLOGY
In assessing newly environmentally friendly technologies, a systematic quantitative

method is used here where its key features include the following:
• development of a consistent set of engineering performance and cost models for

the technology to be evaluated;
• characterization of uncertainties in specific parameters of the engineering

models;
194
• application of the models in a probabilistic modeling environment to characterize

uncertainties in model outputs; and
• analysis of model results for the purposes of technology evaluation and research
planning.
Uncertainties in specific input parameters of the advanced gasification system are

characterized on the basis of data analysis and literature review. To represent
uncertainties in any process technology, a probabilistic modeling should be applied.
Probabilistic simulation will be performed using Latin hypercube sampling, a variance
reduction technique based on a stratified sampling approach compared to random
Monte Carlo sampling [Frey & Bharvirkar, 1998].
The assessment methodology is composed of the following steps:
1. identify technology configurations for which a simplified model should be

developed;
2. identify, modify, or develop flowsheet models as needed;
3. identify key model inputs that should be retained as user-specifiable inputs in the
simplified model;
4. determine possible ranges within which users would vary the user-specifiable
inputs;
5. identify model outputs that are needed for the simplified model;
6. develop a data set of model input and output values using approaches such as
probabilistic simulation;
7. develop simplified equations that enable the selected model outputs to be

predicted based upon values of one or more of the user-specifiable input
variables;
8. evaluate the goodness-of-fit of the equations and modify as needed;
9. implement the set of simplified equations as a reduced form model;
10. evaluate the overall precision and accuracy of the reduced form model.
The above steps are briefly described below.
ASPEN Modeling
The first six steps in the above described approach involve the development and
application of simulation models using ASPEN Plus software in order to develop a data
set for use in regression analysis. There are two main components considered in the
model. One is a simulation model which is used to estimate mass and energy balances
195
for all major process areas. The second is a separate cost model, which is implemented
as a FORTRAN subroutine that is called by the ASPEN simulation model. The cost
model calculates capital, annual, and levelized costs.
Since the cost model is already available as a FORTRAN subroutine in ASPEN Plus,
the approach used here is to develop a reduced form model (RFM) only for the ASPEN
flowsheet models. As shown in Figure 1 below, the objective is to replace the
computationally intensive ASPEN flowsheet model with a reduced form model, while
retaining the same cost model.
Therefore, the ASPEN flowsheet outputs used as inputs to the cost model are treated
here as the “dependent” variables to be predicted by the new set of regression models.
ASPEN flowsheet inputs will be identified as variables to which a user of the simplified
model may wish to assign values.
Figure 1 Overview of ASPEN and Reduced Form Model-based Approaches
ASPEN
PERFORMANCE
INPUT COST
EMISSIONS
ASSUMPTIONS MODEL
COSTS
RFM
Regression Analysis
After developing flowsheet models, the sets of model input and output values are used
as basis for regression analysis. The objective of the regression analysis is to develop
an equation for each of the model outputs (“dependent variables”) as a function of one
or more inputs (“independent variables”). Then, the set of regression equations can be
substituted for the ASPEN flowsheet model as basis for making predictions needed as
input to the cost model. The set of regression equations comprise a RFM that replaces
the ASPEN flowsheet model. The combination of the reduced form model plus the
FORTRAN cost subroutine constitutes a new model.
This new model would have the capability to run in seconds or less, enabling a decision
maker to run sensitivity analyses or case studies as needed for planning or policy
purposes.
Specific for regression analysis, the approach is to begin, for each dependent variable,
with a linear equation including all independent variables. Then, using an iterative
procedure, the least significant independent variables are discarded from the model until
only the most important ones remain. The resulting model is evaluated for goodness-of-
196
fit. If the fit is found to be acceptable, then the regression equation is adopted for
inclusion in the reduced form model. Otherwise, alternative functional forms for the
model are evaluated (e.g., log-linear instead of linear) until an acceptable fit is found.
Additionally, the specific approach used for deciding upon which independent variables
to be included or discarded in the model involves calculation of the t-statistic for the
coefficient associated with each independent variable. A t-statistic approximately equal
to 2 is considered to be statistically significant at the 0.05 significance level. Thus, any
coefficient with a t-statistic greater than 2 would be considered to be statistically
significant. Any coefficient with a t-statistic less than 2 is possibly associated with an
independent variable that is statistically insignificant. In the latter case, inclusion of the
independent variable in the model does not lead to improvement in its predictive abilities.
Therefore, such variables would typically be deleted. If the calculated t-statistic is less
than t-critical, then the corresponding independent variable is deemed to be insignificant
and hence it is excluded from the regression model. However, it is possible for some
independent variables whose coefficients have t-ratios very close to 2 to be eliminated
due to strict application of the elimination process.
To avoid this, the independent variables whose coefficients have t-ratios less than one
are eliminated first. Then using the remaining independent variables, regression
analysis is performed again. In the second iteration, some independent variables whose
coefficients have t-ratios initially less than two become significant i.e. the t-ratios are
observed to be greater than two. Next, independent variables whose coefficients have t-
ratios less than 1.25 are eliminated and the process is repeated by incrementing the
value of criteria for elimination by 0.25 until it becomes equal to the value of t-critical,
which we have assumed to be 2.
Evaluation of Proposed Reduced Form Model
After developing a regression model between outputs and inputs, the goodness-of-fit of
each model is evaluated both graphically and statistically. For example, the mass flow
rate of waste to the gasifier or efficiency is an output from the ASPEN simulation model
that is required as an input to the cost model subroutine. For instance, using the
regression analysis, a linear combination of the independent variables (e.g. gasifier
steam to carbon ratio, gasifier oxygen to carbon ratio) can be found to be statistically
significant in predicting waste flow rate.
The regression equations developed for each of the inputs are collectively implemented
as a reduced form model, in place of the ASPEN performance model, as shown in
Figure 1. This is done by implementing the regression equations as part of a FORTRAN
program which also calls the cost model subroutine.
To evaluate the overall precision and accuracy of the model, the model is run with the
same sets of values for the independent variables used in the ASPEN simulation. The
sets of predictions are then compared to the results from the ASPEN workstation-based
model. Several outputs will be evaluated, in order to characterize the precision and
accuracy of the model with respect to predictions of performance (waste flow rate to the
197
gasifier), emissions (e.g. carbon dioxide emissions or release of dioxins) and cost (e.g.
capital cost).
CASE STUDY: GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Gasification is a process that chemically and physically changes biomass materials

through the addition of heat in an oxygen-starved environment. It is a process that uses
heat, pressure, and steam to convert materials such as solid wastes directly into a gas
composed primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Gasification technologies differ
in many aspects but rely on four key engineering factors:
• Gasification reactor atmospheric level (level of oxygen or air content)
• Reactor design
• Internal and external heating
• Operating temperature
Gasification technology is very important to Japan’s interest because it deals the

problem of pollutant emissions, growing waste volumes, and the shortage of landfill sites.
Japan has around 2000 sites that handle municipal waste, of which 180 sites have
power generation capacity. At present, the gasification and smelting furnace developed
and operated in Japan and overseas can be divided into two types:
(1) shaft furnace (straight-standing type) in which waste is melted and gasified in one
process with coke; and
(2) combination of a thermal decomposition furnace (fluidized bed or rotary kiln) and a
rotary smelting furnace.
In a gasification process, the waste feedstock is prepared and fed, in either dry or slurry
form, into a sealed reactor chamber called a gasifier. The feedstock is subjected to high
heat, pressure, and either an oxygen-rich or oxygen-starved environment within the
gasifier. Most commercial technologies do not use oxygen. All require an energy source
to generate heat and begin processing.
There are three primary products from gasification. These are hydrocarbon gases (also
called syngas), hydrocarbon liquids (oils) and char (carbon black and ash). Syngas is
primarily CO and H2 (at least 85% by volume) and smaller quantities of CO2 and CH4.
The gas has a potential heat content, equivalent to 25% that of natural gas if ambient air
is used or 40% oxygen-enriched air is used. It can be used as a fuel to generate
electricity or steam, or as a basic chemical building block for the production of liquid
fuels such as methanol and di-methyl ether [Sasaki et al., 2002]. However, at high
temperatures, toxic metals including cadmium and mercury, acid gases such as HCl,
and ozone-forming NOx are released. Also, dioxins and furans are created from the
elements present in the typical solid waste stream.
198
Basic Concept of the Waste Gasification
Specifically, the case study investigates a waste gasification system, which is a new
concept, coke-free, production of dioxins-free and high-calorie gas and high-quality slag
process. Yamamoto et al [2000] reported the operational results of a demonstration
plant (shown in Figures 2 and 3) with capacity of 20 tons per day of municipal waste
(MW) as described in Table 1.
The waste gasification and smelting system considered here has the following
characteristics:
1. Waste gasification and smelting in high-temperature reduction atmosphere, high

temperature gas reforming and rapid gas cooling are adopted for reduction of
dioxins emission.
2. Marketable metals such as iron and aluminum are collected during pretreatment
and ashes are smelted in high-temperature reduction atmosphere to reduce the
final waste.
3. High-calories gas is produced by combining oxygen blowing and waste drying.
4. Coke is not required by combining the top and sideways blow oxygen lances.
5. The quantity of gas production is theoretically reduced to about 25% or less in

comparison with conventional method, which uses municipal waste that is not
pretreated and air blowing for combustion of waste.
The specifications of the main facility of a 20 ton-MW/day demonstration plant is

described in Table 2. The 20 ton-MW/day demonstration plant has a furnace which is a
shaft type that has inner diameter of 2.0 m and height of 6.0 m. In the pretreatment
process, waste is being roughly crushed and dried until the proper moisture content is
obtained. The chemical composition of waste is shown in Table 3.
The selected dried waste in the pretreatment process is fed, melted and gasified into the
gasification and smelting furnace at a high temperature with oxygen purity of 50%. The
furnace consists of three zones, a combustion and smelting zone in the packed bed, a
thermal decomposition zone on the top of the packed bed, and a free board to reform
the gas maintained at 1343 K or more above the top of the packed bed.
A mist spray type cooling tower is adopted for draining less water out of the system,
where 1343 K or more exhaust gas is rapidly cooled down to 443 K or less, so that
decomposition of dioxins can be fully controlled to less than 0.01 ng-TEQ/Nm3. This is
achieved by applying no absorption treatment by active carbon or oxidation removal by
catalyst denitrification. The dust-removed, high-calorie gas which mainly consists of CO
and H2 contains oxygen sulfide peculiar to this system, thus wet desulphurization is
applied. Also the high-calorie gas is induced to the combustion deodorizing furnace
using a combustion-promoting burner. The gas calorie at the exit of the demonstration
furnace is 7500 kJ/Nm3 which indicates that the latent heat of top gas can be utilized.
199
Table 1 Operational Data of 20 ton-MW/day Demonstration Plant
Dried
Waste
Waste treatment before drying (ton/day) 20
Coke consumption (kg/ton) 0
Limestone consumption (kg/ton) 25
Oxygen Blowing Total O2 271
3
(Nm /ton) Blowing O2 in packed 80
bed
3
LPG (Nm /ton) 9
Top gas temperature (K) 1353
Top gas volume (wet-Nm3/ton) 903
Composition of top gas CO 27
(vol. %) CO2 30
H2 35
N2 8
Slag tapping rate (kg/ton) 60
Slag temperature (K) 1653
CaO/SiO2 ratio of slag (-) 1.0
Table 2 Facilities and Specifications of 20 ton/day-MW Demonstration Plant

Treatment Facilities Specifications
Drying Furnace 1 ton/h: Horizontal rotating kiln
Selector Magnetic separator and aluminum separator
Type Shaft furnace type
Waste disposal capacity 20 tons/day
Oxygen blowing capacity 300 Nm3/h
Cooling tower Mist-spray cooling system
Bag filter Low temperature bag filter
With a slaked lime blower
Desulfurizing tower Wet desulfurizing system
Combustion and deodorant Gas combustion system by a combustion promoting
furnace burner
Table 3 Chemical Composition of Waste (%wt)

Combustible Ash Moisture Total
C H O N S Cl Total
Municipal 22.5 3.4 17.9 0.5 0.07 0.94 45.3 5.2 49.5 100.0
Waste
Dried 40.0 6.3 32.2 0.9 0.12 1.7 81.2 9.8 9.0 100.0
Waste
200
Generated Clean Gas and Molten Slag
With regard to the chloride and hydrogen sulphide concentration in the generated gas,
with two equivalent weight of slaked lime, more than 90% dechlorination ratio is
achieved, and by adding caustic soda in the desulfurising tower, nearly 100%
dechlorination ratio is achieved. By controlling the concentration of pH and Fe+2 in the
solution, H2S in the generated gas is oxidized and collected as sulfuric acid cake. In this
case, the dechlorination ratio exceeds 96%.
On the other hand, the molten slag continuously produced by this system contains very
little iron oxide because iron is removed in pretreatment and the lower section of the
furnace is maintained in high-temperature reduction atmosphere. Due to this condition,
heavy metals such as lead and cadmium easily become volatile and concentrate in the
generated gas or dust. Thus the ratio of such heavy metals moving into slag is very
small. Table 4 shows the chemical composition of slag obtained which can be used as
an add-on material for building roads.
Table 4 Chemical Composition of Slag

Chemical Amount
Component
SiO2 (wt. %) 35.9
CaO (wt. %) 34.4
Al2O3 (wt. %) 25.3
MgO (wt. %) 3.2
FeO (wt. %) 0.56
Pb (ppm) 10
As (ppm) <1
Zn (ppm) 10
Cd (ppm) 4
CONCLUSIONS AND CURRENT WORK
Since recycling of municipal solid waste materials is a major issue in Japan and in most
countries, much research is currently underway for development of highly efficient
technologies that counteract the accumulation of solid wastes. However, assessment of
newly environmentally conscious technologies such as waste gasification should be
based on a proper understanding and representation of uncertainty and variability. In my
own opinion, probabilistic analysis has implications for the development of more realistic
estimates for pollution prevention and cost of new type gasification and smelting system
which can produce dioxin-free and high-calorie purified gas and high-quality slag without
using coke.
201
1. Gasifying and melting in the

reducing atmosphere (dioxin control)
2. High-temperature melting
3. Reforming to high-quality gas Control of dioxin 1. High-calorie gas
4. High-quality gas decomposition 2. High-efficiency
Collection of
marketable energy collection
metals
Combustion gas
Pretreatment
Waste (crushing,
drying and
selection)
Chimney
Bag Filter
Wet gas treatment
Marketable
Denitrating equipment
Heat collecting facility
Rapid cooling tower

Metals
Oxygen
Air PSA
(Slaked lime, etc.)
Gasification and Smelting surface

Flying ash treatment Power Generation
High-temperature, facility
high-efficiency combustion
Molten slag (high-quality slag) Reduction Electricity selling
Figure 2 Flowchart of Waste Gasification and Smelting System
202
EXGAS
CHIMNEY
HEATCOLL
SOLWASTE GAS1N
CRUSHER
DESULFUR
CAUSTIC CLEANGAS
AIR SLALIME HCALGAS DENITRAT
GASIFIER
FILTEGAS ELECHEAT
CGAS COOLER COOLGAS

NONMETAL VSSCRUBB
DRYER
CRUSHED Q
NITRATES
SULCHLOR
DRIED
ASH
SEPARATE
MOLTSLAG
Figure 3 Preliminary ASPEN Flowsheet Model of 20-ton/day Waste Gasification and Smelting System
203
This work is still in progress. The following are currently being done:
1. Development of flowsheet models for the case of waste gasification process and
running it for several times using ASPEN Plus software;
2. Identification of model outputs and together with key inputs to develop a simplified
form model as a replacement for the flowsheet simulation model.
3. Evaluation of the goodness-of-fit of the equations and modify as needed and

implementation of the set of simplified equations as a reduced form model
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank the financial support of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).
REFERENCES
Frey, H.C.; Bharvirkar, R.; Thompson, R.; & Bromberg, S. (1998), Quantification of
Variability and Uncertainty in Emission Factors and Inventories, Conference on the
Emission Inventory, Air and Waste Management Association, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
December.
Frey, H.C. & Bharvirkar, R., (1998), Desktop Modeling of the Performance, Emissions,
and Cost of Gasification Systems, in Proceedings of the 91st Annual Meeting , Air and
Waste Management Association, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, June.
Frey, H.C. & Rubin, E. (1992), Evaluation of Advanced Coal Gasification Combined-
Cycle Systems under Uncertainty, Industrial Eng. Chem. Research, Vol. 31, pp. 1299-
1307.
Hess, R.W. & Myers, C.W. (1989), Assessing Initial Cost Growth and Subsequent Long-
term Cost Improvement in Coal-to-SNG Processes, Report No. GRI-89/0129: Gas
Research Institute: Chicago, Il., June.
Merrow, E.W.; Phillips, K.E.; & Myers, C.W. (1981), Understanding Cost Growth and
Performance Shortfalls in Pioneer Process Plants, Report No. R-2569-DOE, Rand
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA., September.
Sasaki, A., Matsuno, Y., Yamashita, M. & Adachi, Y. (2002), Environmental Impact of
Chemical and Energy Recovery by High-Temperature Gasification of Municipal Solid
Wastes, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on EcoBalance, Tsukuba,
Japan, Nov. 6-8.
Yamamoto, T., Isaka, K, Sato, H. Matsukura, Y. and Ishida, H. (2000), Gasification and
Smelting System Using Oxygen Blowing for Municipal Waste, ISIJ International, Vol. 40,
No.3, pp. 260-265.
204
STABILIZATION OF BORAX WASTES1
Hakan Koyuncu, Assist.Prof. Dr; Yücel Güney, Assist.Prof. Dr.

Anadolu University Civil Eng.Dep. Eskisehir-TURKEY, Tel:90-222-3213550,
hkoyuncu@anadolu.edu.tr; yguney@anadolu.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
Boron minerals are among the most important minerals in modern technology, and they are gradually
gaining importance. They have wide areas of utilization such like drug industry, agriculture, metallurgy,
space industry, nuclear applications, and construction of fire-proof materials. 63% of all the reserves in
the world are in Turkey, and 16% is in USA.
In this study, trommel sieve waste (TSW) extracted from upper part of solving gutter in the reactor
during the borax production from Tincal in Eti Bor A.Ş. Kırka Boron Enterprise, located in Eskişehir in
Kırka, has been used. Mixing to the grounds and ground water with some heavy metals such as Pb,
Cu, Co, Ni and forming several complexes; boron compounds constitutes serious health and
environmental problems. This borax (TSW) waste materials has been grinded in dried form and
optimum water content has been determined by sieving from fine sieve with no of 100 (0.150 mm). In
order to reduce the damages of boron elements in waste and to gain strength, chemical and micro
structural tests have been conducted after stabilized with lime, cement and zeolite.
As a result of these tests, the physical, mechanical, environmental, and chemical properties of TSW
were improved. It has been found that it was possible to use the waste as road sub-structure material,
and back filling material. Thus boron waste, which causes environmental pollution, can be stored
safely or reuse.
Keywords: borax wastes, Turkey, environmental pollution, chemical stabilization
1. INTRODUCTION
Turkey is a rich country with regards of boron reserve. Approximately, of the 1 billion
ton boron ores in the world, 54 % of which is available in Turkey. It is estimated that
boron consumption in the world in years of 2000 is 1,42 million tons B2O3. 30-45% of
this consumption has been eventuated by USA and 45-50% of which is by West
European countries. Turkey has met 40-50% of world consumption. Total of annual
raw material production is 1.3 million tons in Turkey. This enterprise, which is
founded in Kırka, works only on pentahydrate (Na2B4O7.5H2O) production, and has a
serious solid/liquid waste problem, and consumes plenty of raw materials. Solid
wastes are discarded in the open area, and liquid wastes are collected in dams. Total
amount of TSW waste is annually 250.000 ton/year. Total amount of clay pulp waste,
discarded to ponds, is 100.000 ton/year. The Na2B4O7 amount is approximately 8%,
and boron amount is 15% of this TSW waste.
Among the important boron ores, tincal (Na2B4O7.10H2O), ulexite (NaCaB5O9.H2O),

colemanite (Ca2 B6O11.5H2O), razorit (Na2B4O7.4H2O) tincalconite (Na2B4O7.5H2O)
can be specified. By these boron ores different boron compounds are produced. For
example, borax (Na2B4O7), boric acid (H3BSO3), sodium perborate, borax
pentahidrate (Na2B4O7.5H2O) can be specified. A typical scheme borax production
facility is shown in Figure 1 (Boncukcuoğlu, et.al., 2003)
1
205
Fig.1. A process diagram of borax production from tincal (Boncukcuoglu, et.al., 2003).
Borax is a highly soluble material and increases viscosity, toughness and strength in
many materials and reduces the radiation, sound, thermal permeability. For this
reason, boron products are used in many areas such as glass, drug, paint, airplane,
ceramic industry, agriculture, metallurgy, nuclear applications, glaze and enameled
coatings, steel and space industries, automotive industry, rocket fuel, capsule,
radiation preventive sheaths, fire extinguishers, radio tube.
Boron element is available in nature generally as sodium and calcium compounds. In

Kırka it is as sodium compounds. Boron element is available approximately 10 ppm
(0.001) in earth’s crust and 3-5 ppm in seawater and 31 ppm in rocks. Human body
takes average of 10-20 mg boron on daily basis. In drinking water utmost 20 ppm
boron amount is permitted. In case the boron amount is exceeded 4 ppm in irrigation
water, it is accepted as harmful. Boron can be available in many compounds of
minerals. In general, it is not available as free element in nature, is available as oxide
by combining with oxygen.
The TSW contains some insoluble and soluble boron minerals with clay. Boron
compounds in this waste discharged to land dissolved by rain water, and pass to soil
where they form some complexes with heavy metals such as Pb, Cu, Co, Ni, Cd,
etc., so that the potential toxicity of these metals increases, and cause some serious
health and environmental problems when the complexes pass to groundwater.
Hence, there is a necessity of making use of this waste in large amount to avoid the
environmental problems (Sciler, 1988). Borax production from tincal is produced by
batch process. Production method can be described briely: the concentrate tincal
having about 10 mm particle size is fed to a stirred reactor containing water heated at
95–100.C. After the treatment undissolved part of the tincal called trommel sieve
206
waste (TSW) is discharged (İçelli et. al. 2003). There is no so many studies on TSW.
In these studies, TSW wastes are used within cement by additional materials
(Boncukoğlu et al, 2002), recovery of boron oxide (B2O3) within waste material has
been performed (Boncukoğlu et al, 2003), and measurement of mass attenuation
coefficient (İçelli et al, 2003) has been calculated. However there are many
researches conducted on boron ores. Stabilized solid and liquid wastes, they have
been used in cement (Kula et al, 2003; Hall et al, 2000, Palome and Fuente, 2002;
Boncukoğlu et al, 1999a). In another study, while researching composition of boron
wastes (Erdoğan et al, 1998) boron wastes have used for production of masonary
cement (Shiao and Tsai, 1989)
2. MATERIALS USED
TSW was taken from Eti Bor Inc. Co. Kırka Bor Enterprice. Cement, lime and natural
zeolite (clinoptilolite), used in this study are the materials sold commercially. Figures
for chemical (X-ray) analysis of this materials used in tests can be found in Table 1.
Some phsicochemical properties of these additional materials used, can be found in
Table 2.
In conclusion of index tests, it has been found out that TSW wastes include 62% of
clay and its specific gravity value is 2.34. Grain diameter dispersions of this TSW and
additional materials are shown in Figure 2.
Table1. Physicochemical properties of TSW, lime, cement and zeolite materials used.
Additives pH CEC EC SM LI Gs UW Grain Size Distribution (%)
(meq/100g) (mS/cm) (%) (%) (gr/l) Sand Silt Clay Cu Cc
TSW 7,83 30.24 1.14 0.1 6.11 2.34 1.39 - 38 62 170 1.7
Lime 12.60 16.43 6.29 0.5 11.38 2.45 0.53 5 75 20 6 1.8
Cement 12.63 21.74 4.97 1.9 2.95 3.19 1.01 6 58 36 12 0.8
Zeolite 8.20 165.17 2.09 5.8 3.14 2.63 0.95 2 74 24 7 1.6
CEC: Cation Exchange Capacity, EC: Electrical Conductivity, SM: Water Content, LI: Loss of Ignition,
UW:Unit Volume Weight
Table 2. Chemical analysis of TSW, lime, cement and zeolite.

Additives B2O3 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO P2O3 K2O Na2O SO3 Cl Mn2O3 KK CO2
TSW 8.15 15.54 4.59 0.13 12.81 16.23 0.08 0.31 4.13 0.01 0.001 0.04 8.13 1.03
Lime 0.01 2.72 0.37 0.25 63.88 4.00 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.004 0.00 27.48 10.52
Cement 0.01 20.35 5.19 3.34 64.56 1.52 0.07 0.70 0.05 2.04 0.003 0.07 1.26 4.86
Zeolites 0.01 71.39 13.30 0.94 2.74 0.71 0.03 3.69 0.47 0.01 0.001 ---- 6.25 0.96
KK :Loss of ignition, BS: water adsorbed
207
100
Lime
90 Cement
Zeolite
80 TSW
70
Percent Finer (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 0,0001
Grain Size (mm)

Figure 2. Gronulometry Curves of TSW, lime, cement and zeolite in the experiments
3. METHODS
TSW has been sieved from fine sieve number of 100 (0.150 mm) and mixed with
lime, cement and zeolite in proportion to 10%, 20% and 30% of its weight. Nine units
of stabilization mixture performed with TSW waste is shown in Table 3.
3.1. Compaction test
Aim of compaction is to find out the moisture content in which dry unit weight is found
by compacted soil. While unit volume weight increases, usually its shear strength
also increases but its permeability and settlement decrease (Aytekin, 2000).
Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D 1140-54) has been used for all mixtures. For each
of total 10 sets made in the study, optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit
volume weight have been determined with standard compaction apparatus. These
valuse determined in the laboratory are given in Table 3.
Relations between optimum water contents, determined by standard proctor test, and
maximum dry unit volume are shown in Figure 3. Optimum water content of TSW is
found out as 20.63% and dry unit volume weight is 1.90 Mg/m3. While the dry unit
volume weight of waste, nixed with lime and zeolite, decreases, optimum water
content has been increased. In TSW and cemented mixtures, while the cement rate
increases, dry unit volume weight increases and water content reduces.
208
Table 3. Mixes and compaction test results

Number Materials woptimum γdry
SET 1 1.0 TSW 20.63 1.90
SET 2 1.0 TSW + 0.1 Lime 20.52 1.67
SET 3 1.0 TSW + 0.2 Lime 21.78 1.56
SET 4 1.0 TSW + 0.3 Lime 22.31 1.40
SET 5 1.0 TSW + 0.1 Cement 17.23 1.95
SET 6 1.0 TSW + 0.2 Cement 15.08 2.05
SET 7 1.0 TSW + 0.3 Cement 12.69 2.07
SET 8 1.0 TSW + 0.1 Zeolite 20.52 1.80
SET 9 1.0 TSW + 0.2 Zeolite 21.08 1.67
SET 10 1.0 TSW + 0.3 Zeolite 21.22 1.61
Fig 3. Compaction effort and molding water content for mixtures.
3.2. Unconfined Compression Test

Unconfined compression test is a frequently used test for determining the shear
strength of the soil. Test is made, fixing the deformation speed in a definite range and
checking the deformation. Immediately after the compaction, mixtures were cured for
fresh (1 day), 7 days and 28 days, it’s been made with unconfined compression test
(ASTM 2166-91) and results were given in Figure 4.
Unconfined compression strength of TSW is found out for fresh cure of 7 days and
28 days as 156, 167 and 183 kN/m2 in turn in order. Unconfined compression
209
strength of cement mixture of 30%, having the highest strength rate among these
mixtures, is found out for fresh samples of 7 days and 28 days as 295, 526, 94 kN/m2
in turn in order. It is observed that the raising affect in around of 20-25% on strength
values of zeolite mixtures.
Fig.4. Unconfined compression strenght for TSW and stabilization mixtures.
As it is seen in Figure 4, mechanic strength is increased with increase of cure time

and amount of additional material. Among these additional materials cement strength
is three times of zeolite and lime strengths at the same amount. This is increased in
parallel of increase of cure time. Unconfined compression strength can be
maintained by high rate use of cement sufficiently.
3.3. California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR)
California Bearing ratio test is a kind of developed test in order to determine whether
soil can be used for bottom structure of highways or not. The ratio of resistance of
soil to penetration piston which is pricked with 1.27 mm/min. (0.05 inch/min) speed in
soil sample to resistance of a standard broken stone sample for the same penetration
depth is called as California Bearing Ratio or shortly CBR test. The more moisture
content and unit volume weight change, the more number of CBR changes. In CBR
test, the shear strength of soil is measured. At the end of the test bearing ratio of soil
is reached. This value isn’t a constant value and changes according to moisture
content and unit volume weight. In the tests for all mixtures 56 strokes to each layer
were made (ASTM D 1557 D) as five layers. Test results have been given Figure 5.
210
CBR value of TSW waste is determined as 13% and the best effect is occurred in
cement, lime and zeolite mixtures in turn and in order. CBR value of mixtures, which
are added cement are in compliance with the sub-base criteria of Standards of
Turkish Highways. This is especially on usable level of constructions ancillary road in
rural regions as expected.
Fig. 5. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) for TSW and stabilization mixtures.
3.4. Permeability Test
The flow of water through porous soil media is called as permeability. Knowledge for
the quantity of underground constructions and for making stability analysis in earth
dams and also for determining the earth retaining structures towards seepage forces.
Permeability tests have been done triaxial-cell method with back pressure.
Advantage of this test is that the seepages between the sample edges and cell
pressure are prevented and loads which the sample can meet in-situ are appliable
(US EPA Test Method 9100; Casagrande, 1963;Bjerrum and Huder, 1957).
Cylinder sample which has been put into its triaxial cell is covered with membran.
During the test, cell pressure shouldn’t be smaller than the top pressure. Computing
of permeability has been made according to falling head test. Permeability values
belonging to mixtures are given in Figure 6.
Permeability value of TSW waste is found out fresh for 7 days and 28 days of cure as
6.18x10-7, 5.25x10-7, 4.85x10-7 cm/s. Additional materials used for stabilization have
reduced the expected permeability. Among the reasons thereof, occurrence of a
211
solid, monolithic and aggloramated structure formed in conclusion of pozzolanic

reactions. By these reactions diameter of grain is enlarging.
Fig.6. Permeability for TSW and stabilization mixtures.
3.5. Test of Freeze Thaw
Freeze/Thaw Durability shows the measurement of strength that soils resist to

freeze-thaw stresses, or in other words, it shows the resistance against
environmental conditions. In this test, cured samples are subjected to 12 cycle
interval of freeze –thaw. Freeze-thaw cycle is provided with freezing in -20°C for 24
hours and thawing in +20°C water for 24 hours. After each thaw, surface of sample
is brushed with a special brush. At the end of 12 cycle, amount of loss weight
occurred in the sample should not pass 15 % (ASTM D4842). Results of test are
given in Figure 7.
Weight loss of TSW waste in freeze thaw test is found out as 86%. This value is
rather insufficient for strength. In other words, it is clear that it cannot be used without
recovery. It is observed that cemented mixtures rather increase the freeze thaw
strength.
212
3.6. Leachate Test
Leachate test is a test that can represent the environmental conditions. It gives the
suitable limit of how much leakage would be occurred for samples against liquids to
be passed through in.
One of the best indicators of the stabilization efficiency is the result of a leaching test
on the stabilized mixture. Leachate is the major long-term concern in the stabilization
of wastes. Leaching can be defined as the process by which a component of waste is
transported mechanically or chemically into solution from the stabilization and
solidification matrix by the passage of a solvent such as water (Poon 1989). The
leachability of metals was reduced at a high pH between 9 and 10 due to the
formation of insoluble hydroxides or the adsorption phenomena (van der Sloot et al.
1989).
Specimens were a height of 11.5 cm and a diameter of 10 cm. First, 7 Pa of back

pressure and 14 Pa of hydraulic head were applied to the specimen in the triaxial
permeability test apparatus until the saturation was completed. Then, all drainage to
and from the specimen was closed so that drainage from the specimen did not occur.
After that, leachates were collected (30 ml) after 1 days (24 hours) to analyze for total
metals, pH and electrical conductivity. Next, all drainage to and from the specimen
was again closed so that drainage from the specimen did not occur. Finally,
leachates were collected after 7 and 28 days and the same procedure was applied to
them. Total metal concentration, pH and electrical conductivity of mixture are given
in Table 4.
Fig. 7. Freeze thaw tests results for TSW and stabilization mixtures.
213
3.7. Total Metal Content
Stabilized and unstabilized TSW specimens were dried at 105oC for 24 hours and
ground to pass through a No. 100 sieve. One gram of the specimens was then
digested in 3:1 concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid mixture for 2 hours at
80oC. The diluted digests were then filtered through a 0.2 mm cellulose nitrate filter
(Harding and Goyette 1989). The elements were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (AAS) (Perkin Elmer AAS 3110). All metal analyses were
performed in the laboratory.
The control of pH is necessary for metal stabilization in most stabilization and

solidification systems. Heavy metals can precipitate as hydroxides at pH values,
generally between 9 to 11 (Lanouette 1977). High pH is desirable because metal
hydroxides have minimum solubility in the pH range between 7.5 and 11 (Connor
1990). The solubility of chromium, zinc, nickel and lead is minimal in the pH range
between 7.5 and 9. Solubility increases rapidly above pH 9 (Connor 1990). The soil
pH should be maintained between 6 and 8 to minimize the immobilization and
degradation processes (API 1983).
Total metal concentrations of mixtures after leachate test period are given in Figure
7. Total heavy metal values after leachate test of mixtures are lower than allowable
limits except Boron elements.
Fig. 8. Total metal content and leachate test result for Boron
3.8. Electrical Conductivity and pH
The pH of specimens was measured by a pH meter (Cole Parmer 39000-50). Twenty

grams of air dried (20±3oC) specimens were sieved at No. 40, homogeneously mixed
with 50 ml distilled water and then left for 1 hour to determine the pH of mixtures
according to EPA Method 9045 (Test 1986). Accumulation and migration of salt were
measured by a conductivity meter (Omega CDB-70). Approximately two hundred and
fifty grams of air dried (20±3oC) specimens were sieved at No. 16, homogeneously
mixed with distilled water to make a pasty mixture and then left for 24 hours to
214
determine the electrical conductivity (EC) of mixtures (Wilcox 1946; Karakouzian et

al. 1996). The extent of the accumulation and migration of salt measured by electrical
conductivity is strongly influenced by climate. Sites located in arid areas have the
highest EC values in the surface soil ranging from 3 to 10 milisimens/cm, whereas
sites locates in humid areas typically had EC values less than 1 milisimens/cm.
In this study, pH and electrical conductivity values of samples were determined for all
mixtures. pH and electrrical conductivity values of samples are given Table 4.
3.9. Cation Exchange Capacity
CEC is an important parameter the attenuation of leachate through a clay mixtures. If

the CEC of a clay mixtures is high, more contaminants is removed from the leachate.
Sodium saturation method was used to determine the CEC of mixtures (Chapman,
1965).
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by sodium saturation method

(Chapman 1965). First, four grams of specimens sieved at No.100 were saturated
with 100 ml sodium acetate (NaOAc) to replace the exchangeable cations. Second,
specimens were washed with 100 ml isoprophyl alcohol (CH3CH(OH)CH3) to remove
the excess saturating salt. Third, specimens were washed with 100 ml ammonium
acetate (NH4OAc) which released the absorbed sodium back into the solution. The
amount of sodium was determined by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS)
(Perkin Elmer AAS 3110). All CEC measurements were made at pH 7 solution of the
specimens. The pH was controlled by pH meter (Cole Parmer 39000-50) using either
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or acetic acid (C2H4O2). The CEC refers to the total
amount of cations which are held exchangeably by a unit mass or a weight of soil
(meq/100gr soil). The CEC of a soil depends on its clay, humus and organic matter
content. The CEC is an indication of the relative capacity of a soil to retain metal
ions. Electrical conductivity, pH and cation exchange capacity of B/Z mixture after
leachate test are given in Table 4.
Table 4. pH, Electrical Conductivity and Cation Exchange CapacityTest Results

pH EC CEC
µS/cm (meq/100 g)
1.0 TSW 7.83 1142 30.24
1.0 TSW + 0.1 Lime 8.37 2836 25.63
1.0 TSW + 0.2 Lime 8.72 3182 21.72
1.0 TSW + 0.3 Lime 9.34 3547 19.31
1.0 TSW + 0.1 Cement 8.15 1930 27.13
1.0 TSW + 0.2 Cement 8.37 3320 21.35
1.0 TSW + 0.3 Cement 8.85 3464 18.28
1.0 TSW + 0.1 Zeolite 7.87 1272 35.23
1.0 TSW + 0.2 Zeolite 7.93 1428 41.62
1.0 TSW + 0.3 Zeolite 8.01 1649 48.86
3.10. Scanning Electron Microscopy Photographs
TSW were prepared for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Specimens
were examined for microstructure (fabric) by SEM and for chemical composition by
the energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) technique using a LEO 440 model scanning
215
electron microscope. The SEM specimens were prepared by critical point drying
technique as outlined by Bennett et al. (1977). They were initially treated with
acetone and a critical point drying apparatus was utilized to replace the acetone with
CO2. Specimens were held on an aluminum sample holder with adhesive type. Later,
they were coated with gold to minimize charge build up and examined under the
SEM. Specimens were then scanned for chemical composition using EDX.
The scanning electron microscope is an ideal tool to observe the features of the
fabric of soil. Soil microstructure is a function of the fabric and the physico-chemistry
of the soil-waste-additive system. Microstructural units are not only composed of
single particles but also compounds particles held together by physico-chemical
forces. Compounds particles are domains, aggregates, agglomerates, flocculates
and organic compounds. Physico-chemical forces are responsible for aggregating
clay particles and holding them together. The scanning electron micrographs of
mixtures are given in Figures 9(a) and 9(b). Flocculated and agglomerated structures
can be seen from these Figures.
a) b)
Figure 9. SEM photographs of Borax Trommel Sieve Waste (TSW).
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this study, stabilization of TSW wastes with lime, cement and zeolite has been
investigated. TSW wastes have boron compounds in high amount. It is possible to
reduce the harmful effects boron element due to the fact that it forms certain danger
for ground water, by stabilized before storing on land. In conclusion of conducted
tests, the findings can be summarized as follows:
1. By adding lime and zeolite into the boron waste up to the 20% of its weight, CBR
value, to be used as sub material of road, can be reached. However, in order to
reduce freeze thaw loss below value of 15% and to maintain good dispersion of grain
diameter, addition 40% of crushed aggregate and sand into this mixture shall give the
best results.
216
2. According to the total metal and leakage water analysis conducted, boron element
of TSW wastes may reduce the damages. However, in order to maintain this, it is
thought that addition of both zeolite and lime materials into TSW will be more
conformable. Because of using of zeolite, has high rate of absorbent, and lime,
forming pozzolanic reaction, together will give more effective results. It is estimated
that by use of both material together the reducing amount in boron element would be
between 40-60%.
As a result of stabilization methods, the physical, mechanical, environmental, and

chemical properties of boron waste (TSW) were improved. It has been found that it
was possible to use the waste as road sub-structure material, and back filling
material. Thus boron waste, which causes environmental pollution, can be stored
safely or reuse.
REFERENCES
ASTM, 1995. Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Soil and Rock (I): Philadelphia (Am.
Soc. Testing and Mater.).
Aytekin, M., 2000, Experimental Soil Mechanics, Akademi Press, Trabzon-Turkey,

264 p (in Turkish).
Bennett, R.H., Bryant, W.R. and Keller, G.H., 1977, Clay fabric and geotechnical
properties of selected submarine sediment cores from the Missisippi Delta. NOAA,
Missisippi, Professional Paper 9, 96.
Boncukcuoglu, R., Kocakerim, M. M., Erşahan, H., 1999, Upgrading of the reactor
waste obtained during borax production, technical note, Mineral Engineering, Vol, 12
No. 10, pp. 1275-1280, 1999.
Boncukcuoglu, R., Yilmaz, M. T., Kocakerim, M. M., Tosunoğlu, V., 2002, Utilization
of trommel sieve waste as an additive in Portland cement production, Cement and
Concrete Research 32 (2002) 35–39
Boncukcuoglu, R., Kocakerim, M. M., Kocadagistan, E., Yilmaz, M. T., 2003,

Recovery of boron of the sieve reject in the production of borax, Resources,
Conservation and Recycling 37 (2003) 147-157.
Bjerrum, L. And Huder, J., 1957, Measurement of the Permeability of Compacted

Clays, Proceedings, Fourth International Conference On Soil Mechanics And
Foundation Engineering, London, Vol 1, Aug 1957, Pp.6-8.
Chapman, H.D., 1965, Cation exchange capacity in methods of soil analysis, by

Black, C.A. Editor, Part 2, 891-901, No. 9, in the Series Agronomy; Am. Inst.
Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin. No.9,pp.891-901
Casagrande, A., 1963, Third Progress Report on Ivestigation of Stress Deformation

and Strength Characteristics of Compacted Clays, Soil Mechanics Series No:70,
Nov.1970, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Pp.30 And 31.
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Erdogan Y, Aksu M, Demirbas A, Yüksel A., 1998, Analyses of boronic ores and
sludges and solubility of boron minerals in CO2-saturated water. Resour Conserv
Recycling 1998; 24:275-183.
İçelli, O., Erzeneoğolu, S., Boncukcuoğolu, R., 2003, Measurement of mass

attenuation coefficients of some boron compounds and the trommel sieve waste in
the energy 3 range 15.746–40:930 keV, Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy &
Radiative Transfer (2003), in press.
Karakouzian, M. Pitchford., A., Leonard.M. and Johnson.B., 1996, Measurement of

soluble salt content of soils from Arid and Semi-Arid Regions, Geotechnical Testing
Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 19, No. 4, December 1996, pp.364-372.
Sciler HG., 1998, Handbook on toxicity of inorganic compounds. New York: Marcel
Decker Inc, 1998.
Shiao SJ, Tsai CM., 1989, The study on improving masonry cement for the
solidification of borate wastes. Radioact Waste Manage Nucl Fuel Cycle 1989;
11(4):319-31.
U.S. EPA Method 9045, 1986, Physical/chemical methods, soil pH, test methods for
evaluating solid waste, (SW-846), Vol’s. IA, IB, IC and II., Third Edition, Doc. Control
No:955-001-00000-1, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington,
DC. 20460, Environmental Protection Agency, pp. 9045-1-6, September, 1986.
U.S. Epa Method 9100, (1986), Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Saturated

Leachate Conductivity, And Intrinsic Permeability, (Sw-846), Vol’s. Ia, Ib, Ic And Iı.,
Third Edition, Doc. Control No:955-001-00000-1, Office Of Solid Waste And
Emergency Response, Washington, Dc. 20460, Environmental Protection Agency,
Pp. 9100-1-57, September, 1986.
Wilcox, J.C., 1946, Determination of electrical conductivity of soil solution, Science

Agronomy. 32: pp.107-117
218
REUSE OF CERAMIC WASTES1
Hakan Koyuncu, Assist.Prof. Dr.; Yücel Güney, Assist.Prof. Dr.;

Serkan Koyuncu, MS Student
Anadolu University, Civil Eng.Dep., Eskisehir-Turkey, Tel: 90-222-3213550
hkoyuncu@anadolu.edu.tr, yguney@anadolu.edu.tr,
serkankoyunc@anadolu.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
There are several waste materials coming out of ceramics industry, and these wastes cause certain
environmental problems. Here in this study ceramic mud wastes (CMW), crushed ceramic tile wastes
(CCTW) and ceramic tile dust wastes (CTDW) were used. Waste mud coming from glaze unit were
stabilization by lime, cement, zeolite, sand and crushed stone, and its usability in road sub-base were
investigated. Crushed ceramic tile wastes in granular form were used in concrete mixes. Ceramic tile
waste dust particles with diameter smaller than 0.02 mm were used in expanding grounds, and their
swelling potential was examined. Performance of the mixes was studied in geotechnical, concrete and
chemical experiments. According to the results of these experiments, a remarkable decrease was
noted in the Zn content of waste mud coming from ceramic refinery plant stabilized with lime and
zeolite. And it was decided that crushed tile wastes could be used in the production of concrete
blocks. Swelling pressure and swelling percent of Na-Bentonite clay mixed with 40% crushed tile dusts
are decreased 70% and 36%, respectively.
Keywords: ceramic wastes, reuse, environmental protection
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Most important problems arising from industrial and technological developments are
abundance and harmful effects of post-productive wastes. In most of the developed
countries, these effects are avoided by orderly storing methods. Storing the wastes in
random stacks in the site, and their effect on wide areas give rise to the risk of
ground, air and underwater pollution. Therefore, in most engineering branches,
effects and nature of harmful wastes are investigated and solution methods are
developed. In ceramic industry, mud coming from refinery system, and tile wastes
are kept in a storage area near the refinery plant until a certain amount is reached,
and then it is transported to the final storage area without being subjected to any pre-
process. There is a high rate of zinc in this ceramic refinery mud originating from
glazure unit. Waste tiles are not thought to be contaminated in environmental terms.
The most widely used method for improving the wastes is the
stabilization/solidification (S/S) technique. As, it can be applied to varieties of wastes
and the materials used for this technique are easily found everywhere (EPA 600,
1978). What is achieved by stabilization is that a solid, monolithic integral form can
be obtained, with other words, free water in the waste can be bound through a
chemical reaction, and pollution can be transformed to a stationary norm (Weitzman,
1990). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), define all chemical fixation
and solidification methods as stabilization (Conner, 1990). At the end of stabilization,
pollution must be bound, or physical and chemical properties of the waste must be
improved by changing its chemical properties (EPA, 1990; Hwang, 1988).
1
ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publisher House, Bucharest, Romania
219
Ceramic waste tiles were used as cement products. For this purpose, it was mixed
into Portland cement in the ratios of 25%, 30%, 35% and 40%, and pozzolanic nature
of waste tiles was studied (Ay and Unal, 2000). It was treated with Portland cement
and mixed with clay, offering two possibilities of solidification/ stabilization prior to
landfilling, and reutilization in ceramic products, respectively. The obtained products
were characterized by the determination of ecotoxicity values, EC50, of the TCLP
leachates and the chemical characterization of DIN-38414-S4 leachates. The
unconfined compressive strength (UCS) was determined in all derived products .
Cement formulations show values of EC50 higher than 3000mg l± 1 and high
concentrations of chromium in the DIN 38414-S4 leachates, due to the alkaline
medium resulting from the cement addition. The clay/waste products are non-
hazardous based on the EC50 and the low concentrations of heavy metals in the
leachates. The paper establishes environmental characterization of both kind of
products, showing that there are environmental benefits of waste dosiccation in
ceramic materials (Viguri et al, 2001). Frits are materials of a vitreous nature which
are used for obtaining the glaze used to coat glazed ceramic tiles. The study
investigates the possibility of utilizing the used catalyst from the FCC (fluidized
catalyst cracking) units involved in petroleum refining, to substitute for kaolin as a raw
material in the preparation of ceramic frits. On accessing the aesthetic and technical
characteristics (whiteness, gloss, microhardness, etc.) of the glazes obtained from
two frits that were prepared by substituting kaolin with the industrial waste mentioned
above, no important differences were observed relative to the characteristics of the
glazes obtained from the standard frits. (Escardino et al, 1995). Argonne National
Laboratory-East (ANL-E) has begun production-scale testing of a low-level and
mixed radioactive waste solidification system. This system will be used to treat low-
level and mixed radioactive waste to meet land burial requirements. The system can
use any of several types of solidification media, including a chemically-bonded
phosphate ceramic developed by ANL-E scientists. The final waste product will
consist of a solidified mass in a standard 208-L drum. The system uses commercial
equipment and incorporates several process control features to ensure proper
treatment. This paper will discuss the waste types requiring treatment, the system
configuration, and operation results for these waste streams (Wescott, 1998).
2. EXPERIMENTAL
2.1. Materials
Various wastes are produced in ceramic industry. A major part of these wastes is
waste mud coming from the refinery plant. They are called ceramic mud wastes
(CMW). These wastes are those, which are accumulated in the screens of
wastewater treatment plant, sand traps and precipitation tanks. Waste muds are
affected by the waste water coming from the glazure unit, casting and pre-casting
waste water, firing section, printing unit, and waste water coming from other units in
the plant, and they are also affected by the gasses within the system. There is a high
amount of zinc (5285 ppm) in the mud, especially the one coming from the glazure
unit. High-level zinc concentration is vitally toxic for environment and human health.
Original water content of the waste mud used in experiments is 32%, its specific
gravity is 2.55, liquid limit value is 42% and plastic limit value is 27%. As determined
by standard proctor test carried out with waste mud, optimum water content is 32%,
dry unit weight is 1.42 g/cm3 and free compressive strength is 0.88 kg/cm2. Other
220
characteristics for waste mud are given in Table 1 and in Figure 1, a schematic
illustration is given for the wastes coming to refinery plant unit in ceramic industry.
Waste
Glaze
Managing
Wastewater
Waste Mud Stock Tanks
Filter Filter Wastewater

Press Press Treatment Belt
Pres
CERAMIC
Mud Stoning MUD
Preparing Wastewater WASTES
Fig.1. Wastewater sources of ceramic industry refining systems.
Table. 1 Some properties of CMW.
Parameters
Grain Size Distribution (%)
Sand 4±2
Silt 50±5
Clay 44±6
pH 7.86±0.32
Organic Matter 4.03±0.21
CEC 12.22±2.83
EC 0.48±0.26
Chemical composition
Zn 5000±280
Pb 31±9
Ni 20±3
Cd 1±1
Cu 3±3
Fe 1515±350
Another type of waste material produced during the production process in ceramics
industry is defective tiles or the tiles broken during the production. These waste
ceramics that are used in the experiments were crushed with a jaw-crusher and
classified into different diameter groups. Crushed tiles with the diameter 3.8-0.02 mm
are called as crushed ceramic tile wastes-(CCTW), and the ones with diameters
smaller than 0.02 mm are called as ceramic tile dust wastes (CTDW). CCTW and
CTDW don’t contain substances, which have toxic effect on the environment.
221
In this study, crushed aggregate used in concrete plant, sand, (Ca(OH)2), Type I
portland cement, Na-Bentonite and natural zeolite (clinoptilolit) were used. X-ray
diffraction analyses of lime give the following components: for lime, 2.72% SiO2,
0.37% Al2O3 , 0.06% K2O , 4.00% MgO, 0.25% Fe2O3, 63.88% CaO, 0.01 Na2O and
0.02% SO3; for cement, 20.35% SiO2, 5.19% Al2O3 , 0.70% K2O , 1.52% MgO,
3.34% Fe2O3, 64.56% CaO, 0.05 Na2O and 2.04% SO3; for Na bentonite, 59.49%
SiO2, 18.06% Al2O3 , 0.91% K2O , 2.42% MgO, 4.14% Fe2O3, 3.72% CaO, 2.50
Na2O and 0.10% SO3 and for zeolite 71.39% Si, 13.30% Al, 3.69% K, 2.74% Mg,
0.94% Fe, 0.47 Na, 0.03% P and 0.01% S. Gain size distribution for the materials are
given Figure 2.
100
90
80
70
Percent Finer (%)
60
50
40
Sand
30 Crushed Stone
Bentonite
20 Lime
Cement
10 Zeolite
Ceramic waste muds
0
100 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 0,0001
Grain Size (mm)

Fig. 2. Grain size distribution of materials.
2.2. Method
2.2.1. Preparation and results of samples for CMW
CMW was dried in a 105°C oven, and then it was sieved through the sieve #100.
Then, lime, zeolite, cement, sand and crushed aggregate were compacted in a
standard compaction device, having pre-determined the water content. Prepared
mixes are given in Table 2. On these mixes, compaction, free compressive strength,
CBR, permeability and freezing and thawing tests were made.
Aim of compaction is to find out the moisture content in which dry unit weight is found
by compacted soil. While unit volume weight increases, usually its shear strength
also increases but its permeability and settlement decrease (Aytekin, 2000).
Optimum moisture content determined standard proctor tests (ASTM D698). These
values determined in the laboratory are given in Table 3. Unconfined compression
test is a frequently used test for determining the shear strength of the soil and waste.
Test is made, fixing the deformation speed in a definite range and checking the
222
deformation. Unconfined compression test (ASTM 2166-91) results were given in

Table 3. The ratio of resistance of soil to penetration piston which is pricked with 1.27
mm/min. (0.05 inch/min) speed in soil sample to resistance of a standard broken
stone sample for the same penetration depth is called as California Bearing Ratio or
shortly CBR test.
Table 2. Mixtures and percents (%) applied in laboratory.

Mixtures CMW L Z C NB CS S Name
1 100 - - - - -CMW -
2 100 3 - - - -CMW+3% L-
3 100 6 - - - -CMW+6% L-
4 100 9 - - - -CMW+9% L-
5 100 - 3 - - -CMW+3% Z-
6 100 - 6 - - -CMW+6% Z-
7 100 - 9 - - -CMW+9% Z-
8 100 - - 3 - -CMW+3% C-
9 100 - - 6 - -CMW+6% C-
10 100 - - 9 - -CMW+9% C-
11 100 - - - 10 - -
CMW+10% NB
12 100 - - - 20 - -
CMW+20% NB
13 100 - - - 30 - -
CMW+30% NB
14 100 - - - - 10CMW+10% CS
15 100 - - - - 20CMW+20% CS
16 100 - - - - 50CMW+30% CS
17 100 - - - - 10 CMW+10% S
18 20 CMW+20% S
19 100 50 CMW+30% S
20 100 3 3 - - 20 20 CMW+3% L+3% Z+%20 CS+%20
S
21 100 3 3 - 20 20 CMW+3% C+3% Z+%20 CS+%20
S
L:Lime, Z:Zeolite, C:Cement, NB:Na-Bentonite, CS:Crushed Stone, S:Sand
It was developed in 1930 at California State by O.J. Porter. In highways, on sub-base

and base materials CBR tests are carried out. Through CBR tests, any ground is
investigated to see if it is appropriate as a base ground in comparison with a crushed
rock base, which is considered to be the best base layer. If CBR value is between 5
and 30, this ground can be a base ground, if it is between 30 and 50 it can be a sub-
base and if it is greater than 50 it can be a base material. In the tests for ceramic
wastes 56 strokes to each layer were made (ASTM D 1557 D) as five layers. Test
results have been given Table 3. Freeze/Thaw Durability shows the measurement of
strength that soils resist to freeze-thaw stresses, or in other words, it shows the
resistance against environmental conditions. The destruction, which occurs in the
sample as a result of Freezing/Thawing test, is due to the water present in it. When
freezing occurs, the water in the ground makes up ice lenses. As ice lenses thaw
excess water together with other materials form a mud. Thus, the strength of the mix
is lost (Cullilane and Jones, 1989b).
In this test, cured samples are subjected to 12 cycle interval of freeze –thaw.
Freeze-thaw cycle is provided with freezing in -20°C for 24 hours and thawing in
+20°C water for 24 hours. After each thaw, surface of sample is brushed with a
special brush. At the end of 12 cycle, amount of loss weight occurred in the sample
should not pass 15 % (ASTM D4842). Results of test are given in Table 3.
223
Permeability is a good parameter in terms of measuring the ability of the stabilized

mix to pass water through. Permeability of various stabilized mixes varies between
10-5-10-4 cm/sec. The materials that are added for stabilizing decrease the water in
the voids of the mix, and increase its density, and the permeability decreases. Mixes
were compacted with optimum water content, and they were tested. Tests were
carried out in a tri-axial test system, less than 20 psi of constant pressure. For the
samples where sand and gravel are used, hydraulic load is 4 psi, and inverse load is
1 psi. When water, getting into and out of the sample reached to an equal level,
samples came to a state of complete saturation. Then, permeability coefficients of
these samples were determined (US EPA Test Method 9100). Permeability
coefficients for the samples are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Experimental result for CMW

Mixtures wopt dry UCS CBR Permeability Freeze- Ni Ni
(k) Thaw (in mud) (in leachate)
% kg/cm3 kg/cm2 % cm/s % mg/kg dry ml/l
1 31 1.44 1.48 3 6.15 E-8 60 5280 63
2 32 1.42 1.56 7 3.35 E-8 51 3915 31
3 33 1.40 1.63 9 1.27 E-8 40 3105 20
4 34 1.37 2.05 11 8.72 E-7 21 2120 18
5 32 1.43 1.50 5 4.37 E-7 55 3187 26
6 33 1.44 1.62 6 3.98 E-7 51 1365 23
7 35 1.48 1.94 9 1.78 E-8 49 892 11
8 32 1.43 2.18 21 1.54 E-7 45 4180 38
9 33 1.42 2.08 25 2.45 E-7 30 3075 24
10 34 1.41 2.36 30 3.21 E-7 18 1925 15
11 35 1.42 2.01 12 8.21 E-8 46 4215 40
12 31 1.41 2.10 15 8.53 E-8 31 3425 28
13 33 1.40 2.24 21 9.21 E-8 23 2516 19
14 26 1.54 2.20 18 6.15 E-6 28 - 49
15 25 1.59 2.38 20 3.25 E-6 21 - 41
16 23 1.63 2.45 35 6.86 E-5 14 - 34
17 28 1.62 2.24 13 4.23 E-6 48 - 60
18 27 1.61 2.15 15 3.21 E-6 31 - 53
19 25 1.66 2.28 19 3.52 E-5 23 - 51
20 18 1.64 2.36 34 1.18 E-6 10 1683 15
21 15 1.67 2.54 38 1.01 E-6 9 2540 9
2.2.2. Preparation and results of samples for CCTW
Concrete blocks are construction materials, which are similar to bricks. Mostly used
dimensions are 300x200x150mm. This product can be used in bases, walling, arched
openings, corbels and roofing. Since a typical concrete block is equivalent to
approximately 4.5 bricks, constructions can be made faster. Weight of a concrete
block is approximately 15 kg.
In this study ceramic tiles were crushed with a jaw crusher, and a concrete block with
125 dosages was poured. CCW wastes in the dimensions of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate were mixed with cement. Little water was used in the mix. This mix
was compacted with a mechanic press of 20 kg/cm2. Some technical properties of
224
concrete block mixes and particle size distribution of CCW waste are shown in the
Table 4. For concrete block production, concrete compression test, water absorption
test and indirect compress strength were made. As it is seen in Table 4, 28-day
compressive strength is 40-70 kg/cm2 on average. 28 day indirect compress strength
of the samples is approx. 20-30 kg/cm2. Water absorption values are 6%
respectively.
Table 4. Technical specifications of CCW Concrete Blocks

Parameter Description
Typical size 300 x 200 x 150 mm
Average compressive strength at 28 days 40 - 70 kg/sq.cm
Average indirect compressive strength at 28
20 - 30 kg/sq.cm
days
Water absorption in 24 hours Less than 6 % by weight of block
1:12 (1 part cement:12 parts sum graded
Mix Proportion
CCW)
Density 1600 kg/m3
Percentage of Grain Size for graded (mm) Optimum Range (%)
4.75-8 CCW 25
2.0-4.75 CCW 35
0.4-2.0 CCW 25
0.2 mm Sand 20
2.2.3. Preparation and results of samples for CTDW
Into Turkish bentonite soil with expanding potential, ceramic tile dust wastes-particles
with diameter smaller than 0.02 mm- were added in the ratios of 10%, 20%, 30% and
40%. Then expanding tests were carried out on the samples, and free expansion
percentage and expansion pressure were determined. Relationship between the free
swelling percent and swelling pressure are shown in Figure 3.
Fig 3. Free swelling percent and swelling pressure values for CTDW
225
3. DISCUSSION
3.1. CMW for Road Sub-base materials
Considering the results of stabilization process, it was concluded that ceramic wastes
could be used in secondary roads as sub-base material or fill ground. According to
the mechanical tests carried out, CBR and UC strengths increased in the mixes
where sand and crushed rock were added. However, permeability values decreased.
In order to reduce high cement concentration, at least 20% lime must be added. If it
is desired to use it as road sub-base material, it must be mixtures made with crushed
rock, sand and lime must be preferred. If freezing/thawing strength is to be elevated,
certain amount of cement must be added into this mixture. Basing on the results of
these tests, since the mixes, in which crushed rock is added to, give high strength
and CBR values; they can be used as road sub-base materials in compliance with
the Turkish Highway Standards.
3.2. CCTW for concrete block production
Producing concrete blocks by using the wastes is an effective solution especially for
the utilization of local resources. Since it doesn’t need advanced technology, it can
easily be used where the waste comes out. It is more cost effective as compared to
other traditional walling systems. In this study, crushed tile wastes were successfully
used in the production of concrete blocks. According to the results, compressive
strength is 40-70 kg/cm2. This value is higher than that obtained with concrete bricks
and other walling systems.
3.3. CTDW using for swelling soil
When waste dusts are added to the grounds with high swelling potential, swelling
potential can be decreased. Also swelling volume is decreased by 50%. This waste
material is not harmful chemically. Therefore, it can safely be used in swollen parts.
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, stabilization of ceramic waste materials and their re-usability as

construction materials were investigated. According to the experimental results, in
order to reduce the contamination levels of CMW, it needs to be stabilized with
additional materials. Also, it has been found out that CCTW can be used as
aggregate in concrete block production or road sub-base. If we generalize these
results, ceramic wastes can be used in secondary roads, as road sub-base material,
as fill ground, at the back of support walls or as granular construction material. By
this way, we can revaluate the wastes; we reduce the risk of environmental pollution,
thus providing a contribution to economy.
REFERENCES
Ay, N. and Ünal M, 2000, The use of waste ceramic tile in cement production,
Cement and Concrete Research, Mar 2000, Vol 30 No 3, pp.497-499.
226
Aytekin, M. (2000), Experimental soil Mechanics, Akademi Press,(in Turkish),

Trabzon, Turkey, p. 264.
Escardino A., Amoros J.L., Moreno A., Sanchez E., 1995, Utilizing the Used Catalyst
from Refinery Fcc Units As a Substitute for Kaolin in Formulating Ceramic Frits,
Waste Management & Research, Dec. 1995, pp: 569-578.
EPA, 1990, Interference mechanism in waste stabilization/solidification process,

Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/2-89/067, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 1990, Handbook on in situ treatment of

hazardous waste-contaminated soils, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory Office
of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, EPA
540/2 - 90/002, 121p.
Hwang, D., 1988, Geotechnical performance evaluation of solidified wastes,

Proceedings of the 20th Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conferance, pp.85-95.
Viguri, J. , Andreâ S, A., Ruiz, C., Irabien, A. and Castro, F., 2001, Cement-Waste
And Clay-Waste Derived Products From Metal Hydroxides Wastes, Environmental
Characterization Trans Icheme, Vol 79, Part B, January 2001.
Weitzman, L., 1990, Factors for selecting appropriate solidification/stabilization

methods, Journal of Hazardous Material, 24, pp.157-168.
Wescott, J., Wagh, A, Singh, D., and Nelson, R., 1998, 2. Low-level and mixed
radioactive waste in-drum solidification, ASCE Practice Periodical of Hazardous
Toxic and Radioactive Waste Management, (USA), Jan 1998, Vol 2 No 1, pp: 4-7.
227
ENHANCEMENT OF CATALYTIC CONVERTERS FOR AIR

CLEANING1
L. Pirault-Roy, I. Boghian-Fifere, P. Marécot and M. Guérin

Laboratoire de Catalyse en Chimie Organique
UMR 6503, 40 Avenue du Recteur Pineau, 86022 POITIERS cedex
Laurence.Pirault@univ-poitiers.fr, Phone : 33 5 49 45 40 59, Fax : 33 5 49 45 40 20
ABSTRACT
Catalytic converters are generally used to reduce pollutants in automotive exhaust fumes. To go
forward in air cleaning and satisfy the future legislation, the performances of the catalytic system must
be improved. Our work deals with the enhancement of the metallic species as well as that of the
support in order to increase activities and selectivities for hydrocarbons oxidation and NOx reduction.
On the other hand, thermal resistance and poisoning sensitivity are also investigated. The results
showed that an original preparation of the metallic function based on redox reaction between metal
and support (named OR) can highly increase the activities for hydrocarbons oxidation. Moreover,
catalysts prepared by this new procedure exhibit higher performances after thermal ageing even in the
presence of sulfur dioxide, one of the main poisons contained in automotive exhaust gas. Some
experiments are also carried out to improve the alumina stabilisation by adding promoters, which can
replace ceria. Praseodymium oxide can be successfully used to delay alumina phase transformation
and to perform OR preparation. Thus, this oxide will be a good candidate for ceria replacement (total
or partial).
Keywords: Catalytic converters, air cleaning, enhancement of the metallic species
INTRODUCTION
During the 20th century, industrial processes raised up in a fantastic way.

Unfortunately, these new advanced technologies are accompanied by an important
increase of waste and pollution (toxic hazards, acid rains, greenhouse effect). One of
the main example is the increase of the number of vehicles on the road which was
estimated to 50 millions in 1950’s and 500 millions in the beginning of 2000’s. A
typical exhaust gas mixture contains three main pollutants : carbon monoxide (CO),
unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Others products as sulfur
oxides (SOx) or lead (Pb) are also present in lesser extent. In France, impact studies
exhibit that automotive exhaust are responsible of 84% of the total CO released in air
during a year, 50% of the HC and 77% of NOx. To fight against air pollution, laws
have been proposed to reduce more and more the pollutants loading in vehicle
exhaust gas (Table 1).
Table 1 : Evolution of the European legislation for pollutants amounts in exhaust gas
of gasoline vehicles
Year 1993 1996 2000 2005

CO 2.72 2.7 2.3 1.0
HC + NOx 0.97 0.5 - -
HC - - 0.20 0.10
NOx - - 0.15 0.08
1
228
Since 1970’s, catalytic converters (1) have been adopted as technological solution to
control automotive gas emissions. The first converters were oxidation processes to
transform CO in carbon dioxide (CO2) and unburned hydrocarbons to water and CO2.
In the 1980’s, three-way catalysts (TWCs) are proposed for exhaust gas treatment
for gasoline-fuelled vehicles to oxidize simultaneous CO, hydrocarbons and reduce
NOx to N2. The active species in converters consist of precious metals as for
example Pt for hydrocarbons and CO oxidations (1) and Rh for NOx reduction (1). In
order to increase surface contact, these metals are scattered over supports namely
alumina (Al2O3) with some additive like ceria (CeO2). Then, the carrier must coat a
monolith of ceramic to improve thermal resistance. Nowadays, these TWCs can
convert 96 % of the amount of pollutants in exhaust gas.
The role of ceria as additive is very important (2). It was shown that ceria could
enhance the reaction between NO and CO to produce CO2 and N2 and the thermal
resistance of precious metals. Indeed, high temperatures as high as 900°C, very
usual for converters, can lead to a drastic lost of catalytic performances caused by
sintering. This phenomenon due to the mobility of surface species under high
temperatures is responsible of the growing of the size of metal particles and
consequently the decrease of the contact surface between active species and
pollutants, which lead of course to this lower performance. Another role of ceria is its
ability to store oxygen under lean operating conditions (in excess of oxygen) and
releases it under rich ones, which favors the oxidation reaction. Moreover, ceria is
known to be a reducible oxide. We attempted to use these redox properties to
develop an original method of preparation for the metallic species (3, 4). Then we
investigated the properties of these new catalysts as it concerns CO and HC
oxidation and NO reduction performances. We also checked its thermal and
poisoning resistance and compared the obtained results to those of the
corresponding classical coimpregnated catalysts. On the other hand, we attempted to
replace all or a part of ceria by praseodymium oxide to enhance the thermal
resistance of the carrier.
EXPERIMENTAL
1- Catalysts preparation
The γ-Al2O3 support (SBET = 100 m2.g-1) was impregnated by an aqueous solution of
cerium chloride in order to obtain an alumina-ceria support with 12 wt% ceria after
calcination at 500°C during 4H. The same procedure was used for the impregnation
of praseodymium chloride but the calcination was carried out at 550°C, 2H. Then,
bimetallic catalysts were prepared by impregnation of hexachloroplatinic acid and
rhodium chloride on the support following two procedures :
- the classical coimpregnation by solutions of the metallic salts (C.I. preparation).

After drying at 120°C overnight, the C.I. catalysts were calcined under airflow at
500°C for 4H and then reduced under hydrogen (500°C, 8H).
- the original successive impregnations of platinum and rhodium salts separated by a

reduction step (O.R. preparation). The monometallic Pt-based catalyst was first
prepared by impregnation of platinum salt. This catalyst was dried at 120°C overnight
and then activated by a calcination (4H, 500°C, in dry air) followed by a reduction
(8H, 500°C, under H2). This reduction step creates reduced ceria species in the
229
vicinity of platinum particles where the rhodium deposition occurs via a redox
reaction between Ce3+ and Rh3+ ions. After drying (at 120°C, overnight), the
bimetallic catalyst was reduced under hydrogen for 2H at 500°C.
Before tests and characterization, all the catalysts were dechlorinated at 500°C for
10H in a stream of N2 + 10% H2O. So, the chlorine content is less then 0.2 wt%.
To investigate thermal performances, the catalysts were aged at temperatures

ranging from 500°C to 1100°C for 16H in a stream containing 10% CO2, 10% H2O,
1% O2 in N2 that simulated sintering conditions in converters.
3- Catalysts performances
a- Propane-propene oxidation
Hydrocarbon oxidation was performed in a flow reactor system. At the outlet of this
reactor was placed a flame ionization detector (FID). The reactant mixture was
composed of 0.2% propene and 0.2% propane with 2% oxygen in nitrogen. The
activity of each catalyst was evaluated by determining its light-off temperature (TLO)
i.e. the temperature needed for 50% conversion. To check sulfur resistance, the
same reaction was carried out under a gas mixture containing 0.2% propene, 0.2%
propane, 2% oxygen, 10% H2O and 20 ppm of SO2 in nitrogen.
b- NO reduction by CO
Catalysts were first reactivated under H2 at 500°C during 2H. Reaction of CO+NO
was then carried out in a flow reactor with a stoichiometric mixture containing 2.0
mol% NO and 2.0 mol% CO in helium. The space velocity was estimated to 20 000 h-
1
. The light-off temperature was determined by studying the NO and CO conversion
from 20°C to 500°C at a heating rate of 2°C. min-1. The conversion were evaluated
by the analysis of the outlet gas mixture by gas chromatography using a CTR1
column that can separate N2, NO, CO, N2O and CO2.
Previous results (5) indicated for a monometallic Pt/Al2O3-CeO2 catalyst that some
capping ceria remains reduced after hydrogen treatment at 500°C and exposure to
air. These reduced cerium atoms play a decisive role in the impregnation of rhodium.
It was clearly pointed out that rhodium deposition occurred via a redox reaction
between Rh3+ ions and these reduced cerium atoms. The properties of these new
materials were evaluated in oxidation of a mixture of propane-propene, hydrocarbons
generally chosen to investigate the performances, and NO reduction by CO. The aim
of this work is (i) to compare the activities and selectivities of these O.R. catalysts
prepared by redox reaction Metal/Support to those of the coimpregnated catalysts,
(ii) to estimate the thermal resistance, (iii) to check the influence of SOx on catalysts
performances and (iv) to test the influence of praseodymium oxide as a new additive
to alumina.
1- Influence of catalysts preparation
The table 2 sums up the light-off temperatures obtained for the propane-propene
oxidation and NO reduction by CO on aged catalysts (the temperature of ageing was
230
fixed at 900°C). It must be kept in mind that the lower the light-off temperature (TLO)
is, the more active the catalyst is. As it concerns reduction of NO by CO, the
selectivities were evaluated by the formation of N2 at the expense of N2O. In table 2,
the amount of NO transformed into N2O was indicated in order to estimate the
selectivities of the catalysts.
Table 2: Catalytic performances for test-reactions of different catalysts as 1%

Pt/Al2O3-CeO2 or 1% Pt - 0.2% Rh/Al2O3-CeO2 prepared by redox reaction or
coimpregnation
Tests reactions Aged catalysts (900°C)

Pt/Al2O3- O.R. catalysts C.I. catalysts
CeO2
Oxidation of TLO for propene 230 206 206
propane- TLO for propane 286 242 369
propene
mixture
Reduction of TLO for NO 323 254 239
NO by CO TLO for CO 326 264 249
T1/2 N2 326 343 348
Amount of N2O 14.3 . 10-4 54.7 . 10-4 43.7 . 10-4
produced a
Light-off temperatures were expressed in °C. T1/2 N2 indicates the apparition of 50% of the
total of N2 produced. (a) Amount of N2O is expressed in mole per gram of catalyst.
After ageing, bimetallic catalysts were most active than the monometallic one in NO
reduction by CO. The presence of rhodium enhances the transformation of NO by
CO whatever the catalyst preparation procedure. However, no increase of the
selectivities was observed for Rh containing catalysts, as T1/2 N2 and amount of N2O
produced were not lower.
For propane-propene mixture oxidation, the preparation procedure (O.R or C.I.) did
not affect significantly the TLO of propene. On the other hand, for propane oxidation,
the catalyst prepared by coimpregnation is less active than the catalyst prepared by
redox reaction Metal/Support.
So, addition of rhodium has a beneficial effect on activities of catalysts to reduce NO

emissions but this metal must be deposited with caution as coimpregnated procedure
lead to a detrimental effect on oxidation performance whereas such drastic lost of
activities is not observed on O.R catalysts.
2- Thermal resistance of active species
To study the enhancement of hydrocarbon oxidation activities, catalysts were

sintered at various temperatures in the range of 500°C to 1100°C under different
oxidative atmospheres. (Figure 1).
231
C .I. ca talysts
40 0
O .R . cata lysts
Temperature for 50% of conversion (°C)

35 0
30 0
25 0
20 0
50 0 600 70 0 800 90 0 100 0 11 00
C a ta lysts a g e in g te m p e ra tu re (°C )
Figure 1 : Influence of thermal ageing on the light-off temperatures (TLO) for propane
oxidation on catalysts prepared by coimpregnation (CI catalysts) or redox reaction (OR
catalysts).
For propane oxidation, the TLO raise up as the thermal treatment increases from
500°C to 800°C. This result is in accordance with the enhancement of propane
oxidation activity as platinum catalyst dispersion decreases. Beyond 800°C, it
appears a higher thermal resistance for O.R. catalysts than for C.I. ones. On the
other hand, no significant difference appeared between the bimetallic catalysts for
propene oxidation whatever the temperature of the thermal treatment. As TLO of
propene are little affected on both kinds of bimetallic catalysts, we can conclude that
the lost of activities arises more from the formation of an inactive Pt-Rh species than
from a high decrease of metallic accessibility. As TWCs generally operate under
oxidising atmospheres and high temperatures from 800°C to 1100°C, O. R. catalysts
appeared to be very promising.
To understand such a specific behavior of O.R. catalysts, characterizations were

performed by different techniques (Electron microscopy, Infra-red studies, XAS
spectroscopy, …). The results suggest the formation of clusters of rather inactive Pt-
Rh alloys for C.I. catalysts (6, 7). The proportion of rhodium engaged in the alloys
increases as the temperature of thermal ageing raises up. So, rhodium dilutes more
and more large ensembles of platinum atoms, which leads to poor catalytic
performances in propane oxidation.
On the other hand, the O.R. preparation creates after activation at 500°C pure
rhodium clusters in the vicinity of platinum clusters. By migrating on the support at
higher temperatures, the different clusters sinter. Such transformation is
accompanied by mixing of the two kinds of clusters in their borderline to form large
heterogeneous bimetallic phases (6, 7). As ensembles of platinum atoms still exist at
the surface of the bimetallic particles, the catalyst remains highly active for propane
oxidation.
However, the presence of rhodium on particle surface for C.I catalysts or near
platinum particles for O.R. catalysts preserves the activities for NO reduction by CO.
232
3- Poisoning resistance of the catalysts
Phosphorus (P), zinc (Zn) and sulfur (S), introduced with oil (P, Zn) or fuel (S), are
potential poisons for automotive catalysts (8). In this work, we focused our studies on
the effects of sulfur on catalysts activities for hydrocarbons oxidation. Indeed,
gasolines contain a small amount of sulfur, which is emitted with the exhaust gas
mainly as sulfur dioxide. On passing through the catalyst, the sulfur dioxide is
partially converted to sulfur trioxide, which may react with water vapor to form sulfuric
acid or with the support to form aluminium or cerium sulfate. Moreover, these sulfate
species can be reduce under rich conditions (in excess of gasoline) to H2S, a very
toxic product with intolerable odor. To investigate if the preparation procedure has
any effect on oxidation reactions, bimetallic reduced catalysts, prepared by both
procedures (coimpregnation and redox reaction Metal/Support) and sintered at
900°C were tested in propane-propene oxidation to evaluate their activities in the
presence of 20 ppm SO2 in the feedstream. The results are gathered in figure 2.
500 500
b
Light-off temperature for propene oxidation (°C)
without SO2 a Light-off temperature for propane oxidation (°C) without SO2
450 20 ppm SO2 450 20 ppm SO2
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150
150
100
100
Pt OR CI
Pt OR CI
Catalysts
Catalysts
Figure 2 : Effect of the presence of SO2 in the feedstream on the catalytic performances
for propene - propane mixture oxidation.
a) Light-off temperatures for propene oxidation b) Light-off temperatures for propane
oxidation
The activities measurements showed that addition of sulfur dioxide in the feedstream
increases the light-off temperatures for propane and propene oxidation. However,
OR catalysts still exhibit activities higher than CI catalysts for propane oxidation and
as good as monometallic catalyst despite of the presence of rhodium. Thus, the OR
preparation procedure can improve the catalytic properties of bimetallic catalysts
even in the presence of sulfur dioxide. On the other hand, the amount of sulfur stored
on the catalysts was determined and no difference between bimetallic catalysts was
pointed out (1.4 wt% of sulfur stored for both catalysts).
Our results indicated an inhibiting effect of SO2 on propene – propane mixture

oxidation while a beneficial one is generally mentioned for pure propane feedstream
oxidation. This positive effect is usually explained by the creation of specific sites for
propane adsorption (9). These sites would be located on metal particles near SOx
adsorbed species (on Pt surface or on the support). The presence of SOx in contact
233
with platinum would favor the dissociative adsorption of propane, which is the limiting
step of the oxidation reaction.
On the other hand, experiments in our Laboratory showed that, for similar catalysts to
ours, no such inhibiting effect is observed for pure propane feedstream oxidation in
accordance with literature. Thus, we can conclude that this phenomenon affected
mainly the propene reaction. The difficult oxidation of this alcene seems to delay the
alcane transformation. Consequently, we can assume that a strong adsorption of
propene occurred in the specific sites required also to favor propane dissociation.
This alcene adsorption would hinder that of alcane one and lead to a global negative
effect of SOx for hydrocarbons oxidation.
4- Influence of the alumina promoters
The effectiveness of ceria in TWC catalysts for control of automotive exhaust gas is
well established. The main roles were to store oxygen, which can be released under
rich conditions, to stabilize alumina, to improve dispersion of precious metals, to
promote water gas shift reaction and NO reduction. This additive could also be used
to prepare bimetallic catalysts by redox reaction between the Rh3+ ions and surface
reduced ceria as mentioned above. However, an undesirable property of ceria is its
ability to store sulfates in the presence of sulfur dioxide under lean conditions and to
release large amounts of H2S under rich ones. Moreover, the positive effect of ceria
on washcoat stability is effective until 1000°C whereas exhaust gas can often exceed
this temperature. Thus, we looked for the substitution of ceria by other oxides having
one or several of the following properties :
1- a higher effect on the stabilization of the washcoat,
2- the presence of redox properties which can allow OR preparation,
3- a lower stability of sulfates,
4- an oxygen storage ability.
Praseodymium oxide was chosen as it seemed to be the better candidate to replace

ceria.
First, some experiments are performed to point out the presence of reduced
praseodymium oxides on the surface, which are required for deposition of rhodium
via redox reaction. The results showed that the number of these reduced sites on
praseodymium oxide is lower than that of the reduced surface cerium sites under the
same conditions. Nevertheless, OR preparation can be used successfully to obtain
Pt-Rh catalysts. Indeed, the highest performances for propane oxidation were
obtained on OR catalysts whatever the support (See Figure 3). However, OR
catalysts supported by ceria were more active than praseodymium oxide supported
ones after thermal ageing at 900°C. To check if praseodymium oxide can improve
thermal resistance, the catalysts are ageing under more severe conditions (1100°C).
The results are presented in figure 4.
234
400
A l2 O 3
A l2 O 3 - C e O 2
A l2 O 3 - " P r O 2 "
350
for propane oxidation (°C)
Light-off temperature
300
250
200
Pt O R CI
C a ta ly s ts s in te r e d a t 9 0 0 ° C
Figure 3 : Propane oxidation activities of Pt-Rh catalysts supported on different carriers pure
alumina, alumina modified by ceria (12 wt%) or alumina modified by praseodymium oxide (12
wt%)
380 Al2O3-CeO2
Light-off temperature for propane oxidation
Al2O3-PrO2
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

ageing temperature (°C)
Figure 4 : Light-off temperatures for propane oxidation on OR catalysts aged at 900° or

1100°C for 16H in a stream containing 10% CO2, 10% H2O, 1% O2 in N2 and supported on
alumina modified by ceria or praseodymium oxide.
Thus, addition of praseodymium oxide to alumina can improve thermal resistance

under high temperatures (up to 900°C). Indeed, ceria or praseodymium oxide delays
the phase transformation of alumina γ-Al2O3 Æ δ, θ or α-Al2O3) and prevent lost of
surface accessibility. Promoters are located in alumina vacancies and inhibited their
migration, which are responsible of the phase transformation. Moreover, it was
shown that a relationship exists between the stabilization of alumina and the ionic
radius of the promoters’ cations (10) : the higher the ionic radius is, the better the
stabilization is. As praseodymium ion average radius in Pr6O11 is more important than
that of cerium ion in CeO2, the stabilization of alumina is enhanced after thermal
ageing under severe condition. On the other hand, both alumina promoters improve
235
thermal resistance of the metallic species in so far as a strong interaction exists

between the support and rhodium in OR catalysts.
Experiments are in progress to investigate the oxygen storage capacities of catalysts

supported on praseodymium oxide and also their sulfates stability. First results seem
to indicate that for similar activities, catalysts supported on Al2O3-PrO2 are more
selective for NOx reduction (less amount of N2O produced) and store less sulfur than
those supported on Al2O3-CeO2. Unfortunately, their abilities to store oxygen are
lower than those of alumina - ceria supported catalysts.
CONCLUSION
Different routes exit to enhance catalytic converters performances as for example :
1- increase the catalytic activities of the metallic species by adding some

promoters like rhodium,
2- improve the thermal resistance of the catalysts (metallic species and support),
3- reduce the poisoning sensitivity and the sulfates storage.
Our work shows that
- an original preparation by redox reaction Metal/Support can highly improve,

after thermal ageing, catalytic activities for hydrocarbons oxidation. This novel
preparation procedure leads to separated clusters of pure platinum and pure
rhodium, which remain active for hydrocarbons oxidation as well as for NO
reduction.
- presence of sulfur dioxide in the feedstream inhibited catalysts activities

whatever the preparation procedure but OR catalysts still remain more active
than the CI ones.
- the improvement of catalysts can be performed by a better stabilization of

alumina. Praseodymium oxide appears to be promising as it allows OR
preparation, delays alumina phase transformation and increases the thermal
resistance of the catalyst.
REFERENCES
1 E. S. J. Lox and B. H. Engler, in "Handbook of Heterogeous Catalysis", Eds Ertl,

G., Knözinger, H., and Weitkamp, J., Vol. 4, p. 1559, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1997.
2 A. Trovarelli, Cat. Rev. Sci. Eng., 38 (1996) 439
3 P. Marécot, A. Fakche, L. Pirault, C. Géron, G. Mabilon, M. Prigent, J. Barbier,

Appl. Catal., B5 (1994) 43.
4 P. Marécot, L. Pirault, G. Mabilon, M. Prigent, J. Barbier, Appl. Catal., B5 (1994)

57.
236
5 L. Pirault, D. El Azami El Idrissi, P. Marécot, J.M. Dominguez, G. Mabilon, M.

Prigent, J. Barbier,
in A. Frennet, J.M. Bastin (Eds), Proceedings of the Third International Symposium

on Catalysis and
Automotive Pollution Control II, Elsevier, Brussels, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., Vol. 96,
1995, p. 193.
6 L. Pirault, M. Guérin, F. Maire, P. Marécot, J. Barbier, Appl. Catal., A 199 (2000)

109.
7 L. Pirault, M. Guérin, P. Marécot, J. Barbier, in L. Petrov, Ch. Bonev and G.

Kadinov (Eds), Proceedings of
the 9th International Symposium on Heterogeneous Catalysis, Varna , Bulgaria,

2000, p 626
8 M. Shelef, K. Otto and N.C. Otto, Adv. in Catal., 27 (1978) 311
9 R. Burch, E. Halpin, M. Hayes, K. Ruth, J. A. Sullivan, Appl. Catal., B 19 (1998)

199
10 J. S. Church, N. W. Cant and D. L. Trimm, Appl. Catal., A 101 (1993) 105.
237
ELIMINATION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FROM WASTE WATERS

BY USING ELECTRIC CORONA1
Borivoj Adnadjevic1, Aleksandar Popovic2, Jelena Jovanovic3

1
Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, POB 137, 11001
Belgrade, Yugoslavia; e-mail: felis@ptt.yu
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Belgrade, POB 158, 11001 Belgrade,
Yugoslavia; e-mail: apopovic@chem.bg.ac.yu
3
Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000
Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
ABSTRACT
Plant for gasification of biomass suspended in water by implementation of electric corona was
developed and built. The influence of different technological variables (shape and type of material
used, type of electrode, applied potential, concentration of organic substances and electrolytes) on
degree of conversion of biomass into gas, as well as on composition of obtained gas, was examined.
Possible applications of described plant in purification processes of typical waste waters were
examined and demonstrated. Catalytic conversion of obtained gas in engine fuel was performed.
Keywords: waste water, organic pollutants, electric corona
INTRODUCTION
US Patent 5,417,817 [1] describes the procedure for gasification of liquid biomass
solutions and suspensions by using electric corona. The application of obtained
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen for running of engines and turbines is
described in US Patent 5,159,900 [2]. In numerous cases of environmental
protection it is dealt with water solutions and suspensions of organic compounds of
high concentrations, and that’s why we investigated the possibility of gasification of
such systems and catalytic conversions of obtained gas into a high-octane fuel.
EXPERIMENTAL
We gasified the suspension of beech sawdust in water, having the concentration of

40-100 g/l. Apparatus for gasification of water solutions and suspensions of biomass
was made in accordance with US Patent 5,417,817. Composite zeolite catalyst
(labeled as KAB-701) has been synthesized by original procedure [3]. In Table 1,
basic physico-chemical characteristics of mentioned catalyst were shown. Catalytic
conversion of obtained gas using composite catalyst KAB-701 was performed in
reactor with a fixed layer of catalyst [4]. All experiments were done with fixed mass of
catalyst (5g); time of reaction was 6 hours, while the mass rate of the material was
0.3 h-1. Gaseous and liquid products of the catalytic conversion of gas obtained by
gasification of wastewaters were chemically analyzed by standard GC means [5].
Research octane number (RON) of gasoline fraction of liquid product of catalysis was
established by performing standard GC analysis.
1
238
Table 1: Basic physico-chemical characteristics of KAB-701 catalyst.
Physico-chemical property Value Physico-chemical property Value

Content of zeolite (%) 95 Specific pore volume (m3/g) 0,2
Content of MO2 (%) 5 Average diameter of particles 1,8
(nm)
Specific area, BET, (m2/g) 420 Bulk density (kg/m3) 350
The influence of basic technological variables of catalytic process, such as

temperature (T=520-650 K), pressure (p=1-9 MPa), and chemical composition of gas
on catalytic conversion of CO (KCO) and H2 (KH ), as well as on the yield of gaseous
2
(H2, CO, CO2, C1 + C4) and liquid products of reaction (H2O, C5+) as well as the
quality of obtained gasoline fraction (RON) were examined. The influence of reaction
temperature (when n=2, p= 5MPa) on catalytic conversion of CO and H2, distribution
of reaction products and quality of gasoline fraction is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Influence of reaction temperature on catalytic conversion of CO and H2, distribution

of reaction products and quality of gasoline fraction.
Conversions and yields of products, octane Temperature (K)

number
533 583 633
Catalytic conversion of CO (mass %) 93 86 78
Catalytic conversion of H2 (mass %) 98 96 97
Yield of liquid hydrocarbons (mass %) 40 35.5 35.0
Yield of H2 (mass %) 0.2 0.5 0.4
Yield of CO (mass %) 6.3 11.8 18.9
Yield of CO2 (mass %) 1.0 3.6 4.5
Yield of H2O (mass %) 52.6 48.5 40.4
Yield of C1 + C4 (mass %) 18.0 46.9 80.9
Gasoline fraction (mass %) 82.0 53.1 19.1
RON 99.2 97.2 95.7
As it can be seen from Table 2, direct catalytic transformation of gas obtained by

gasification of wastewaters into high-quality fuel is possible, because under relatively
mild conditions (T= 533 K, p= 5.0 MPa), high conversion of gas (≥ 93 %), high
gasoline selectivity of reaction (82 %) and high quality of obtained gasoline (RON +
99.2) were obtained. Increase of temperature from T= 533 K to T=633 K does not
influence the conversion of H2, but have the influence on conversion of CO,
distribution of reaction products and quality of gasoline fraction. Also, with the above-
mentioned increase of temperature, the yield of gaseous hydrocarbons C1-C4 is
increasing from 18 % to 80.9 %, while the yield of CO2 is slowly increasing with the
increase of reaction temperature. The increase of reaction temperature is also
decreasing the gasoline selectivity of reaction (from 82 % to 19.1 %), the quality of
obtained gasoline, degree of conversion of CO and yield of liquid hydrocarbon and
water. Obtained results are in accordance with assumed mechanism of Fischer-
239
Tropsh synthesis of hydrocarbons on byfunctional zeolite catalyts [6] and confirm

dominant role of weakly bound forms of CO in mechanism of the reaction [7].
Changes in catalytic conversion of CO and H2, distribution of reaction products and

quality of obtained gasoline caused by the changes of reaction pressure (T=573 K,
n=2) were shown in Table 3.
Obtained results suggest that applied pressure has a significant influence on the
catalytic conversion of gas produced by gasification of wastewaters containing
organic pollutants, gasoline selectivity and quality of obtained gasoline. Increase of
pressure of the reaction from 1 MPa to 9 MPa influence gasoline selectivity (it
increases from 18.3 % to 60.4 %), and conversion degree of CO and H2. At the same
time, antidetonational characteristics of obtained gasoline are decreasing (ROM is
decreasing from 100 to 78). Table 4 shows the results obtained by the investigation
of influence of change in chemical composition of used gas to catalytic conversion of
CO and H2, distribution of reaction products and antidetonational characteristics of
obtained gasoline.
Table 3: Influence of reaction pressure on catalytic conversion of CO and H2, distribution of

reaction products and quality of gasoline fraction.
Conversions and yields of products, octane Pressure (MPa)

number
1.4 2.8 5.0 8.8
Catalytic conversion of CO (mass %) 63 76 86 90
Catalytic conversion of H2 (mass %) 77 89 96 98
Yield of liquid hydrocarbons (mass %) 29.8 35.2 35.5 37.4
Yield of H2 (mass %) 2.9 1.4 0.5 0.2
Yield of CO (mass %) 32.6 20.8 11.8 8.8
Yield of CO2 (mass %) 1.8 3.2 3.6 3.8
Yield of H2O (mass %) 32.9 39.5 48.6 49.8
Yield of C1 + C4 (mass %) 81.7 65.6 46.9 39.6
Gasoline fraction (mass %) 18.3 34.4 53.1 60.4
RON 100 94 88 78
Table 4: Influence of chemical composition of obtained gas on catalytic conversion of CO

and H2, distribution of reaction products and quality of gasoline fraction.
Conversions and yields of products, octane (n)

number
0.5 1 2
Catalytic conversion of CO (mass %) 20 38 78
Catalytic conversion of H2 (mass %) 74 85 92
Yield of liquid hydrocarbons (mass %) 10.9 19.5 40.2
Yield of H2 (mass %) 0.9 1.0 1.0
Yield of CO (mass %) 77.7 58.3 19.0
Yield of CO2 (mass %) 2.4 3.6 3.9
Yield of H2O (mass %) 8.3 17.6 35.8
Yield of C1 + C4 (mass %) 69.1 69.4 73.2
Gasoline fraction (mass %) 30.9 30.6 26.8
RON 105 103.3 94.5
240
Obtained results show that changes in chemical compositions of gas have significant
influence on catalytic activity and selectivity of KAG-507 catalyst. Increase of H2
content in used gas causes sharp increase in conversion of CO and yield of liquid
hydrocarbons. Yield of CO and C1 + C4 increases slowly with the increase of H2
content, while the yield of gasoline fraction decreases, and its antidetonational
characteristics are getting worse. The results obtained are in accordance with
byfunctional nature of developed composite catalyst. Zeolite catalyst KAB-701 used
for catalytic conversion exhibits significant potential for oxidation and reduction that is
determined by the nature of existing MO2 promoter. It also has distribution of acidic
centers of zeolites that is adjusted to reactions of oligomerization, isomerization and
aromatization of hydrocarbonic products.
CONCLUSIONS
New procedure for elimination of organic pollutants from wastewaters by gasification

in electric corona and conversion of obtained gas into high-octane gasoline has been
developed. The influence of basic technological parameters (temperature, pressure,
composition of gas) on catalytic conversion, distribution of products of reaction and
quality (octane number) of obtained gasoline was investigated and established.
Possible working mechanism of composite zeolite catalyst was examined.
REFERENCES
[1] W.A. Dahmann, W.D. Wallman, US Patent 5,417,817,
[2] W.A. Dahmann, W.D. Wallman, US Patent 5,159,900,
[3] B. Adnadjevic, Meeting of Scientific Experts of Socialist Countries, Proceedings,

1-30, Kopaonik, Yugoslavia, 1988.
[4] B. Adnadjevic, S. Gajinov, M. Dojcinovic, D. Spiridonovic, XXXVII Meeting of

Serbian Chemical Society, Book of Abstracts, p. 198, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, 1995.
[5] B. Adnadjevic, M. Dojcinovic, S. Gajinov, D. Dabic, YUNG’95 Meeting,

Proceedings, 202-207, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, 1995.
[6] V.V. Slivinskin, Y.G. Voutsekhlovskin, Uspekhi Khimii, 58, 94-96, 1989.
[7] J. Rathousky, A. Zukal, A. Lapidus, A. Krylova, Appl. Catal., 79, 167-180, 1991.
241
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPORTANCE
OF CYPERMETHRIN/CYCLODEXTRIN COMPLEXES1
Judit Orgoványia, Klára H.-Ottaa, László Pöppla, Éva Fenyvesib

a
Eötvös Loránd University of Sciences, Budapest, Chemistry Department
H-1117 Budapest Pázmány Péter sétány 1/A, Hungary
b
Cyclolab R&D Lab. Ltd. H-1525 Budapest P. O. 435, Hungary
ABSTRACT
Cypermethrin one of the synthetic pyrethroids is an excellent insecticide. It is poorly soluble in water,
light-stable in solid form, but sensitive to light in solutions.
Cypermethrin complexes with β-cyclodextrin were prepared by the conventional coprecipitation,
suspension and kneading as well as by a new method developed in our laboratory: the melting in
solution method. The complexes were studied by UV-spectrophotometry and thermal analysis. The
total cypermethrin content of samples was determined by UV-spectrophotometry. The presence of
complexed and uncomplexed guest molecules was investigated by thermal analysis. We found that
the most effective method for complexation of cypermethrin with β-cyclodextrin was the melting in
solution method, which gives a product with high yield (81.4 %) and contains cypermethrin only in
complexed form.
Investigating the solubility, the light stability of cypermethrin with different cyclodextrins it was
established that the increase of solubility and the inhibition of photodegradation of cypermethrin was
the highest in case of methylated cyclodextrins.
The “molecular encapsulation” by complexing cypermethrin with cyclodextrins resulted in improved
stability and solubility. The new formulations are supposed to have enhanced efficacy and make
possible to reduce the environmental pollution caused by overdosing.
Keywords: cypermethrin/cyclodextrin, environmental pollution, overdosing
INTRODUCTION
Natural extracts of the herb Chrysanthemum roseum have been used as insecticide
for almost 400 years. The active substances of the above herb are called pyrethrins.
The synthetic pyrethroids – which are simple chemical analogues of the pyrethrins –
were developed in the 1970s. The major advantages of these derivatives are in their
increased stability and selective biological activity. The low toxicity for mammals and
fast degradation make them a very useful insecticide in the household and
agricultural application [1]. The only disadvantage is that the pyrethroids are nearly
insoluble in water, and have low light stability, therefore their application is limited.
One of the most effective synthetic pyrethroid is cypemethrin, which was synthesized
in England in 1974. Cypermethrin similarly to the other pyrethroids possesses very
low solubility and UV light instability, especially in alkaline solution. A possible way to
improve its properties is the complexation with cyclodextrins.
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligosacharides prepared by enzymic conversion of

starch. Organic molecules are able to enter their cavity forming inclusion complexes
[2].
1
242
In most cases inclusion complex formation with CDs improves stability, wettability
and dissolution rate of poorly soluble substances. In consequence of the improved
efficacy of the complex the effective dose is lower than that of the pure insecticide.
Applying it in complexed form reduces the environmental pollution caused by
overdosing [3].
Some pyrethroid/CD complexes have been described in the literature. The

complexes showed improved efficacy against insects [4], retarded
photodecomposition [5, 6] and reduced contact insecticidal activities [7]. Pyrethroids
formulated with methylated CD were reported to be safe to human skin, so a
shampoo containing pyrethroids and methylated CDs has been prepared to control
the lice in hair [8]. CDs themselves are environmental-friendly. They are substrates
for many plant related bacteria and soil microbes [9, 10]. Even the hardly
biodegradable methylated β-CDs get slowly decomposed in the soil (the half-life time
is approx. 1 year) [11].
Numerous methods are available for preparing solid state cyclodextrin complexes:
coprecipitation, suspension, kneading, spray drying and lyophilization techniques are
suitable for the industrial production of these inclusion compounds [12, 13].
The aim of our work was to investigate the interaction of cypermethrin with different
cyclodextrins. The cypermethrin/CD inclusion complexes were prepared by different
complexation methods. The solubility and the light stability were investigated with the
aim to find the best CD for an environmental-friendly formulation.
EXPERIMENTALS
Materials
Cypermethrin (α- cyano- 3-phenoxybenzyl- 3-(2,2- dichlorovinyl)- 2,2-

dimethylcycloprorane-carboxylate) obtained from Chinoin Pharm. Chem. Works
(Budapest, Hungary) was used without further purification. The chemical structure is
shown in Fig.1 and the most important physical parameters are summarised in Table
1.
H3C CH3
O
Cl
C CH COOCH
Cl CN
Figure 1: Chemical structure of cypermethrin
243
Table 1: Physical parameters of cypermethrin [1]
Molecular weight 416.3 g mol-1
Melting point 80.5 °C
Physical appearance white solid
Water solubility 0.01 mg L-1
Because of its cyclopropane ring the molecule has two geometrical isomers: cis- and
trans-cypermethrin, which have further 4-4 optical isomers due to the cyclopropane
ring and the α-C-atom. Thus the cypermethrin has 8 isomers with different activity.
We used the (1R trans S) and (1S trans R) enantiomeric isomer pair in our
experiments.
The CDs, namely α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrin (α-CD, β-CD and γ-CD), randomly
methylated α-, β- and γ-CD with an average degree of substitution (DS)=1.8
(RAMEA, RAMEB, RAMEG) and heptakis (2,6-di-O-methyl)-β-CD (DIMEB), were
obtained from Cyclolab Ltd. (Budapest, Hungary).
Preparation methods of the cypermethrin/cyclodextrin complexes

Coprecipitation: The β-CD (0.89 mmol) was dissolved in 50 mL 50 % aqueous
ethanol at 52 °C. Cypermethrin was added (0.60 mmol) in 35 mL 96% ethanol and
the solution was stirred for 2 hours. The product was filtered on a G4 glass filter and
dried in a vacuum dessicator over P2O5 to constant weight. 0.92 g of complex was
obtained.
Suspension: The β-CD (0.89 mmol) was dissolved in 9 mL water and cypermethrin
(0.44 mmol) in 9 mL 96% ethanol was added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 2
hours and was filtered on a G4 glass filter. The 0.69 g complex was dried in a
vacuum dessicator over P2O5 to constant weight.
Kneading: The cypermethrin (0.44 mmol) and β-CD (0.88 mmol) were intensively
kneaded for 2 hours in a mortar with dropwise addition of 1 mL water. The 1.17 g of
product was dried over P2O5.
Melting in solution: The β-CD (0.88 mmol) was dissolved in water (10 mL) at 90 °C,
then the cypermethrin (0.47 mmol) was added in solid state and the reaction mixture
was stirred for 3 hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature. The white
precipitate was filtered on a G4 glass filter and dried over P2O5 to constant weight
(0.97 g).
Methods
The cypermethrin content of samples was analyzed by UV-spectrophotometry at 278

nm with 258 and 298 nm reference wavelengths (Hewlett Packard 8452A type diode-
array spectrophotometer) using 50% aqueous ethanolic solutions.
In solubility measurements excess amount (20 mg) of cypermethrin was added to 5

mL of aqueous CD solution. The suspension was stirred for 1 hour at room
temperature then it was rapidly filtered through a membrane filter (pore size: 0,45
244
µm). The filtrate was diluted and its cypermethrin content was measured by UV-
spectrophotometry. The equilibrium constants of complexation were calculated from
the data of solubility isotherms by using the fitted parameters and applying the
following formula [14]:
b
K=
[g ](1 − b )
where b denotes the slope of regression line and [g] is the concentration of guest
molecules in water.
For light stability measurements 105 and 210 mg dm-3 (2.5⋅10-4 and 5⋅10-4 M)
cypermethrin solutions in 50 % aqueous ethanol with 10 % CD content and without
CD were used. The solutions were irradiated by high-pressure mercury lamp
(Tungsram Ltd., Budapest, Hungary) at 254 nm in a cuvette. The cypermethrin
content of samples was analyzed by UV-spectrophotometer. The rate constants of
decomposition (k) and the half-lives of cypermethrin (t1/2) were calculated assuming
that the photo-degradation is a first-order reaction with the following equations.
ln(ct/c0) = - k ⋅t
t1/2 = ln(2)/k
where c0 is starting concentration
A MOM Derivatograph PC was used to obtain TG and DTG curves. Experiments

were carried out on ~20 mg of powdered sample at a heating rate of 4 °C/min, under
pure nitrogen at a flow rate of 40 cm3 min-1.
The DSC measurements were carried out by a Netzsch DSC 200 Differential
Scanning Calorimeter in flowing nitrogen atmosphere (50 cm3/min), using 10 °C/min
heating rates. The sample weight was ~6-7 mg, the crucible material was aluminum.
The temperature and heat flow response of the calorimeter was calibrated using 6N
purity metals.
Complexes
Four complexation methods were tested: coprecipitation, suspension, kneading and

melting in solution at cypermethrin/β-cyclodextrin stochiometric ratio of 1:2. The latter
method developed in our laboratory means that cypermethrin was added to an
aqueous β -CD solution heated to the melting point of the guest under stirring. The
stirring and heating was continued till the droplets of the molten cypermethrin
disappeared from the surface of the solution. The complexes were examined by UV-
spectrophotometry to determine the total cypermethrin content of samples. The
complexed and uncomplexed (attached on surface) active substances were
distinguishable using thermal analysis (DSC, TG and DTG).
The complexation methods are compared in Table 2. In case of methods using water
or aqueous ethanol solvents (coprecipitation and suspension techniques) the
245
cypermethrin/βCD molar ratio calculated from the total cypermethrin content of the
samples increased remarkably in the complexes (comparing to the ratio in the initial
reaction mixture) because of good water solubility of CD.
The cypermethrin content of complexes was between 13.3 and 21.9 per cent.
Because the cypermethrin content of complexes produced by coprecipitation and
suspension methods is higher than the theoretically expected value of 1:2 molar ratio
(15.5 per cent) these samples might contain cypermethrin in uncomplexed form, too.
The highest yield (weight of product related to that calculated from the applied
amount of the ingredients) belongs to the kneading complexation method - without
organic solvent, and the yield of the melting process was also good enough.
Table 2: Comparison of complexation methods

Cypermethrin/β-CD molar ratio Cypermethrin
Complexation Yield
in the reaction content
methods in the complex* /%
mixture /%
Coprecipitation 1 : 1.5 1 : 1.3 21.9 73.4
Suspension 1 : 2.0 1 : 1.6 18.5 57.9
Kneading 1 : 2.0 1 : 2.2 14.3 98.6
Melting in solution 1 : 1.9 1 : 2.4 13.3 81.4
*calculated from the total cypermethrin content measured by UV

spectrophotometry
Thermal methods are widely used to characterize CDs and their inclusion complexes.
In general, the aim of these examinations is the comparison of thermal behaviour of
single components (in this case CD and the active substance) and their inclusion
complex. It is considered to be the proof of inclusion complex formation when the
melting peak of the guest molecule does not appear in the DSC curve of complex.
[15]
Table 3: Thermal properties of complexes prepared by different complexation

methods
Coprecipitation Suspension Kneading Melting in solution
Temp. TG DSC TG DSC TG DSC TG DSC
Range /°C Tm ∆m Tm ∆H Tm ∆m Tm ∆H Tm ∆m Tm ∆H Tm ∆m Tm ∆H
85 -17 82 -14 10. 82 -9 53 1.6 69
30 – 120 90 6.6 86 7.4 87 1 103 296 68 4.0 91
241
97 216 99 164
210 – 230 - - 224 -12 - - 219 -3 - - 223 -5 - - - -
Tm : peak maximum temperature /°C, ∆m: mass loss /%, ∆H: enthalpy /J g-1
The β-CD (Fig. 2) lost its water content between 30 and 120 °C. Between 120 and
210 °C the DSC curve of β -CD is flat, then an endo-exo effect appears at 210-240
°C due to reversible transformation of β -CD in solid state [15].
246
The DSC curve of active substance shows an endotherm melting peak with onset at
81 °C (peak temperature at 85 °C), the enthalpy of melting is ∆H = -94.6 J g-1
(measured by separate run).
On the curves of complexes produced by coprecipitation, suspension and kneading
methods (Fig. 2, Table 3) three peaks appear: the water loss of CD (at 30-120 °C),
the reversible transformation of β−CD (at 210-230 °C without mass loss) and the
melting peak of cypermethrin (at 82-85 °C) verifying, that cypermethrin exists both in
complexed form and as an uncomplexed guest in the samples. The complex
prepared by melting does not show the individual melting peak of cypermethrin
suggesting that all cypermethrin was complexed.
a b
0,0 0 -0,4 0
-0,5
-1
Heat flux/mW mg
-2 -2
-0,8
-1,0
-4 -4
-1,5
-1,2
50 100 150 200 250 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature/°C Temperature/°C
Figure 2: DSC curves of complexes a) by coprecipitation b) by melting in solution

method
.......
cyp, ---- β-CD, ____ cyp/β-CD complexes
Summarizing all of the above-mentioned results, the melting technique was found to
be the most effective complexation method.
Solubility
The solubility of cypermethrin in water is 0.01 mg L-1 at 20 °C (Table 1) [1]. Because

of this low value the use of this pesticide becomes very difficult. While cyclodextrins
improves the solubility of the poorly soluble substances, we investigated the solubility
of cypermethrin in aqueous solutions containing different CDs (Table 4).
Table 4: Solubility of cypermethrin in different CD solutions

CD CD Cyp
% mg L-1
Without CD - <1
-CD 10 1
-CD 1 1
-CD 10 2
RAMEA 10 45
RAMEB 10 270
RAMEG 10 10
DIMEB 10 451
247
In case of α-, β- and γ-CD the cypermethrin content of solution is very low, near to
the detection limit of UV-spectrophotometry. The methylated α- and β- cyclodextrins
remarkably enhanced the solubility, but this effect is negligible in case of methylated
γ-CD (Table 4). DIMEB was found to be the most potent solubiser being superior to
RAMEB which contains a small amount of monomethyl β-CD, too. The solubility
isotherms in methylated β-cyclodextrins can be seen in
Fig. 3.
500
-1
Concentration of cypermethrin/mg L
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
CD/ %
Figure 3: Solubility of cypermethrin in water as a function of the CD concentration

× : DIMEB ; ∗ : RAMEB
The solubility isotherms are linear; the equilibrium constants of complexation

calculated according to Higuchi and Connors [14] are as follows:
RAMEB: KRAMEB = 1010 dm3 mol-1
DIMEB: KDIMEB = 1980 dm3 mol-1
These values refer to complexes at 1:1 molar ratio. With complexes of 1:2 or higher
molar ratio, the determination of stability constants from solubility data requires much
care, and measurements taken over the widest possible concentration range [2].
However, without further measurements the calculated results show that the DIMEB
complex is expectedly more stable.
Stabilization of cypermethrin in solution
The effect of UV-irradiation at 254 nm on the decomposition of cypermethrin and the

cypermethrin complexed by RAMEB and DIMEB respectively was investigated by
UV-spectrophotometry using 50% aqueous ethanolic solutions. The change of UV-
spectrum of cypermethrin is shown in Fig. 4.
248
Absorbance
1
0
10 0
20
in
200 30
m
250
e/
300 40
m
Ti
350
W av 400 50
elen 450
g h t /n 60
m 500
Figure 4: Change of UV spectrum of cypermethrin by UV-irradiation
The UV-spectra change permanently as a function of exposure. The absorbance

maximum at 278 nm enhances in absolute value, but it is noticeable that the
descending branch of the peak at 230 or 240 nm flattened out, so the baseline
increased. It did not cause difficulties on determination of concentration, because the
evaluation was carried out with two reference wavelengths (258 and 298 nm).
Fig. 5 shows the change of cypermethrin concentration at 5⋅10-4 M starting

concentrations in the presence and absence of 10 % methylated CDs.
100
90
cyp
cyp/RAMEB
Change of cyp concentration /%
cyp/DIMEB
80
70
60
50
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time/min
Figure 5: Light decomposition of cypermethrin and its CD complexes
249
These results are in good correlation with the equilibrium constants calculated from
the solubility isotherms. DIMEB has a higher stabilising effect than RAMEB.
Assuming that the photo-degradation is a first-order reaction, the rate constants of

decomposition (k) and the half-lives of cypermethrin (t1/2) were calculated (Table 5).
Table 5: Rate constants of decomposition and half-lives of cypermethrin
c0 Sample K t1/2
M min-1 min
5⋅10-4 cyp 0.01725 40.2
cyp/RAMEB 0.00986 70.3
cyp/DIMEB 0.00777 89.2
2.5⋅10-4 cyp 0.02579 26.9
cyp/DIMEB 0.01599 43.3
c0 is starting concentration
The half-lives and the rate constants of decomposition show that the rate of
decomposition of cypermethrin was inhibited by methylated β-CDs.
Conclusion
Cypermethrin/β-CD complexes were prepared by different complexation methods:

coprecipitation, suspension, kneading and melting in solution at 1:2 cypermethrin/β-
CD molar ratio. The complexes were investigated by UV-spectrophotometry and
thermal analysis. It was found that complexes made by coprecipitation, suspension
and kneading methods contained cypermethrin not only in complexed but in
uncomplexed form too. The guest molecule in the complex prepared by melting
showed to be completely complexed and it is the most effective complexation
method.
Investigating the solubility of cypermethrin with different cyclodextrins it was

established that the increase of solubility of cypermethrin was the highest in case of
methylated cyclodextrins. The equilibrium constants were calculated from solubility
isotherms and on the basis of these results the DIMEB complex was the more stable.
By UV-irradiation measurements it was found that the photodegradation of
cypermethrin was inhibited by methylated βCDs.
The preparation of cypermethrin complexes with methylated cyclodextrins and

investigation of these samples needs further experiments. The promising results with
methylated β-CDs make them candidates for the development of environmental-
friendly cypermethrin formulations.
REFERENCES
1. C. Smith, Pyrethroid Pesticides - Product Profiles, PJB Publications Ltd., 1991
2. J. Szejtli, Cyclodextrins and their inclusion complexes, Akadémia Kiadó, 1982
3. L. Szente, J. Thermal Anal. and Cal., 51 (1998) 957-963
250
4. A. Mifune, Y. Katsuda, T. Yoneda, Ger. Offen., 31 (1974) DE 2357826,

(Chem. Abstr. 82:39586)
5. I. Yamamoto, Y. Katsuda, J. Pesticide Sci. 1, (1976) 41-48
6. I. Yamamoto, T. Unai, Y. Suzuki, Y. Katsuda, Nippon Noyaku Gakkaishi, 1(1)

(1976) 41-8 (Chem. Abstr. 85:172714)
7. I. Yamamoto, K. Ohsawa, F. W. Jr. Plapp, Nippon Noyaku Gakkaishi, 2(1) (1977)

41-9 (Chem. Abstr. 87:113013)
8. M. Furukawa, K. Hara, Jpn. Kokai JP 87, 270, 516 (1987) (Chem. Abstr.
109:79501)
9. Gy. Oros, T. Cserhati, E. Fenyvesi, J. Szejtli, Int. Biodeterior., 26 (1990) 33-42
10. Gy. Oros, Biological Journal of Armenia, Vol. LIII; Special Issue: Cyclodextrins,
pp 237-244
11. E. Fenyvesi, K. Csabai, M. Molnár, K. Gruiz, A. Murányi, J. Szejtli, J Inclusion

Phenom.
(in press)
12. J. Szejtli, Cyclodextrin Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998
13. L. Szente, “Preparation of cyclodextrin complexes” in Compr. Supramol. Chem.

(1996), Volume 3, 243-252. Editor(s): J. Szejtli, T. Osa. Publisher: Elsevier, Oxford,
UK.
14. T. Higuchi, K.A. Connors, Adv. Anal. Chem. Inst. 4 (1965) 117
15. F. Giordano, Cs. Novak, J.R. Moyano, Thermochimica Acta 380 (2001) 123-151
251
ENERGY AND ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS FOR THE 21ST

CENTURY: CONSIDERATION FOR A CLEANER FUTURE
A. Petcu, K. Poulianitis, D. Sarantarides, S. Kontou and P. Tsiakaras*

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Thessalia, Pedion
Areos,GR38334, Volos, Greece.Fax:+30-4210-74050;Tel:+30-4210-74065; E mail: tsiak@mie.uth.gr
1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is a key element of the interactions between society and nature, and also, it is
considered a key for economic development and environmental impact. The risk and
reality of environmental degradation have become more visible during the past two
decades of 20th century. Increasing evidence of environmental problems and the
global climate change is due to a combination of several factors since the
environmental impact of human activities has grown dramatically because of the
sheer increase of world population, energy consumption and industrial activity.
Energy conservation is vital for sustainable development and should be implemented

by all possible resources, even if the fact is that it has its own limitations. A secure
supply of energy resources is generally agreed to be a necessary but not sufficient
requirement for development inside a society. Sustainable development demands a
sustainable supply of energy resources that, in the long term, is readily and
sustainable available at reasonable cost and can be utilized for all required tasks
without causing negative societal impacts. The intimate connection between
renewable energy sources and sustainable development comes out.
Renewable energy technologies produce profitable energy by converting natural

phenomena into useful energy forms. These technologies use the energy inherent in
sunlight and its direct and indirect impacts on the earth (photons, wind, falling water,
heating effects and plant growth), gravitational forces (the tides), and the heat of the
earth’s core (geothermal) as resources from which they produce energy. These
resources represent a massive energy potential, which dwarfs that of equivalent
fossil resources. Investment in renewable energy technologies requires a long–term
planning perspective.
As environmental problems, many countries consider that renewable energy

technologies are the key to a clean energy future and put efforts to be the world’s
leader in developing, manufacturing, and using these technologies. In figure 1 is
presented the use of renewable energy in different country in the world.
252
Fig. 1 Renewable energy resources
The implementation of an international agreement on limiting the pollution from

“greenhouse gases” is a complex matter, with major geopolitical and economic
implications. The United Nations Convention on Climate Change signed in 1992,
followed by the Kyoto conference in December 1997, marked the first step towards
an international determination to limit releases of greenhouse gases (especially CO2,
CH4 and N2O). The development and commercialization of fuel cell systems for
primary or auxiliary power for stationary, portable, and automotive systems has
rapidly accelerated in recent years. The advantages and limitations, development
and technical issues for types of fuel cell research are given. In this paper we
present a basic introduction to fuel cell system components, operation and utilization.
The purpose is also to provide an overview of the advantages, limitations and
technical challenges for the following types of fuel cells:
• Hydrogen-fed polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (H2 PEMFC)
• Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)
• Direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC).
2. ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS
Energy conversion means the changing of a substance (fuel- represents energy

stored in chemical form) or the energy in it from one form to another. Energy exists in
a variety of forms such as: electrical, mechanical, gravitational, light, nuclear,
chemical, heat or thermal.
253
There are many kinds of energy conversion devices to get the energy from fuels and
transform it into useful work. The efficiency of conversion devices is important in
obtain the best change in every form with the least amount of undesirable “loss” in
the form of heat or waste fuel and can be calculate with following formula which is a
quantitative expression of the balance between energy input and energy output:
energyoutput
efficiency = × 100
energyinput
The First Law of Thermodynamics tells us that the energy is conserved in all its
transformations. So, the ratio of energy output to energy input is always unity, or
100%. It is important to use the most efficient and effective conversion technology
and to conserve the non-renewable energy supplies.
2.1 Energy conversion devices
A device is a piece of equipment that serves a specific purpose. An energy

conversion device converts one form of energy into another and it is an important
element of progress of society. An energy conversion device is represented
schematically in figure 2 (demand - input and energy supply – output at micro scale):
ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY

INPUT CONVERSION DEVICE OUTPUT
Energy Output = Energy Input (1st Law)
Useful Energy Output Energy Input (2nd Law)
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of an energy conversion device
The Industrial Revolution began in 1765 when James Watt invented the steam
engine. The traditional energy conversion systems include steam electric power
plants, gas turbine, internal combustion engine, refrigeration systems, combined
cycled and cogeneration. Old technologies may find new uses or renewed standing.
The development of a new technology, from its initial conception to its widespread
adoption, is both a technological and a social process. In the future we will need
alternative technologies to replace our present conventional sources of energy. Six
categories of advanced power generation systems hold the greatest promise for
commercial use:
• Fuel Cell
• Pressurized Fluidised-Bed Combustion
254
• Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
• Indirectly Fired Cycle
• Advanced Gas Turbine
• Magnetohydrodynamics
Above all, it is evident that our choices today on energy alternatives will have
implications far into the future, affecting the welfare of generations to come. If we
invest in one alternative over another, that choice will be a given for future
generations. On the other hand, we have to consider ecological and/or social
approaching because of resources exploitation.
Existing power plants have a big advantage in markets that are opened to
competition because they are already in the market. In new plants, the generation
technology chosen will depend critically on total generation costs including pollution
control. Natural-gas-fired plants have an advantage because no sulphur or
particulate control systems are required. For coal-fired plants, when emissions
control limits require sulphur removal to exceed 95 to 98%, coal gasification
combined-cycle plants become increasingly competitive compared to conventional
pulverised coal plants with scrubbers. The biggest wildcard in the evolution of
environmental regulation is control of emissions of carbon dioxide to respond to
concerns about climate change. Power generation would be strongly affected by
limits on carbon dioxide production. Technologies able to generate electricity with
lower or zero emissions of carbon dioxide could receive an economic benefit whose
size depends on the severity of the limits. Carbon-free generation technologies such
as nuclear power and renewables could become much more competitive compared
to fossil-based sources. Fuel cells – devices that produce electricity via chemical
reactions rather than combustion – convert fuel into electricity two or three times
more efficiency than power plants or internal combustion engines do, and produce no
toxic emmisions or noise. They also permit the storage and distribution of energy in
the form of a fuel (most commonly hydrogen). Moreover, their fuel can be derived
from renewable energy and water, or (as a transitional step) from natural gas.
3. ENERGY RESOURCES
The total energy of a system is a sum of numerous forms of energy such as thermal,
chemical, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic and nuclear. Energy
resources include all types of energy which can be converted into useful forms of
energy.
Energy resources can be classified in three different ways (figure 3) depending on:
Provenience: natural resources (natural flows and stocks resources);
Velocity of reproduction: renewable and non-renewable energy resources;
Economical reason: conventional and unconventional energy resources.
255
Resources
Stocks Natural flows
Renewable Non-renewable
Conventional Unconventional
Fig. 3 A classification of resources
Natural resources are traditionally divided into energy resources and material
resources. Energy resources are usually measured in energy units and material
resources in quantitative units as weight, volume, or number. Natural resources
appear partly as flows and partly as stocks like is shown in figure 3. A natural flow
has a limited size, but usually lasts for a very long time. Stocks are differentiating
such as dead stocks or deposits and living stocks or funds. Deposits and funds are
defined with regard to the difference in the time of reproduction. Natural flows and
flows from funds are called renewable flows.
The energy resources from velocity of reproduction point of view are classified in two
general categories such as:
• Renewable resources (resources that are used at the same rate than nature can
replenish them)
• Nonrenewable resources (resources that are used up at a faster rate than nature
can replenish them)
Today, major fuel resources are fossil fuels, particularly coal, oil and natural gas.
Other fuels such as shale oil, tar-sand oil and other derivatives are considered fossil
fuel and are commonly lumped under one of these three common fossil fuel
categories. All of the fossil fuels were produced from the fossilization of carbohydrate
compounds with a general chemical formula of Cx(H2O)y. The term “resources” are
occurences that have not been measured with the same level of accuracy as
reserves and may not be economically recoverable with today’s level technology and
fuel prices. It can be seen that an assessment of fossil fuel quantities depends on
technical and economic assumption and that the classification of quantities is a
256
dynamic process because the terms change to reflect technological and economic
conditions.
Numerous analysts have estimated total and remaining resources to produce fossil
fuels. A partial list of the world’s energy nonrenewable resources and reserves is
given in table 1.
Table 1. Estimated nonrenewable resources and reserves of the world

Fossil Resource Reserves Resources
(billion metric tones) (billion metric
tones)
Oil 0.3318 0.4791
Conventional 0.1496 0.1445
Unconventional 0.1822 0.3345
Gas 0.3318 0.5358
Conventional 0.1400 0.2788
Unconventional 0.1918 0.2570
Coal 0.9996 2.3895
On the other hand, renewable energy resources (table 2) is a diverse category that
includes hydropower, hydrogen, biomass, wind, solar, ocean energy and geothermal
resources.
Table 2. Estimated renewable resources of the world (exajoules/year)

Resource Current use Technical Theoretical
potential potential
Solar energy 0.1 >1,575 3,900,000
Biomass energy 50 >276 2,900
Geothermal 0.6 5,000 140,000,000
energy
Wind energy 0.12 640 6,000
Hydropower 9 50 147
Ocean energy Not estimated Not estimated 7,400
1 E J= 1018Joules
Renewable energy resources are constantly replenished and will never run out. Most
renewable energy comes directly or indirectly from the sun. Solar energy can be
used directly for heating and lighting homes and other buildings, for generating
electricity and for water heating, solar cooling and a variety of commercial and
industrial uses. The sun’s heat drives the winds, whose energy is captured with wind
turbines. Biomass can be used to produce electricity, transportation fuels or
chemicals. Geothermal energy traps in the earth’s internal heat for a variety of uses,
including electric power production, heating and cooling of buildings.
In the industrialized world, most interest in renewable arise out of a desire to displace
fossil fuels for economic and environmental reason. In much of the underdeveloped
world, renewable resources play a fundamental role. In figure 4 is shown renewable
energy resources in the world.
257
8,69% 8,69% 1- hydro

8,69%
3 4 2- wind
21,73% 5
2 3- solar
4- geothermal
1 5- biomass
52,17%
Fig. 4 Renewable energy resources
The relation between development and use of resources (particularly energy

resources) is very important for human societies. The important role of energy
resources utilization in human’s life is shown in figure 5:
2500
2000
coal
1500 Natural Gas
KW
Nuclear
1000 Renewables
Petroleum
500
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
year
Fig. 5 Electricity generation by fuel between 1970-2020
Another type of resources classification is made by economically reason such as:
• Conventional (economically recoverable with current extraction

technology)
• Unconventional (they cannot be extracted either for economic or

technical reason)
Technical breakthrough and price changes could cause an unconventional resource

to become conventional and as a result raise the level of ultimate recoverable
resource. Some unconventional resources may never be technically or economically
recoverable.
258
4. FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device, which can continuously transform the

chemical energy of a fuel and oxidant to electrical energy by a process involving an
essentially invariant electrode-electrolyte system. The transformation occurs whitout
any combustion.
In 1839 William Grove conducted the first known demonstration of the fuel cell which
operated with separate platinum electrodes in oxygen and hydrogen submerged in a
dilute sufluric acid (H2SO4) electrolyte solution. High temperature solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFC) began with Nernst’s 1899 discovery of the still-used yttria-stabilized
zirconia solid-state ionic conductor, although little additional practical development
occurred until the 1960’s. Low temperature polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel
cells were first developed in 1960 by General Electric for NASA’s Gemini space
program. Both PEM and SOFC systems made slow progress until recently. Fueled
by technology advances allowing greatly enhanced performance, continuing
environmental concern, and a need to develop future power system that are
independent of petroleum fuel stock, interest in all types of fuel cell systems for
stationary, automotive and portable power applications is now very high. In all of
these applications there is a need for reduced system cost , high reliability and
acceptable performace. While the performance of many systems has made the
greatest strides, there is still much work to be done. Fuel cells have also proven their
role in space.
The fuel cell is a unique and fascinating system. For optimal performance and
design, accurate system modeling for prediction of performance as a function of the
multiple of possible operating conditions and transients is needed, but such modeling
requires an understanding of all relevant phenomena. Although the fundamentals of
operation are given in basic electrochemistry, advances in all areas are made in such
a rapid fashion that it is nearly impossible for one researcher to be fully cognizant of
all aspects of the state of the art. In order to make strides in the three primary needs
of high performance, low cost and high reliability, one must possess a basic
understanding of the principles of electrochemistry, materials and manufacturing and
heat and mass transfer. Because of this highly interdisciplinary nature of fuel cell
systems, many successful research programs are built around a team approach
involving investigators from complementary disciplines. The future of power
generation will almost certainly include fuel cell systems.
4.1 Types of fuel cells
The fuel cells are classified by their operating temperature and are generally done
according to the nature of the electrolyte used. There are several types of fuel cell
technologies being developed for different application, each using a different
chemistry as is shown in the table 3:
259
Table 3. Types of fuel cells
Types Electrolyte Operating T Fuel

(oC)
Alkaline (AFC) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) 50-200 Pure hydrogen (H2) or
hydrazine (N2H4)
Direct methanol Polymer 60-200 Liquid methanol
(DMFC) (CH3OH)
Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid 160-210 Hydrogen from
(PAFC) hydrocarbons and alcohol
Sulphuric acid Sulphuric acid 80-90 Alcohol or impure
(SAFC) hydrogen
Proton-exchange Polymer, proton exchange 50-80 Less pure hydrogen from
membrane membrane hydrocarbons or
(PEMFC) methanol
Molten carbonate Molten salt such as nitrate, 630-650 Hydrogen, carbon
(MCFC) sulphate,carbonates monoxide, natural gas,
propane, marine diesel
Solid oxide Stabilised zirconia and doped 600-1000 Natural gas or propane
(SOFC) perovskite
Solid polymer Solid sulphonated polystyrene 90 Hydrogen
(SPFC)
There are also other types of fuel cells which are less employed but may later find a
specific application like the air-depolarized cells, sodium amalgam cells, biochemical
fuel cells, inorganic red ox cells, regenerative cells, alkali metal-halogen cells etc.
Practical fuel cells can be combined to form a fuel cells stack. The cells are
connected in electrical series to build a desired output voltage. An interconnect
component connects the anode of one cell to the cathode of the next cell in the stack.
A fuel cells stack can be configured in series, parallel, series-parallel or as single
units, depending upon the type of applications. The number of fuel cells in a stack
determines the total voltage and the surface of each cell gives the total current.
4.2 Design and operation of the fuel cell
A fuel cell is an energy conversion device that produces electricity by

electrochemically combining fuel (hydrogen, natural gas or a renewable material
produced from biomass like ethanol) and oxidant (oxygen, air or another type of
oxidant) gases through electrodes and across an ion-conducting electrolyte. The
principal characteristic of a fuel cell is its capacity to convert chemical energy directly
into electrical energy with higher conversion efficiency than any conventional thermo-
mechanical system thus extracting more electricity from the same amount of fuel.
The fuel cell operates without combustion and, because of this it is environmentally
friendly (the emission of fuel cells operation on hydrogen derived from a renewable
source will be water vapors). Fuel cells are at the moment below development for a
variety of power generation applications in response to the critical need for a cleaner
energy technology.
Figure 6 shows a generalized schematic of a fuel cell. Electrochemical reactions for

the anode and cathode are shown for a hydrogen-fed polymer electrolyte membrane
fuel cell (H2 PEMFC) and a direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). Liquid or gas-phase fuel
and oxidizer streams enter through flow channels, separated by the
electrolyte/electrode assembly.
260
Fig. 6 Generalized schematic of a single fuel cell
Reactants are transported by diffusion and/or convection to the catalyzed electrode

surfaces, where electrochemical reactions take place. In PEM fuel cells (these
include H2 and DMFC), transport to the electrode takes place through an electrically
conductive carbon paper or carbon cloth-backing layer, which covers the electrolyte
on both sides. These backing layers (typical porosity 0.3-0.8) serve the dual purpose
of transporting reactants and products to and from the electrode and electrons to and
from the bipolar plates to the reaction site. An electrochemical oxidation reaction at
the anode produces electrons that flow through the bipolar plate/cell interconnect to
the external circuit, while the ions pass through the electrolyte to the opposing
electrode. The electrons return from the external circuit to participate in the
electrochemical reduction reaction at the cathode.
The single cell combination shown in figure 6 provides a voltage dependent on

operating conditions such as temperature, applied load and fuel/oxidant flow rates.
Figure 7 is an illustration of a polarization curve for a fuel cell.
261
Fig. 7 Generalized polarization curve for a fuel cell showing regions dominated by
various types of losses
The polarization curve, which represents the cell voltage behavior against operating
current density, is the standard measure of performance for fuel cell systems. Due to
losses resulting from undesired species crossover from one electrode through the
electrolyte and internal currents, the actual open circuit voltage is below the
theoretical value.
The maximum theoretical efficiency of a fuel cell is not bound by the Carnot cycle,
and can be shown as in Hamann et al. [1998]:
ηmax = 1 - ∆S/∆H (1)
Values calculated with equation (1) have a range from 60-90%. In practice higher
temperature operation results in reduced activation polarization, and the difference in
actual operating efficiency with temperature is less significant. Combined fuel
cell/bottoming cycle and cogeneration plants promise operational efficiencies as high
as 80%, with very low pollution.
262
Another major advantage of fuel cells compared to heat engines is that efficiency is
not a major function of device size, so that high efficiency power for portable
electronics can be realized, whereas small scale heat engines can only reach system
efficiencies of 10-15%. While advanced automotive direct injection heat engine
efficiencies can achieve 28%, with little hope of significant future gains, future fuel
cell systems can realistically achieve nearly 40%.
The liquid-fed direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) has received enormous interest
recently because DMFC systems require less ancillary equipment and are therefore
much more simplified compared to an H2 PEMFC. Note that fuel cells that utilize
reformed methanol are referred to as indirect methanol fuel cells. Some direct
methanol fuel cells also utilize fuel heated above the methanol solution boiling point
of ~95o C at 1 atm; these are referred to as vapor-fed direct methanol fuel cells.
Because of system simplicity, a majority of methanol fuel cell research has been
focused on liquid-fed DMFC development.
While both H2 PEMFC and DMFC utilize polymer electrolyte membranes, and both
transfer hydrogen protons through the electrolyte, the DMFC feeds a solution of
methanol and water (typically 0.5-2 molar) to the anode, where the catalyst internally
reforms it. The additional complexities of the low temperature internal reformation
prevent the DMFC from obtaining the same level of fuel cell power density as the H2
PEMFC under the same conditions.
For the DMFC, both anode and cathode activation polarizations are significant and
are the same order of magnitude. However, reduced performance compared to the
H2 PEMFC is tolerable in light of other advantages of the DMFC, namely:
1) Because the anode flow is mostly liquid, there is no need for a separate cooling or
humidification subsystem, as in the H2 PEMFC.
2) Liquid fuel used in the anode results in lower parasitic pumping requirements
compared to gas flow. In fact, several designs operate without any external parasitic
losses, relying on natural forces such as capillary action, buoyancy, and diffusion to
deliver reactants.
3) The highly dense liquid fuel stored at ambient pressure eliminates problems
associated with reformation or on-board hydrogen storage.
As a result of the great reduction in system components and complexity, the DMFC
total system power density may eventually be greater than that of the H2 PEMFC.
The lack of ancillary equipment makes the DMFC design ideal for portable
electronics presently using batteries. In many such systems, there is a need to
dissipate heat from electronics that can be facilitated by pre-heating the methanol
solution, thus enhancing performance of the fuel cell at the same time. Besides
relatively low anodic activity, other disadvantages of the DMFC are related to use of
methanol. Methanol is toxic; can spread rapidly into ground water; has a colorless
flame; and is more corrosive than gasoline. In addition, it would be financially difficult
to fuel providers for an intermediate switch to a methanol economy, only to be
replaced by a hydrogen economy shortly thereafter. As a result of these potential
263
drawbacks, there is a great debate in the fuel community over the future use of
methanol for fuel cells.
Although the DMFC is quite promising, four main technical issues affecting
performance remain, including:
1) Water management,
2) Methanol crossover,
3) Managing two-phase transport in the anode, and
4) High activation polarization losses and catalyst loading.
While significant progress has been made by various groups to determine alternative
catalysts, additional work is needed. Although external humidification is typically not
needed in the DMFC due to the liquid anode solution, prevention of cathode flooding
is critical to ensure adequate performance. Flooding is more of a concern for DMFCs
than H2 PEM fuel cells. The reactions are:
Anode: CH3OH + H2O  CO2 + 6 H+ + 6 e-
Cathode: 3/2 O2 + 6 H+ + 6 e-  3 H2O
Cell: CH3OH + 3/2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O
These cells are expected to operate at around 120oC, which is slightly higher than
the standard PEM fuel cell, and give efficiencies of around 40 per cent. The low
temperature conversion of methanol to hydrogen and carbon dioxide needs a larger
quantity of platinum catalyst than in conventional PEM cell. This increased cost is
expected to be more than outweighed by convenience of using liquid fuel and the
ability to function without a reforming unit. The technology behind direct methanol
fuel cell is still in the early stages of development but is has been successfully
demonstrated powering mobile phones and laptop computers, potential target end
uses in future years.
4.3 Environmental considerations
Environmental considerations will play an increasingly important role in the

installation of technologies for energy systems in any country. The fuel cell is
normally referred to as an environmentally clean technology. However, it seems clear
that, depending on the environmental concerns of interest, it might be useful to study
the whole chain of the fuel cell cycle. The justification is that the consideration of the
fuel cell in a system also includes manufacturing constraints and disposal of the
waste. Life cycle analysis may play an important role here.
4.4 Fuel cell benefits
The basic advantages common to all fuel cell systems are as follows:
1) Potential for a high operating efficiency (up to 50-70%), that is not a strong
function of system size.
264
2) Zero or near-zero greenhouse emissions, with level of pollution reduction

depending on the particular fuel cell system and fuel option.
3) No moving parts, except pumps or compressors, thus providing stealthy, vibration-

free and highly reliable operation.
4) A highly scaleable design.
5) Multiple choices of potential fuel feedstock from renewable ethanol to biomass
hydrogen production.
6) A nearly instantaneous recharge capability compared to batteries.
4.5 Fuel cell limitations
However, before successful market penetration can occur the following limitations
common to all fuel cell systems must be overcome:
1) Alternative materials and construction methods must be developed to reduce fuel

cell system cost to be competitive with the automotive combustion engine (presently
priced at about $20/kW), and stationary power systems (presently priced up to
$1,000/kW). The cost of the catalyst no longer dominates the price of most fuel cell
systems. Manufacturing and mass production technology is now a key component to
the commercial viability of fuel cell systems.
2) Fuel storage and delivery technology must be advanced if pure hydrogen is to be

used.
3) Fuel reformation technology must be advanced if a hydrocarbon fuel is to be used

for hydrogen production.
4) Transformation from laboratory to practical systems must occur with reliable

lifetime performance. Due to catalyst degradation and electrolyte poisoning, the
performance of every fuel cell gradually decreases over time. For an automotive
system, the desired time to retain rated performance is about 4000 hours (equivalent
to 100,000 miles at 25 mph) and 40,000 hours for stationary power systems.
4.6 Fuel cell developments
All types of fuel cells are in the development stage. But some of the fuel cells have a
market in space programs and test programs. The potential market is very big and
provides that the cost will decrease. Calculations for cost for plants cannot be used
based one the cost on demonstration plants. It must be built on larger series of fuel
cells. Today it’s to expensive for fuel cell to reach a bigger market, but according the
company that develop the fuel cell the cost will be greatly decrease in the future.
4.7 Applications of fuel cells
Fuel cells could be used in many applications. Each proposed use raises its own
issues and challenges. Fuel cells most needed uses are:
265
• High power reliability: computer facilities, call centers, communication facilities,

data processing centers high technology manufacturing facilities.
• Emission minimisation or elimination: cars, buses, urban areas, industrial

facilities, airports, zones with strict emissions standards.
• Limited access to utility grid: rural or remote areas, maximum grid capacity.
• Biological waste gases are availabile: waste treatment plants, fuel cells can
convert waste gases to electricity and heat with minimal environment intrusion.
5. CONCLUSION
It is obvious that environmental impact of human activities has grown dramatically

due to rapid increase of world population and energy consumption. Therefore, it is
necessary for new technological achievements to be approached.
Fuel cells constitute a high promising technology for a cleaner future. Generally, fuel
cell research will result in reduction in manufacturing and component cost, increased
system longevity and enhanced system modeling for use as a design optimization
tool. The major achievements specific to hydrogen PEM fuel cell research include
finding membrane electrode assemblies with increased CO tolerance, better
performance in dry conditions and reduced catalyst loading.
On the other hand, biomass, which is characterized as a renewable resource of

energy, is expected to become one of the key energy resources for global
sustainable development. An ethanol industry representative felt that ethanol could
be more viable than gasoline or methanol and would provide significant benefits as a
renewable fuel source for fuel cells. Fuel cells simply prefer hydrogen and that a pure
hydrogen vehicle will be the simplest fuel cell system.
REFERENCES
1. E. S. Cassedy, P. Z. Grossman, Introduction to Energy, Cambridge University Press, UK, 1998
2. K. Kordesch, G. Simader, Fuel Cells and Their Applications, VCH, Weinheim Federal Republic
of Germany, 1996.
3. P. Tsiakaras and A. Demin, Thermodynamic analysis of a solid oxide fuel cell system fuelled
by ethanol, Journal of Power Sources, Vol. 102 (1-2), pp. 210-217, 2001.
4. V. V. Galvita, V. D.Belyaev, A. V. Frumin, A. K. Demin, P. ETsiakaras and V. A. Sobyanin,

Performance of a SOFC fed by ethanol reforming products, Solid State Ionics, 2002, In press.
5. V. V. Galvita, G. L. Semin, V. D. Belyaev, V. A. Semikolenov, P. Tsiakaras and V. A. Sobyanin,

Synthesis gas production by steam reforming of ethanol, Applied Catalysis A: General Vol. 220
(1-2), pp. 123-127, 2001
266
MODERN TECHNIQUES FOR IDENTIFICATION AND DOSAGE OF

THE ORGANIC POLLUTANTS FROM THE WATERS1
Aurelia Bolma 1), Agnes Serbanescu 1), Virgil Badescu 3), Mihai Radu 4)
1)
Ph.D.- National Institut for Energy Research & Development- ICEMENERG, 8
Energeticienilor Bdv, 3rd Bucharest, Romania, tel. (+4021) 3464786 /115, fax:
(+4021) 3462790; e-mail: bolma@icemenerg.ro
2)
eng. - National Institut for Energy Research & Development – ICEMENERG, 8
Energeticienilor Bvd, 3rd Bucharest, Romania, tel. (+4021)3464786 /153, fax:
(+4021)3462790 e-mail: agnes@icemenerg.ro
3)
Ph.D. - National Institut for Chemistry - ICECHIM – 202 Independentei Bdv, 2rd
Bucharest, Romania, tel.(+4021)2248826, fax(4021)3123493
4)
eng. - National Institut for Chemistry- ICECHIM – 202 Independentei Bdv, 2rd
Bucharest, Romania,
tel.(+4021)2248826, fax(4021)3123493
ABSTRACT
One of the main challenger of the XXIst century is to supply the growing urban areas with drinking
water. In this sense, humankind faces two major problems: the dimishing of the water resources and
the excessive pollution of those already available. Thus, to prevent any possible crisis, the existing
resources shoud be conservated, which impies the existence of a very efficient water treatment
system.
This paper presents the utilization of the state of the art analytical techniques, namely gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry in the analytical identification and quantitative dosing of the
organic compounds, present in the water.
Synthetically, the analysis development stages can be summarized as: extraction – concentration, gas
- chromatograph and mass spectrometer based identification (GC - MS) and gas chromatograph
based dosing (GC).
The use of a double focusing mass spectrometer VG Analytical Model 70-SE and of a Hewlett-Pakard
5890 gas chromatography made possible the organic compounds identification.
The organic compound separation, necessary for the quantitative assessment was performed with a
Carla - Erba gas chromatograph, series Vega - 6000, provided with a flame ionization detector (FID).
The spectrochemical analysis which enables the organic compounds dosing and identification was
accomplished within operating parameters.
1. INTRODUCTION
The identification and dosage of the organic pollutant in the water is important for the
social and economical impacts on communities.
The analytic identification of the organic pollutants is considered to be a difficult

problem due to their complexity and different nature.
The waste waters evacuated directed or partially cleaned still contain a large variety
of organic substances, natural or synthesized obtained, resulted directly from the
production or social activities. These waters are responsible for many complex
physical -chemical, biological and bacteriological processes within the aquatic basin
[1].
1
736
The paper presents the studies concerning the present organic pollution level of the
main rivers of our country : the Olt, Arges and the Danube.
It has been noticed that the development of certain severely polluted areas along the
rivers is related either to conurbation or to a heavily polluted industrial environment
(middle area - of the Olt and Arges rivers, the lower - middle area of the Danube
river.
2. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
The analysis of the water samples taken from the Olt, Arges and Danube rivers has
indicated the water tendency towards a heavy organic pollution, due to the harmful
influence of the waste water discharged by the large industrial plants in the area, as
well as by the riverside conurbation.
The large variety of the pollutans continuously discharged into the river water of then
surpasses its self - purification capacity, making it finally lose its physical and
chemical stability, together with its colour and clearness.
The analytical identification of the components of on organic substance mixture is a

difficult problem [2, 3, 4].
The identification of the water organic substances can be performed by means of the
following methods [5]:
-the non specific methods which make possible to determine the general
content of organic substances (CCOCr, CCOMn, CBO5, TOC);
-structural group analysis methods which enable to obtain the substance

classification according to the presence of certain functional groups (ultraviolet,
infrared spectroscopy);
-organic substance individual identification method based on gas

chromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography (HPLC) as well as on mass
spectrometry (MS).
3. EXPERIMENTAL
With the view of determining both the composition and the chemical structure of the
organic compounds present in the water of the above mentioned rivers, the authors
have used the state of the art analytical techniques (GC - MS).
The available equipment that the analytical laboratories are equipped with has made
possible the organic matter “off – line” analysis.
Synthetically, the analysis development stages can be summarized as:
-extraction - concentration;
-gas - chromatograph separation by means and the identification by means

mass spectrometer (GC - MS);
737
-gas chromatograph based quantitation (GC).
The compounds separated by GC where identified by recording theirs mean spectra

and comparing them with the spectra in NBS Library.
The choice of the methyl chloride as the extraction solvent observed the following
selection criteria: availability, purity and extraction efficiency.
The organic compound extraction, either basic or neutral was performed after the
water samples had been turned into alkaline pH (pH=11) while the acid organic
compound extraction was performed in a strongly pH (pH=2) in the presence of
sodium chloride.
3.1. ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTATION
The use of a double focusing mass spectrometer VG Analytical Model 70-SE and of
a Hewlett-Pakard 5890 gas chromatography made possible the organic compounds
identification.
The organic compound separation, necessary for the quantitative assessment was
performed with a Carlo - Erba gas chromatograph, series Vega - 6000, provided with
a flame ionization detector (FID).
The spectrochemical analysis which enables the organic compounds dosing and
identification was accomplished within operating parameters.
GC analyses: Carlo - Erba gas chromatograph, series Vega - 6000, provided with a
flame ionization detector (FID); SE-52 (5% fenil) fused silica column (25 m x 0,22
mm).
Conditions:
♦ temperature program: 50 – 280 0 C at 100 C / min.
♦ temperature at injector: 280 0 C
♦ temperature at detector: 280 0 C
♦ carrier gas debit – Hydrogen: 3 ml / min.
♦ quantity of injected samples: 1 µ l
External standard solutions:
♦ eicosan C20 H42 for n – alkanes ( n > C 9 );
♦ palmitic acid C16 H32 O2 for saturated monocarbonylic organic acids (C11 -
C18);
♦ dimethyl phthalate C10 H10 O4 for phthalates.
738
GC/MS analyses : double focusing mass spectrometer VG Analytical Model 70 - SE

Series and Hewlett-Packard 5890 gas chromatograph
Conditions for GC instrument:
♦ OV-1 fused silica column (25 m x 0,22 mm), coupled directly to the ion
source
♦ temperature program: 30 – 280 0 C at 10 0 C/ min.;
♦ temperatura at injector: 300 0 C;
♦ carrier gas debit – Helium: 4 ml / min;
♦ quantity of injected samples: 1 µ l;
Conditions for MS instrument:
♦ ionisation energy : 70 eV;
♦ acceleration voltage: 8 kV;
♦ mass range: 40 – 500;
♦ scan time: 0,1 msec.
4. REZULTS
The organic compound classification, illustrated in table 1, relied on the average

values obtained from the seasonal measurements of the organic contaminants,
present in the points: Rm.Valcea for the Olt river, Bucuresti for the Arges river and
Galati for the Danube river.
Table 1. Qualitative and quantitative estimation of the surface water organic

pollutants.
No Compound classes Concentration ×10-3, g /L

Olt Arges Dunube
1. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons (C 11- C22) 0,112 0,085 0,901
2. Saturated monocarbonylic organic acids (C11 - C18) 0,784 0,327 0,435
3. Phthalic acids 0,156 0,120 0,060
4. Cetone and aldehydes. 0,033 - 0,022
5. Phthalic ester 1,153 0,930 0,250
6. Halogen compounds 0,058 - 0,012
7. Non identified compounds 0,038 0,073 0,015
8. Total 2,334 1,535 1,695
The main chemical and structural characteristics of the organic compounds that were
identified in the analysed surface waters are the following:
739
Chemical properties:
-chemical reactivity and a high chemical stability;
-ionic characteristics (esters, acids, halogen compounds) non ionic

characteristics (hydrocarbons)
-low water solubility, low densities;
Physical properties:
-zig-zag and plane molecular structures, medial symmetric or twisted;
-significant molecular lengths and high molecular weights.
The correct identification of the organic compounds from the river water is the first
important step in the knowledge of pollution level and social and economical impacts
on communities.
REFERENCES
[1] Schwarzenbach P.R., Environmental organic chemistry, Pub. J. Wiles, New York,
(1993)
[2] Aurelia Bolma , “The identification of the main organic polluants in the thermal
power plant surface feed water”, VGB Conferenz , 24-25 oct.2001, Essen;
[3] Wiliam Boyd, ” Organics – Aplication of TOC ”, Ultrapure Water, 7/8, (1995), 32-
38;
[4] Jude Piotrowski, “Ion exchange – Removal of humic substances” ,Ultrapure

Water, 9, (1995);
[5] xxx Advaces in the identification analysis of organic pollutants in water,

1,(1981),36-48
740
EVALUATION OF FUGITIVE DUST EMISSION FROM WIDE AREA

SOURCES1
G. Massacci, F. Ricchi, A.P. Soddu, S. Usala
DIGITA – Dipartimento di Geoingegneria e Tecnologie Ambientali, Cagliari, Italy
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the estimation of source-specific dust emission in mining and mineral processing
operations and in industrial plants. Ambient dispersion modelling and analysis, control strategy
development and screening sources for compliance investigations have been carried out by using
the results of the above mentioned procedure. The final purposes consisted in obtaining applicability
determinations according with normative limits.
Keywords: dust emission, mining, mineral processing, air pollution
1. INTRODUCTION
Fugitive dust is a type of non-point source air-pollution, small airborne particles that
differ substantially from, and hence cannot be grouped with, the other stationary
sources originate from a specific point, for example dust generated by industrial
processes [1].
Dust generated from these open sources is termed fugitive because it is not
discharged to the atmosphere in a confined flow stream as usually happens dealing
with point-sources.
Most of these dust emitters, both natural and manmade, are truly area sources, with
their pollutant-generating processes dispersed over large land areas.
Atmospheric fugitive dust generally arises from the mechanical disturbance of

granular material exposed to the air, and the dust-generation process is caused by
two basic physical phenomena:
− Pulverization and abrasion of surface materials by application of mechanical force

through implements (wheels, blades, etc.).
− Entrainment of dust particles by the action of turbulent air currents, such as wind
erosion of an exposed surface by wind speeds over 5 m/s.
Unpaved roads, agricultural tilling operations, aggregate storage piles, and heavy
construction operations are the most common fugitive dust sources.
The above mentioned non-point sources (and similar) generally emit pollutants
intermittently, compared to most stationary point sources. For example the source
may emit large quantities of particulate for several hours or even days. However,
when measured against a continuous emitter over a long period of time, its emissions
may seem relatively minor. Also, effects on air quality may be of relatively short
1
267
duration compared to stationary point-sources effects. Another characteristic of these

sources is the inapplicability, in most cases, of conventional control methods such as
wet/dry equipment, process changes, etc.
2. DUST POLLUTION EFFECTS ON ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALT
Fugitive dust is included in the larger category of particulate matter (PM). Particulate
matter includes the solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air. Sources
of particulate matter include smokestacks and vehicle exhaust, but the largest single
source is unpaved roads [2,5].
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies particulate matter as one of

six principal air pollutants, including carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone
and sulphure dioxide.
V ario u s
19%
W in d ero sio n an d
n atu ral so u rces
40%
C o n stru ctio n
P av ed ro ad s
17%
A ll o th er
U n p av ed ro ad s
3% 13%
8%
Graph 1 – Particulate matter emission originate from main sources [2]
A relevant amount of fugitive dust may cause the following problems:
− Health - Although generally not toxic, fugitive dust can cause health problems,
alone or in combination with other air pollutants; infants, the elderly and people
with respiratory problems are most likely to be affected.
− Safety – Fugitive dust can cause low visibility on paved and unpaved roads, it is
statistically demonstrated that the risk of accident increases[3].
− Environment – In severe cases,dust can interfere with plant growth by clogging

pores and reducing light interception.
− Air transparency - Fugitive dust decreases air transparency and impair visibility.
− Wear off – dust particles are abrasive to mechanical equipment and damaging
electronical equipment such as computers.
− Grime – dust deposition implies additional cleaning of homes and vehicles
3. EU EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR PM FRACTIONS
Particulate matter is divided in two groups, depending on particle size:
268
− PM10: particulate matter fraction with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm.
− PM2,5: particulate matter fraction with aerodynamic diameter less than 2,5 µm.
European normative 1999/30/CE [4] imposes observance of several PM10 limit

values reported in table 1.
Average Exposure limit Deadline for limit

Tolerance
period value application
PHASE 1
50% of limit value ( 25 µg/m3 ), at the
50µg/m3 PM10 approval date of 99/30/CE (19/7/99). This
Short time this limit can be limit value will be reduced since 1° jan
24 hours 01.01.2005
limit value trespassed for 35 2001 and each 12 month of a constant
times during civil year percentage til reaching a 0% tolerance on
1° jan 2005
20% of limit value ( 8 µg/m3 ), at the
approval date of 99/30/CE (19/7/99). This
Long term limit value will be reduced since 1° jan
1 year 40 µg/m3 PM10 01.01.2005
limit value 2001 and each 12 month of a constant
percentage til reaching a 0% tolerance on
1° jan 2005
PHASE
2(*)
50µg/m3PM10 this limit
This value has tobe determinated in
Short time can be trespassed for
24 hours according with available data in order to 01.01.2010
limit value 7 times during civil
obtain same limits of phase 1
year
10 µg/m3 since1° jan 2005 with reduction
Long term 3
1 year 20 µg/m PM10 each 12 months of a constant percentage 01.01.2010
limit value
til reaching a 0% tolerance on 1° jan 2010
Table 1 - PM10 concentration limit values for human health protection, average period to calculate
them, tolerance and deadline for limit values application.(*) Limit values of this second phase could be
modified by the new coming EU regulations
4. EMISSION FACTORS
Emission rates inventories have long been fundamental tools for air quality
management and risk assessment. Data from source-specific emission tests or
continuous emission monitoring are usually to be preferred for estimating emissions
because those data provide the best representation of the tested source. However,
test data from individual sources are not always available and, even then, they may
not reflect the variability of actual emissions over time.
An emission factor is a representative value that attemps to relate the quantity of a

pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated with the release of
this pollutant. Emission factors are usually expressed as the mass of pollutant
divided by a unit mass, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
pollutant.
Emission factors are frequently the best or the only method available for estimating
emission, in spite of their limitations, and their application may be appropriate for
many purposes such as ambient dispersion modeling and analysis, control strategy
development, screening sources for compliance investigations, establishing
operating permit fees, providing appropriate mitigation strategies. For some sources,
emission factors may be presented for facilities having air pollution control equipment
in place. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) develops and mantains AP-42
series emission factors to support the many activities above mentioned [6].
269
AP-42 provide indications of emission factors reliability for estimating average

emissions from a source activity. To each AP-42 emission factor is given a rating
from A through E, A being the best. A factor's rating is a general indication of the
reliability, or robustness, of that factor. This rating is assigned based on the
estimated reliability of the tests used to develop the factor and on both the amount
and the representative characteristics of those data. In general, factors based on
many observations, or on more widely accepted test procedures, are assigned higher
rankings.
5. EMISSION FACTORS APPLICATION
The studied case deals with preventive assessment of fugitive dust emissions from a
bentonite processing mineral plant which is supposed to start activity during summer
2003. The treatment will consist essentially in bentonite activation plant process
with sodium carbonate and in solar-drying of activated bentonite. Detailed data about
the above mentioned process are available from the project and from data
inventories related to similar operating cases. Bentonite moisture content in
processing plant feeding is 32% (average value) and is almost the natural moisture
content of originary bentonite bedding. After activation with sodium carbonate,
bentonite is stocked in outdoor storage piles located in a stock area close to the
plant. Activated bentonite is supposed to easily decrease in its moisture content
compared to not treated bentonite.
The aim of the solar-drying process is to reduce moisture content to 13% ÷ 15%
values. An activated bentonite layer (approx. 10–30 cm in thickness) is spread over
a wide outdoor area where it remains for a 20 days cycle that is periodically repeated
as long as allowed by the warm season. In order to enhance the solar-drying process
a milling machine works continuously all over the area: in this way the upper dry layer
is daily substituted with the lower damp layer and the final moisture content
assumes more homogeneous values.
Graph 2 shows moisture reduction trend obtained testing solar-drying processes on

three samples of activated bentonite.
Moisture decreasing trend in activated bentonite during solar drying
40
35
30
m oisture content (%)
25
1
20 2
15 3
10
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
days of solar dry treatm ent
Graph 2 - Moisture reduction trend obtained testing solar-drying processes
270
An accurate screening of each possible open source and point-source dust emission
has been carried out by analysing each operations related to the normal life of the
entire process.
All the moving, handling, loading, spreading bentonite operations performed before
activation process have been cut out from the list of potential dust emission sources,
because a moisture content of 30 % is too high to allow any dust emission.
The sodium carbonate activation processing has not to be considered as a

significative possibility for point-source dust emission: moisture content is even in
this case too hgh and all operations take place in dust-proof conditions.
During solar-drying processing both above mentioned storage bentonite piles cycle
and daily milling operations can be considered as potential fugitive dust emission
source. The schematical plan reported in figure 1 shows the wide outdoor areas
where all processing operations are supposed to take place:
Figure 1 – Schematical plan of processing area
SD1, SD2 and SD3 indicate the three oudoors areas destinated to solar-drying
operations, total area being 32.000 m2 .
SP1 indicates the storage piles containing activated bentonite.
5.1 Dust emission caused by storage piles cycle
Total dust emissions from aggregate storage piles result from several distinct source
activities within the storage cycle:
1. Loading of activated bentonite onto storage piles (batch or continuous drop

operations).
2. Equipment traffic in storage area.
3. Wind erosion of pile surfaces and ground areas around piles.
4. Loadout of activated bentonite for shipment (batch or continuous drop operations).
Either adding aggregate material to a storage pile or removing it usually involves

dropping the material on a receiving surface. Truck dumping on the pile or loading
out from the pile to a truck with a front-end loader are examples of batch drop
operations. Adding material to the pile by a conveyor stacker is an example of a
continuous drop operation.
271
The quantity of particulate emissions generated by either type of aggregate storage

piles drop operation may be estimated, with a rating of A, using the following
empirical expression [6]:
1.3
U 
 
 2.2 
E = k ⋅ (0.0016) 1.4
[kg/t] {1}
M 
 
 2 
where:
E = emission factor [kg of dust emissions from storage piles, per ton of moved
material]
k = particle size multiplier varies with aerodynamic particle size range [dimensionless]
U = mean wind speed, meters per second [m/s]
M =average material moisture content [%]
The particle size multiplier k varies with aerodynamic particle size range, as reported
in table 2
aerodynamic
< 30 µm < 15 µm < 10 µm < 5 µm < 2.5 µm
diameter
k 0.74 0.48 0.35 0.20 0.11
Table 2 – Factor k values
Quality rating A is excellent. It means that this factor has been developed from
source test data taken from many randomly chosen facilities in the industry
population. The source category population is sufficiently specific to minimize
variability. The equation retains the assigned quality rating if applied within the
ranges of source conditions reported in table 3. Silt content is included, even though
it does not appear as a correction parameter in the equation.
Silt Content Wind Speed

Moisture Content
(<75 µm) [m/s]
0.44 % ÷ 19 % 0,25 % ÷ 4.8 % 0.6 ÷ 6.7
Table 3 – Ranges of source conditions
Emission estimates for storage piles cycle
The values reported in table 4 have been obtained using all inventories and project
data referred to the studied case.
Position of storage pile area source SP1 is indicated in fig…
272
PM10 emission estimating value for SP1 source has been calculated as a 24 hours
average because it has to be compared with short-period limit values expressed as
average concentrations on 24 hours.
Emission factor 0,75 g/t

Emission estimating for SP1 source 0,24 mg/s
Table 4 – Emission estimates for storage piles cycle
5.2 Dust emission caused by milling operations
When the milling machine travels over spread activated bentonite, particles are lifted
and dropped from the rolling wheels, and the bentonite layer surface is exposed to
strong air currents in turbulent shear with the surface. The turbulent wake behind the
vehicle continues to act on the surface for some seconds after the vehicle has
passed.
In specific literature is not available at the moment an estimating emission method

directly referred to dust emission caused by milling operations.The dust emission
estimating methods that more can be adapted to milling operations are dust emission
estimating for unpaved roads and again dust emission estimating from storage piles.
The quantity of size-specific particulate emissions generated by transit of trucks on

unpaved road may be estimated, with a rating of B, using the following empirical
expression [6]:
a b
 s  W 
  ⋅ 
12 3
E = 281.9 ⋅ k ⋅    c  [g/(vehicle·km)] {2}
M 
 
 0.2 
where:
E = size-specific emission factor [g of specific particulate emissions from an unpaved
road per vehicle mile traveled] k = particle size multiplier, varies with aerodynamic
particle size range [g/(veicolo·km)] W = mean vehicle
weight [t]
M = surface material moisture content [%]
k, a, b and c are empirical constants given below. Values change for different PM
fractions as indicated in table 5.
PM2,5 PM10 PM30

k 0.38 2.6 10
a 0.8 0.8 0.8
b 0.4 0.4 0.5
c 0.3 0.3 0.4
Table 5 – Empirical constant a, b, c, k values
273
Quality rating B is above average. It means that this factor has been developed using
data from a "reasonable number" of facilities. Although no specific bias is evident, it is
not clear if the facilities tested represent a random sample of the industry. As with an
A rating, the source category population is sufficiently specific to minimize variability.
The equation retains the assigned quality rating if applied within the ranges of source
conditions reported in table 6:
Surface Silt Mean Vehicle Mean Vehicle Mean No.

Moisture
Content Weight [t] Speed [km/h] of Wheels
1.2 % ÷ 35 % 0.03 % ÷ 20 % 1.5 ÷ 290 8 ÷ 88 4÷7
Table 6 – Ranges of source conditions
Emission estimates for milling operations
The values reported in table 7 have been obtained using all inventories and project
data referred to the studied case.
PM10 emission estimating values for SD1, SD2, SD3 sources have been calculated
as a 24 hours average emission because they have to be compared with short-
period limit values expressed as average concentrations on 24 hours.
Emission estimates have been calculated using both storage piles and unpaved
roads emission factors; emission estimate calculated using unpaved roads emission
factor has been finally considered more reliable because emission rate was the
highest of the two, and was better using a caution value.
Considering that both emission factor used are not directly referred to milling
operations, final caution emission estimates has been obtained using a multiplier
caution factor of 2.5.
Emission factor for unpaved roads 114

g/(vehicle·km)
Emission factor for storage piles 0.75 g/t
Emission estimates for SD1, SD2, SD3 sources 3.1mg/s
Caution emission estimates for SD1, SD2, SD3 sources 10 mg/s
Caution factor used for estimating emission 2.5
Table 7 – Emission estimates for milling operation
6. DUST EMISSION MODELLING: SOFTWARE AND APPLICATIONS
Dispersion in atmosphere of dust emissions has been represented with software

WinDIMULA 1.0, developed by ENEA[7]. Dimula is a multiple source model based
on the gaussian transport and diffusion model of pollutants generated by point, linear
and areal sources and it works on long and short terms time horizons. Input values
are all meteorological available data, source geometry and sources emission rates.
Both long term and short term model version calculates ground-concentration values
of the considered pollutant over the wide region of interest.
274
In the long term version, output values are averaged on long term period in order to
highlight temporal variations of meteorological parameters.
In the short term version, output values are referred to a short time period. During
this time meteorological conditions (like wind speed and direction) and considered
pollutant emission are stationary. Referring to this case the simulation of dust
diffusion and transport and calculation of ground-concentration values has been
carried out on short term and long term horizons. All determined concentrations are
referred to PM10 fraction emissions.The four above mentioned area source SD1,
SD2, SD3 and SP1 cover almost completely the processing area.
An orthogonal coordinate system has been defined with its origin in the middle of
plant area, coincident with SP1 area source center. X axis is orientated WE
(increasing value from W to E) and Y axis is orientated SN (increasing value from S
to N).
Each area destinated to solar-dry process of activated bentonite has its centered on
X axis. All input data are summarized in the table 8.
Coordinates of source Estimated emission rates

Sources
center [mg/s]
Storage pile area SP1 0; 0 0.24
Solar-drying area SD1 0; 100 10.0
Solar-drying area SD2 0; -100 10.0
Solar-drying area SD3 0; -200 10.0
Table 8 – Data sources
Output dust concentration data related to short term and long term analysis are
reported in figure 2 and figure 3. in both figures plant area is represented by a red
rectangle.
3
Figure 2 – Short term ground concentration values, in µg/m , averaged on 24 hours
275
3
Figure 3 –Long term ground concentration values, in µg/m , averaged on 1 year
Both short term and long term dust emission and dispersion modeling referred to
PM10 fraction indicates that maximum predicted concentration values are lower than
PM10 limit values reported in table 1 [4].
7. SAMPLING OF AIRBORNE DUST
For some sources, emission factors estimating results may be combined with test
data, having air pollution control equipment in place.
In the considered case emission factors were the only available method for
estimating emissions because processing plant is still in progress. For this reason a
test data confirmation of dust concentration estimates is missing.
However, sampling of airborne dust at ground level was performed while solar drying
processing was tested in a pilot plant in which materials, meteorological conditions
and processing were almost the same.
Airborne dust was sampled with a multistage virtual impactor allowing the particle
size-selective simultaneous sampling of the inhalable, thoracic and respirable
fractions. With proper approximation thoracic and inhalable fractions can be
considered respectively as representative of PM10 and PM2.5 fractions.
The sampler used in this case (Respicon TM model manufactured by Hund Wetzlar),
was the photometric version of the instrument [8,9], which integrates at each stage
an optical chamber where the on-line measurement of the dust fraction concentration
is based on scattered light technology, allowing a real time resolution.
The graph in figure 4 shows the real time concentrations measured during milling
operation: the transit of the milling machine close to the sampler is clearly indicated
by concentrations peaks. Maximum peak values decreasing indicates different
positions of transit: as bigger is the distance, as lower is the measured
concentration.
276
For short time period (average on 24 hours) ground concentration values measured
during sampling showed same size order of ground concentration values estimated
using EPA emission factors and WinDIMULA simulation software.
Figure 4 – Respicon TM output data
8. CONCLUSIONS
Emission factors for fugitive dust ensure a reliable estimation of airborne dust
concentration around the source, provided that the considered situation was well
represented by the case reported in literature, for which emission factor were
developed.
When possible, a control strategy based on airborne dust sampling campaign is

recommended. To this purpose, a sampling device able to detect real time values
(like the one used in this study) has proven to be effective, allowing to correlate the
time variations of the airborne dust concentration at ground level at different distance
from the source with the time variations of operating parameters and meteorological
conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Investigation carried out in the framework of projects conducted by IGAG -

CNR (Environmental Geology and Geoengineering Institute of the National Research
Council), Cagliari, Italy.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Contu, I. Deidda, G. Mancosu, G. Massacci, F. Ricchi, A.Zucca Sampling of

fugitive dust in an industrial plant. Proc. SWEMP 2002, R. Ciccu (Ed.), Cagliari,
Italy, 7-10 October 2002, DIGITA, Cagliari, 1243-1247.
[2] EPA, United States Environmental Protection Agency: National Air Quality and
Emission Trends Report, 1997.
277
[3] R.J. Thompson, A.T.Visser Designing and managing unpaved opencast mine
haul roads for optimum performance, SME Annual meeting, Denver,
Colorado,1999.
[4] European Normative 1999/30/CE, 19/07/1999.
[5] J.H. Ferguson Fugitive dust: non-point sources, Agricultural MU Guide University
of Missouri, Columbia, 1999.
[6] EPA,United States Environmental Protection Agency Compilation of air Pollutant

Emission Factors AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume I, Stationary Point And Area
Sources, 1994.
[7] ISTISAN 90/32, 93/36 reports Modelli per la progettazione e valutazione di una
rete di rilevamento per il controllo della qualità dell'aria, Italy,2002.
[8] V. Tatum, A.E. Ray, D. Rovell Performance of the Respicon Personal Aerosol
Sampler in Forest Products Industry Workplaces,AIHA Journal (63), 2002.
[9] A.P. Soddu Emissione e dispersione di polveri da sorgenti all’aperto, Degree

thesis (in Italian), 2002.
278
EVALUATION OF HEAVY METALS IN THE CATCH BASIN CLEANINGS

& STREET SWEEPINGS IN WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, USA 1
Hasan Göksel Özdilek*, Ph.D. & Paul P. Mathisen†, Ph.D. PE

*Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Economics and Public Administration
Tayfur Sökmen Kampüsü, Antakya - HATAY 31034 TURKEY
Tel: (90-326) 245 5836 – 245 5837 – 245 5838 (Ext. 1258)
Fax: (90-326) 245 5854
E-mail: Goksel_Ozdilek@turkserve.net
†Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering
100 Institute Rd. Worcester, MA 01608 USA
ABSTRACT
One of the challenges in the urban environment is that urban runoff, which contributes heavy metals to
surface waters and, therefore, contaminates the water environment. Heavy metals, which cannot neither
be eliminated nor be transferred into less hazardous forms, are inorganic contaminants that cause
pollution and can be found in the urban environment. Despite both industry and agriculture play important
roles in heavy metal pollution in the environment, in urban areas traffic could be one of the most important
causes an increase in heavy metals, especially chromium, copper, and lead, especially if unleaded
gasoline use is not strictly enforced, in such places. It is known that chromium is consumed in metal
industry in order to manufacture chrome alloys used in wheels of roadway vehicles, copper is used in
motorway vehicles’ brake parts, and lead is used in batteries of all vehicles as well as it can be found in
unleaded gasoline. In urban environment, when consumerism increases and population skyrockets, it is a
difficult task to build new landfills to store trash produced by the customers. This trash includes organic
and inorganic wastes, including solid wastes in the streets. Thus, the street sweepings and catch basin
cleanings should be evaluated and then, if found feasible, can be used for different purposes by recycling
and/or reusing. In this study, streets sweepings, that is amounted approximately a total of 5,350 m3 per
annum and catch basin cleanings, about 3,800 m3 per year, of Worcester, a mid-size urban center with a
population of over 170,000; ranked in one of the top a-hundred cities of the USA in terms of population
density, located in central Massachusetts, were evaluated for their selected heavy metal levels (arsenic,
barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium, and silver) in 1998. Despite all heavy metal
concentrations were found to be under the standards given by Massachusetts Department of
Environmental Protection, significant high concentrations of copper and lead were also noted. A total of
17 street sweepings and catch-basin cleanings were used for determination of the heavy metals,
mentioned above, except copper. For copper and lead, total five samples were chosen to be further
analyzed. The areas, where samples collected, reflect industrial, commercial, business, dense and light
residential zones in the city. For arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, and silver,
mesh-size analyses were not completed since cadmium in the analyzed samples was detected in only
nine samples (averaging 1.03 parts per million (mg/kg)), selenium was detected in only in two samples
(averaging 1.50 mg/kg) and none of the samples was detected to have mercury and silver. Further
analyses were completed in terms of total copper and total lead levels in selected five samples after
completing sieve analyses. As expected, finer sediments were found to have elevated total copper and
lead concentrations. A strong exponential relationship was obtained between average daily traffic volume
in the selected streets and the total copper concentrations in the samples selected. In addition to total
copper’s dependency on the traffic load, the total chromium concentrations were found to have elevated
when the traffic load on the streets examined increase. Therefore, it is possible that the total copper and
chromium concentrations’ estimations can be made using traffic load in this urban center.
1
279
Keywords: urban environment, heavy metals, Massachusetts, street sweeping, catch

basin cleanings
INTRODUCTION
One of the greatest challenges a developed-urbanized society meets nowadays is

heavy metal contamination due to different sources and its impact on human health.
While urbanization and industrialization end up with increase in production and income
in the societies, emissions from the industrial facilities and traffic, unfeasible
management of all types of wastes, and disorderly storage of solid wastes generated by
the urban societies cause very diverse environmental problems all around the world. In
the underdeveloped world, the environmental concerns were put into the lower ranges
when there is a list of issues to be addressed; whereas, in industrialized societies,
environmental health has become an issue that must be concerned by almost all
citizens. Heavy metals, one of the most serious problems human-being face today,
could naturally be originated from the soil layer or could anthropogenically be elevated
(Morton-Bermea et al., 2001) because of a number of activities human-being perform in
order to build better civilizations or both could be observed.
One of the oldest towns established in the USA, Worcester, Massachusetts, has a limit
for landfill capacity. Worcester, a mid-size urban center with a population of over
170,000; ranked in one of the top a-hundred cities in terms of population density, located
in central Massachusetts. The solid waste problem of the city was solved by building a
state-of-art trash incineration facility that handles all solid waste of the city. However,
due to the industries played an important role of the development in the USA in the 18th
and 19th centuries in and around the town and ongoing commercial, business, and
industrial operations, despite compiling the current EPA standards, might have been
caused heavy metal contamination in the area.
In this study only traffic and land-usage were taken into account as independent
variables in order to investigate the heavy metal contamination in Worcester,
Massachusetts. Although arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury,
selenium, and silver were all analyzed in 17 streets sweepings and catch basin
cleanings collected in 1998, only chromium, copper, and lead are presented in detail in
this paper.
It is known that traffic is one of the most important causes that pollute the roadways.
There is a great reduction in lead concentrations in the environment after the leaded
gasoline use ban in motorway vehicles in the developed world. In the developed
countries, however, consumption of leaded gasoline is still widely-performed. Moreover,
traffic causes chromium and copper contamination in and around the roads (Förstner,
1995) since chromium plated wheels are popular among some car owners (Kesler,
1994) and a maximum of 20% copper is used in brake parts in automobiles (Hauri,
2001). Therefore, it is expected that when the number of vehicles use a specific
roadway in a given time frame is directly affects to the total chromium and copper
concentrations around that location. It is also said that increase in the number of
280
motorway vehicles use the specific location ends up with elevation in the total chromium
and copper concentrations.
MATERIALS and METHODS
A total of 17 street sweeping samples and catch basin cleanings were collected from
different locations in Worcester, Massachusetts. The sampling was performed by the
staff of Worcester Department of Public Works and Worcester Polytechnic Institute
faculty and graduate students (Professor Paul Mathisen, Paul J. R. Graves, Jennifer A.
Roberge, and Hasan Göksel Özdilek) between late August and end of November of
1998. In addition to the street sweeping and catch basin cleaning samples, one sample
of clean sand, which was obtained to use in comparison purpose, was also gotten. The
samples were first handled in Alpha Analytical Laboratory, a certified laboratory located
in Marlborough, Massachusetts. A detailed sampling and analysis report is also
submitted by Mathisen et al. (1999) and was made available to everybody, who has
access to the web. Total arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, selenium,
and silver concentrations in addition to many other related characteristics of the samples
were determined in Alpha Laboratories. After completion of detailed analyses in Alpha
Laboratories, these collections were transferred into Environmental Engineering
Laboratory at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA. The
samples reflect a wide range of usage areas; industrial, commercial, residential, and
business districts and various types of zone structures; hilly, flat, narrow, and wide
roads. Special attention in the Environmental Engineering Laboratory at Worcester
Polytechnic Institute was paid on only total copper and lead and their grain size
distributions in the selected catch basin cleanings.
The preparation technique applied in Environmental Laboratory of Civil and

Environmental Engineering Department at Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester,
Massachusetts, is based on physical and chemical preparations of the samples for
atomic absorption spectrometry technique. These analyses include sampling handling
in the lab, sieving, calculation of grain size distribution of the samples, acid digestion of
the samples, and final analyses using an atomic absorption spectrometer.
A Gilson Co.®, Inc. sieve analyzer equipped with <16, 16, 30, 50, 100, 200, and >200
sieve mesh sizes was used in order to obtain the sediment size distribution of the
samples. The sizes of the sieve openings can be expressed as: finer than 74 µm (clay
and silt), 74-149 µm (very fine sand), 149-297 µm (fine sand), 297-590 µm (medium
sand), 590-1190 µm (coarse sand), and coarser than 1190 µm (very coarse sand)
(Sutherland, 2003), respectively. The sieve shaker has 304.8 mm diameter. Open air
dried raw samples were respectively transferred onto 200 sieve and the sieves were
shaken for ten minutes. The initial and final (after completion of shaking operation)
weights of sieves were obtained in addition to the weight of the raw sample put on the
coarsest sieve before starting the sieving operation. The weights of each sieve were
recorded and percent distribution of weights in each sediment size calculated using
Microsoft Excel® spreadsheet program.
281
Approximately 1 to 2 g of solid material, weighed on a Toledo® Mettler AB-104 scale,

from each sieve was transferred into 100 mL sterile Pyrex® glass beakers (No. 1000)
separately and 10 mL trace metal grade nitric acid (HNO3) purchased from Fisher®
Scientific, Inc. (code A509SK-212 (UN2031)) was added into each beaker. Then, all
glass beakers were brought up to volume of 50 mL using e-pure water. E-pure water
was obtained from a water treatment system that is composed of a three step process: a
Cuno® raw water filter, a Barnstead® ROpure ST-reverse osmosis tank and a
Barnstead® e-pure water treatment step, respectively. The prepared beakers were then
put onto Cimarec-3 model hot plate, manufactured by Barnstead-Thermolyne® and the
hot plate was turned on. The samples were checked periodically so that acid digestion
was completed. After one hour heating up the hot plates, approximately 4-8 drops of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were slowly added into each beaker. This H2O2 solution
(code H325-4 (UN2014) was purchased from Fisher® Scientific, Inc. The prepared
samples were then allowed to cool in order to easily be filtered after-hand. Sterile
centrifuge tubes (code 14-375-150) manufactured by Fisher® Scientific, Inc. were
prepared in order to filter the acid digested samples. Whatman® qualitative 110 mm in
diameter filter circles (No.4, code 1004 110) were used to filter the prepared acid
digested samples into the sterile centrifuge tubes. A reference soil sample (SRM 2711)
was also prepared as explained above.
Heavy metal concentrations were determined using Perkin-Elmer® AAnalyst-300 atomic

absorption spectrometer operated under flame mode. Prior to starting analyses, at least
three different standards were prepared using Ultra® Scientific and Spex® CertiPrep,
Inc. standard liquid solutions. For Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) purpose,
an SRM 2711 reference soil (total lead concentration is 1,162 mg/kg and total copper
concentration is 114 mg/kg) obtained from National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST). A 99.5% minimum correlation coefficient was achieved before
readings of the samples for each metal. Moreover, a blank (e-pure) and an SRM 2711
reference samples were read prior to and at the end of reading the samples. With the
samples to be analyzed, a clean sand sample was also analyzed for the comparison
purpose.
Data set was analyzed using Microsoft Excel® and Microsoft Works® spreadsheet
programs. Average, maximum, minimum metal concentrations for arsenic, barium,
chromium, copper, and lead, grain size distributions in the samples, total copper
loadings were calculated. The equation used for computing total copper loadings on a
grain size fraction basis (Sutherland, 2003) (GSFLoad) was:
 
 Cu × GS 
GSFLoad = 100 ×  6 i i

 Cu × GS 
 ∑
n =i
i i 

282
where Cui is the total copper concentration in a specific grain size fraction of a sample,
with six groups in a sample, and GSi is the mass percent of that fraction.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION
Total arsenic concentrations showed that mean arsenic concentrations in the catch-
basin cleaning samples is approximately 10.3 mg/kg (± 4.1 S.D.). This value is higher
than the mean total arsenic concentration (0.42 mg/kg) in Florida streets (Chen et al.,
1998). Maximum arsenic concentration (18.0 mg/kg) was found to belong to a lightly
urbanized area with high average daily traffic volume and minimum arsenic
concentration (3.80 mg/kg) was found to be in densely populated residential area with
moderate average daily traffic volume. Commercial zone of the city was found to have
more total arsenic than the concentration detected in any other zones despite the fact
that this concentration decreases when traffic load increases in the same zone.
Commercial, industrial, and light residential zones of the city were found to have
approximately the same average total arsenic concentrations as 12.6, 11.3, 12.1 mg/kg
of total arsenic, respectively. The clean sand sample used for comparison purpose was
found to have 2.90 mg/kg of total arsenic.
Mean total barium concentration of the catch basin cleanings in the analyzed locations
was found to be 40.0 mg/kg (±18.1 S.D.). This value was measured as 13.7 mg/kg in
Florida (Chen et al., 1998). Maximum total barium concentrations were observed to be
in industrial zones; whereas, in residential areas total barium concentrations were found
to be highly variable. Surprisingly, in commercial zones of the city, total barium
concentration was found to be decreasing when the average daily traffic volume
increases. Central Business District, with wide artery and flat structure, was found to
have less total barium concentration than the concentrations detected on any other
zones of the city. The uncontaminated sand sample used for comparison purpose was
found to include 12.0 mg/kg total barium concentration.
Mean total chromium concentration in Worcester catch basin cleanings was calculated
to be approximately 28.5 mg/kg (±15.7 S.D.); whereas, this value was reported to be
8.45 mg/kg in Florida (Chen et al., 1998) and 25 mg/kg in Osaka, Japan (UNEP, 1996).
The total chromium concentration in the clean sand sample used for comparison
purpose was found to be 4.80 mg/kg. Industrial zones and populated localities with high
average daily traffic volumes were found to have more chromium in solid particles than
business districts and lightly populated residential areas with lower average daily traffic
volumes. The relationship between average daily traffic volumes and total chromium
concentrations in the catch basin cleanings is given in Figure 4.
Mean lead concentration in the sampled locations in Worcester was found to be 178
mg/kg (±141 S.D.). This value is especially notable in Worcester since the same figure
is given as 5.38 mg/kg in Florida (Chen et al., 1998) and 73 mg/kg in Osaka, Japan
(UNEP, 1996). The total lead concentration in the clean sand sample was found to be
under detection limit (less than 1 mg/kg). Commercial zone in Worcester was found to
have more total lead than other zones despite the fact that total barium, which was also
found to be more homogeneously distributed throughout the zones examined, and
283
chromium concentrations on solid particles in Worcester were found to be the highest in

industrial zones. Like total lead, total arsenic was found to have the highest on solid
particles collected from the commercial zone.
Mean mass percentages were calculated in order to exhibit average particle sizes effect
on distribution of particles. As shown in Figure 1, approximately 75% of all particles are
larger than 0.3 mm. However, particles finer than 0.15 mm in size were found to
contribute almost 10% of the total mass percent and therefore it could be problematic
since street sweeping operations cannot efficiently remove such fine particles.
Following a precipitation/snowmelt/storm event, such particles are easily transferred
(with urban runoff) into the closest watershed and contribute heavy metal pollution in
there (Barbosa and Hvitved-Jacobsen, 1999; Benoit and Rozan, 1999; Tipping et al.,
2002; Özdilek, 2002).
35
30
25
Mean Mass Percent
20
15
10
0
>1190 590-1190 297-590 149-297 74-149 <74
Grain size fraction, um
Figure 1. Mean mass percentage as a function of grain size of street wastes in

Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
In Figure 2, total copper concentrations on particle sizes (coarser than 1190 µm,
between 590 and 1190 µm, between 297 and 590 µm, between 149 and 297 µm,
between 74 and 149 µm and finer than 74 µm) in the selected catch basin cleanings
obtained from sampled locations were illustrated. Surprisingly, on Meadow Lane, total
copper concentration on the finest particles was found to be larger than the copper
concentration in Elm Street. This could be because of structure of these locations. Elm
Street is adjacent to a public park (Elm Park) and almost flat; whereas, Meadow Lane is
close to Worcester Regional Airport and located in a hilly region. Worcester Central
Boulevard (WCB) is located in central business district and is composed of a wide road
with a flat structure; whereas, Stafford Street is occupied by commercial businesses.
284
400 >1190 590-1190

297-590 149-297
350 74-149 <74
Total Copper Concentration, mg/kg
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Vernon St WCB Elm St Meadow L Stafford St
Sampling Locations
Figure 2. Total copper concentrations on the grain sizes in the sampled locations in
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
As can be seen from Figure 2, in general total copper concentrations on finer particles
are well above the sum of concentrations on all coarser particles collected. Despite the
fact that Vernon Street, Elm Street and Meadow Lane sampling locations are all
occupied by housing units, the effect of traffic was found to be clear since Meadow Lane
has the lowest traffic (approximately 1,000 vehicles per day) load. Worcester Central
Boulevard (WCB) is a business area with average daily traffic volume of 15,200;
whereas, Stafford Street is mainly surrounded by commercial activities and businesses
and has an average daily traffic volume of 16,700.
Finally, total copper load from each particle grain size group was calculated. In Figure
3, total copper load from each particle size is exhibited. As shown in the illustration,
Vernon (dense residential area with hilly structure and a average daily traffic volume of
4,700) and Elm (dense residential zone with a flat structure and a average daily traffic
volume of 6,750) Streets and Meadow Lane (light residential area located close to the
Worcester Regional Airport on a hilly location with a low daily traffic volume of under
1000 vehicles) were found to have different characteristics in terms of total copper
concentrations on the particle grain sizes analyzed. Interestingly, more than half of the
total copper is contributed by the coarsest particles on Worcester Central Boulevard,
WCB (central business district with an average daily traffic volume of 15,200), despite all
other grain size particles are almost equally contribute total copper in the same location.
Stafford Street (commercial zone), however, was found to have a different trend in terms
of total copper contribution from different particle sizes. Since it is occupied by an
285
industrial zone, in addition to traffic load, maybe other loads, such as stack emissions or
historical sources, play important roles in this sampling location.
>1190 590-1190
60
297-590 149-297
74-149 <74
50
Total Copper Loading, %
40
30
20
10
0
Vernon St WCB Elm St Meadow L Stafford St
Sampling Locations
Figure 3. Total copper loads as a function of sediment grain sizes in examined locations
in Worcester, Massachusetts.
In Figure 4 the relation between daily traffic volume (as number of vehicles per day) and
total chromium detected on the catch basin cleanings on the sampled locations in
Worcester is shown. As expected, when a number of vehicles use a specific road
increase, it is observed that total chromium concentrations in the solid particles gathered
from the road is elevated.
Naturally, it is difficult to expect that all roads in a city are used by the same type of
vehicles that are equipped with same metal parts. In certain areas chromium plated
wheels could be popular; whereas, almost all vehicles use the streets of industrial zones
could be long hauled and maybe all of them contain different metal alloys in their
wheels.
Therefore, it could be more realistic that type of usage of the specific zone in the city,
distance from other possible heavy metal sources, such as solid waste incineration
facilities, landfill areas, metal industry, background soil heavy metal concentrations, and
structure of the streets, such as width and flatness, are also expected to have roles in
heavy metal contaminations.
286
50
45
40
y = 0.0019x + 7.9458
Total chromium, mg/kg
35 2
R = 0.8902
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Average traffic load per day
Figure 4. Relationship of average daily traffic load effect on total chromium in the solid
particles of the sampled locations.
In Figure 5 the relationship between traffic load and total copper concentration in the
selected catch basin cleanings was shown.
This relationship could also be expressed with a linear relation, which could slightly
lower correlation coefficient. Interestingly, total copper concentration in the catch basin
cleaning sample collected from central business district (Worcester Central Boulevard)
was found well above the concentration in the catch basin cleaning obtained from the
commercial zone (Stafford Street) with a slightly higher traffic load despite the fact that
the total copper concentrations of the catch basin cleanings in lightly and densely
residential locations with a highly varying average traffic volumes per day were all found
to be close.
287
80
70
60
Total copper, mg/kg
y = 19.732e8E-05x
50
R2 = 0.8297
40
30
20
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Average traffic load per day
Figure 5. Relationship between average daily traffic volume and total copper in solid
particles collected from Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
CONCLUSIONS
It is a must that urban systems should consider optimal use of their resources. In terms
of waste production, both during waste collection and waste management, best
available options should be evaluated and then implemented. In urban systems, it is
especially difficult to manage contaminated sediments due to a number of factors. Such
factors limit waste collection plans and waste management options since human health
issue must also be addressed. Traffic loads were found to affect the total chromium
(averaging as total chromium of 28.5 mg/kg) and copper (averaging as total copper of
39.1 mg/kg) concentrations in the solid particles of the streets in Worcester. Land use,
traffic volumes, structure of the roads were all found to have impact on heavy metal
accumulation in the streets. It must be considered that such particles, especially the
finer ones, could easily be transferred into the nearest water basin and further
contaminate the water environment in addition them to possess public health concerns
since they also, although noted as slightly, may affect air quality. Despite all metal
concentrations were found to well below current sediment standards based on
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, treatment/reuse/recycle
options of street sweeping and catch basin cleaning samples should be performed with
maximum care.
288
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to the Department of Public Works of the City of Worcester, Jennifer A.
Roberge and Paul Graves for sampling collection and storage as well as basic sampling
analyses. We are indebted to Worcester Polytechnic Institute Environmental
Engineering Laboratory Manager Don Pellegrino for his help in further analyzing the
samples in the atomic absorption spectrometer and his effort must be appreciated.
REFERENCES
Barbosa A.E. and Hvitved-Jacobsen T. 1999. Highway runoff potential for removal of
heavy metals in an infiltration pond in Portugal. The Science of the Total Environment,
235, 151-159.
Benoit G. and Rozan T.F. 1999. The influence of size distribution on the particle
concentration effect and trace metal partitioning in rivers. Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, 63, 113-127.
Chen M., Ma L.Q and Harris, W. 1998. Background Concentrations of Trace Metals in
Florida Surface. Retrieved on February 12, 2003 from:
http://www.floridacenter.org/publications/soil_contamination.htm
Förstner U. 1995. Land contamination by metals: Global Scope and magnitude of

problem. In H.E. Allen, C.P. Huang, G.W. Bailey, and A.R. Bowers (Ed.), Metal
Specification and Contamination of Soil (pp. 1-33). Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers.
Hauri J.F., Jr. 2001. Measurement and Manipulation of Copper Speciation and Toxicity
in Urban Runoff, Acid Mine Drainage, and Contaminated Discharged Groundwater.
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Kesler S.E. 1994. Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment. New York:
Macmillan College Publishing Co.
Mathisen P.M., Graves P.J.R., Roberge J.A., and Özdilek, H.G. 1999. Reuse of Street
Sweepings and Catch Basin Cleanings in Worcester, Massachusetts. Regulations,
Characteristics, Technologies, Implementation. University of Massachusetts, Chelsea
Center for Recycling and Economic Development. Retrieved on February 12, 2003
from: http://www.chelseacenter.org/pdfs/TechReport37.pdf
Morton-Bermea O., Hernández Álvarez E., Gaso I., and Segovia, N. 2001. Heavy metal
concentrations in surface soils from Mexico City. Bulletin of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology, 68, 383-388.
Özdilek, H.G. 2002. Distribution and Transport of Copper and Lead in the Blackstone
River, Massachusetts. Ph.D. Dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester,
Massachusetts.
289
Sutherland R. 2003. Lead in grain size fractions of road-deposited sediment.

Environmental Pollution, 121, 229-237.
Tipping E., Lawlor A.J., Loffs S., and Vincent C.D. 2002. Evaluating the critical load
approach for metals – Development of critical level methodologies for toxic metals in
soils and surface waters – dynamic modeling. Retrieved on February 12, 2003
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/envsci/Research/PIG/Critical%20loads%20website/metals3.
html
UNEP, Division of Technology, Industy and Economics. 1996. A New Method for
Processing Street Sweepings. Retrieved on February 12, 2003 from:
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/INSIGHT/Spr-96/12.asp
290
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS1

Yücel Güney1, Assist.Prof. Dr; Hakan Koyuncu1, Assist.Prof. Dr; Murat Çetin2
Research Assist
1
Anadolu University Civil Eng.Dep. Eskisehir-TURKEY, Tel:90-222-3213550
2
Dumlupınar Unv. Civil Eng.Dep Kutahya-Turkey
hkoyuncu@anadolu.edu.tr; yguney@anadolu. edu.tr, mrtctn2002@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Soils those have swelling potential contacted with water, form important problems. Due to the fact that
these kind of soils form blistering, splitting, and breakage by applying ascending force on the
structures above, are mostly stabilized. However, after stabilization it is exposed to many
environmental effects. Some of these conditions are wet-dry, freeze-thaw, metal and salt, temperature
effects. In this study, two Turkish bentonite soils, which are exposed to different environmental effects,
are used. Having these soils stabilized with lime, effects of cure time, temperature, freeze-thaw, wet-
dry and metal-salt are investigated. In conclusion of tests, it is determined that swelling potential is
reduced with cure endurance. In the end of wet-dry cycles swelling potential is reduced considerably.
Besides, it is determined that metal and salt solutions reduce the swelling property of bentonite.
Keywords: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Geographical Information

System (GIS), Baseline Data, Highway project
1. INTRODUCTION
There are different types of clay, which shows variation of volume in phases of wet-
dry. In general, when these type of clays available in regions where rarely rains, are
considered as base soil, they cause formation of considerable lifting pressure on
foundation bed. The formed pressures may cause architectural or even structural
damages to foundation system or flooring component. This problem frequently seen
in pavements, highways and airport runaway where dead weight is considerably low.
Besides, it causes splitting, breakage, and blistering in canal coating, piped irrigation
and drinking water networks where foundation bed has high possibility rate of water
contact due to leakage and leaked water and loaded and discharged occasionally. In
auxiliary structures such as trap, aperture and flood pedestrial subway, shifting,
turning and flipped over problems may be met (Tosun, 1998). Description of swelled
soil problems have been performed recently. In has been determined in the steel-trap
foundation constructed in Owyhee project in Oregon State that place shiftings are
formed run in reverse direction (Chen, 1988). After this incident, mechanism of
problem of “expansive or swelling soil” has been defined and design criteria have
been suggested. However, the damages that have been caused by swelled soils by
the increase of concrete structures, based on soil then (Jones 1987). Wet-dry effects
have been investigated on six units of different swelled soil, and as the result of each
cycle swelling pressure and swelling potential has been measured. Micro-structure
properties have been investigated in each pre and post cycle. By the repetition of
wet-dry, swelling percentage has been increased (Al-Hamoud and Basma 1995).
Wet-dry effect has been searched on black cotton soil that stabilized in India. It has
been observed that after four cycles of wet dry, some stabilized materials have been
corrupted and clay content has increased. So, swelling potential has been increased
1
291
as liquid limit and router limit (Rao et al., 2001). At the end, a swelled soil compaction
has been wetted by putting into water. As the wetting proportion is increased, the
amount of blistering and router have been decreased. Clays that have been pressed
over optimum water content and in water content and exposed to wet- dry cycle,
swell more than the others (Day, 1994). Swelling effects of different salt solutions on
clay have been investigated. It has been determined that the biggest swelling
occurred in NaCI, KCI and LiCI solutions in turn and in order and the lowest blistering
occurred in LaCI3 solutions (Jo et al 2001). In order to determine that permeability is
affected by freeze-thaw, permeability t has been conducted in laboratory on sand-
bentonite mixtures and geosynthetic clay liner (GCL). In laboratory, 20 times of
freeze-thaw test have been conducted on three GCL samples and observed that
there is no increase in permeability. Besides, permeability of compacted sand-
bentonite mixture has not changed by the result of freeze-thaw tests (Kraus, et al,
2000).
2. MATERIALS
In this study, Turkish bentonite clays have been used. Soil-1 is the bentonite clay of
Ankara Karakaya and soil-2 is the 70% of Ankara Karakaya bentonite and 30% of
Bolu kaolinite clay. Lime (Ca(OH)2) is a commercially sold material. Some physical,
mechanical and chemical properties of these materials are given in Table 1, 2 and 3.
Table 1. Geotechnical properties of materials used.

Water Specific Consistency Grain Size Distribution
Content Gravity Limits (%) (%)
(%) LL PL Sand Silt Clay
Soil-1 12.7 2.60 447 60 - 12 88
Soil-2 14.3 2.51 213 42 3 27 70
Lime 0.5 2.45 - - 5 75 20
Table 2. Physicochemical properties of materials used.

pH Cation Exchange Specific Surface Electrical Loss of
Capacity Area Conductivity Ignition
(meq/100g) (m2/g) (mS/cm) (%)
Soil-1 9.50 90.22 112 2.69 6.82
Soil-2 8.23 60.14 52 3.15 3.27
Lime 12.60 16.43 - 6.29 11.38
Table 3. Chemical analysis of materials used.

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO P2O3 K2O Na2O SO3 CO2
Soil-1 59.49 18.06 4.14 3.72 2.42 0.11 0.91 2.50 0.10 1.31
Soil-2 66.73 15.23 2.83 1.16 1.39 0.10 2.15 2.03 0.02 1.56
Lime 2.72 0.37 0.25 63.88 4.00 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.02 10.52
292
3. METHODS AND RESULTS
3.1. Preparation of Samples
After the swelled clay, used in tests, have been dried in oven, optimum water
contents are determined and as it can bee seen in Table 1, 3% and 6% of lime has
been stabilized. After that, samples of mixtures, compacted in standard proctor
mould, have been taken by consolidation ring by the upper and lower tip points. The
samples taken from upper part of mould are used for free swelling and the samples
from lower part are used for swelling pressure tests. The samples are put for cure in
desiccators with the ring.
Table 4. Optimum moisture contents versus dry unit weight of mixtures.
wopt (%) γk (gr/cm3)
Soil-1 40 1.24
Soil-1 + %3 Lime 42 1.26
Soil-1 + %6 Lime 43 1.19
Soil-2 37 1.28
Soil-2 + %3 Lime 40 1.23
Soil-2 + %6 Lime 43 1.19
3.2. Free Swelling Test and Swelling Pressure Tests
In free swelling test, the sample taken into ring is put into odometer cell in
consolidation tool and deformation is measured. The proportion of swelling related to
time under load with value of fixed 0.276 kg has been measured. Swelling
percentage is given in Figure 1.
Fig.1. Free swelling percent of stabilized Soil-1 and Soil-2.
293
As it is explained in free swelling test method the sample taken into odometer cell, is
loaded with water without application of load and when the sample starts to swell the
clock is obtained to remain in balance (on zero value) by putting load on odometer
handle. After clock is stabilized the weight on handle is calculated and swelling
pressure is determined. Swelling pressure values are shown in Figure 2.
Fig 2. The swelling pressure of stabilized Soil-1 and Soil-2.
3.2.1. After Wet-Dry Effect
First of all free swelling and swelling pressure tests have been conducted on
samples. After that, water in the cell is emptied and ring is weighted again. After that
ring and soil is remained for drying on room temperature in a sterile environment.
Weight measurements have been conducted in regular intervals. When ring and soil
dry up to the first weight of test beginning, in other words, first weight compacted with
optimum water content are again placed in test device and the processes mentioned
above applied again. By this way, lower cycle wet-dry test is repeated. Swelling test
results of Soil-2 is given in Figure 3. Wet-dry test is not conducted on samples of
Soil-1 that dispersed as result of excessive swelling in water.
294
Fig 3. Free swelling percent and swelling pressure after wet-dry cycles (2 hours and 7 days cure).
After each wet-dry cycle, water-covering capacity of soil placed in odometer cell is
measured. For this, weight of odometer ring is measured after each cycle. A linear
relation is found out between water-covering capacity and swelling percentage. This
relation is given in Figure 4 for each cure and lime amount.
Fig 4. water content and free swelling percent relationship for Soil-2..
295
A stabilized and swelled soil, as a result of wet tests, has shown important increases
in its swelling potential under wet-dry effect. Cure effect has reduced the swelling
potential of samples during wet-dry process. Besides, it is determined that the
quantity of lime has caused considerable decreases in swelling potential after a
certain level. By increasing of quantity of lime, it is observed that cure effect is
enhanced. The swelling potentials of samples, which have been applied free swelling
test are greater than the samples which have been applied swelling pressure test.
3.2.2. After Freeze-Thaw Effect
In order to determine the effect of winter in stabilized and swelled soils, freeze-thaw
test is conducted. The samples have been freezed in fixed temperature (-25°C) for
24 hours and then put into temperature of (+20°C) for 24 hours and 1 cycle is
performed. Total of 7 cycles have been applied on samples. Tests results are given
in Figure 5.
Fig 5. Free swelling percent and swelling pressure after freeze-thaw cycles (2 hours and 7 days cure).
Increases of freeze-thaw cycles are not affecting swelling percentage so much. It is

determined that the increase in quantity of swelling after a certain cycle, remained in
tolerable level.
296
3.2.3. After Curing Temparature Effect
The effect of cure temperature is only applied Soil-2 mixture, which is stabilized with
3% and 6% of lime. After that the compacted and stabilized samples are taken into
rings and covered with plastic folio. It is kept under 40°C and 3°C for 7 days. The
samples for cure under 3°C. The values, which show the effect of cure for swelling
pressure and swelling percentage, are given in Figure 6.
Fig 6. Cure temparature effects on free swelling percent and swelling pressure for Soil-2.
The increase of cure temperature decreases the swelling potential of sample. The
difference between 3 degrees of temperature and 40 degrees of temperature is on
the stage of 10% this causes the decrease in swelling percentage of sample.
However, while the temperature of cure increases from 3°C to +40°C, the swelling
percentage decreases with rate of 10% in total and swelling pressure value reduces
from 1.75 kg/cm2 to 1.63 kg/cm2.
3.2.4. After Metals and Salts Effect
Metal and salt solutions are added instead of water into the samples. Swelling tests
are conducted on these samples, which have been prepared with solution as much
as optimum water content. Chemical solution is placed in odometer cell, showed in
Table 5, instead of water.
Tablo 5. Salt, Heavy Metal and Mix Used in Experiments

Used Ratio Formula Weight of Molecule Amount of Solved in Water
(Normality) (g/mol) (g/1000ml)
0.5 N NaCl 58.44 29.22
0.5 N KCl 74.55 37.27
0.5 N CaCl2 147.02 36.75
2000 ppm ZnCl2 136.28 4.17
2000 ppm CuCl2 170.48 5.36
297
As it can be seen in Figure 7, there are decreases in swelling percentages values by

addition of lime and chemicals. In chemicals with salty properties, in contaminants,
having content with heavy metal, and especially 6% of lime destroys the structure of
bentonite, he most excessive increase is determined in these mixtures. In Soil-2,
which is thought as a different mixture, the swelling values decrease excessively than
the Soil-1.
Fig 7. Free swelling percent and swelling pressure of contaminated with pollutants.
The decrease of swelling pressures on stabilized samples is shown in Table 12.

Besides, it is observed that the swelling pressures of materials, contaminated with
chemicals, are decreased.
4. CONCLUSIONS
It forms problem for structures constructed on swelled soils. For this reason, they are
stabilized with lime in general. However, these stabilized soils can be exposed to
environmental effects such as wetting, drying, thawing, temperature, heat,
contaminated leakage water and thawed salts. In order to determine how these
environmental conditions affect the soils, a number test is conducted in laboratory on
two soils that can swell. According to the result obtained from this study;
1- In conclusion of wet-dry tests, there is an increase in swelling potential by the

effect of wet-dry.
2- In conclusion of freeze-thaw tests it is determine that it hasn’t excess effect on

swelling properties. It is observed that there is a decrease of 7% approximately.
3- Due to cure temperature change between 3°C and 40° C, it is observed that there
is a decrease of 10% in cure temperature.
4- Due to metal and salt contamination, considerable decrease with regards of

swelling properties of bentonite can be expected.
298
REFERENCES
Al-Homoud, A.S., Basma, A. A., Huseın Malkawi, A.I., Al Bashabsheh. M. A., 1995,
Cyclic Swelling Behaviour of Clays, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 1995.
Chen, F.H. “Foundation on Expansive Soils”, American Elsevier Science Publication,

New York, 1988.
Day, R.W., 1994, Swell-Shrink Behaviour of Compacted Clay, Journal of

Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 120, No.3.
Jo, H.Y., Katsumi, T., Benson, C.H., Edil, T., 2001, Hyraulic conductivity and swelling
of nonprehydrated GCLs permeated with single-species salt solutions, J.G.
Geotechnical and Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.127, No.7, 557-567.
Jones, D.A. and Jones, K.A., (1987) “Treating Expansive Soils” Civil Engineering, V.
57, N. 8, ASCE.
Kraus, J.F., Benson, C.H., Erickson, A.E., Chamberlain, E.J.. 1997, Freeze-Thaw
Cycling and Hidrolic Conductivity of Bentonitic Barriers, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 123, No. 3, March 1997.
Rao, S. M., Reddy, B.V.V., Muttharam, M., 2001, The impact of cyclic wetting and
drying on the swelling behaviour of stabilized expansive soils; Engineering Geology
60,223-233
Rao, K.S.S., Rao, S.M. and Gangadhara, S., 2000, Swelling Behavior of a
Desiccated Clay. Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 23, No.2, pp.193-198
Tosun, H., Kürşad, B., Diyar. D.S., 1998, Harran killerinin (IV. Kısım) geoteknik
özellikleri ve şişme potansiyeli, Harran Üniversitesi, Gap 2.Mühendislik Kongresi.
299
CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL ZONES: AN ASSESSMENT OF

THE VULNERABILITY IN GREECE1
Efstratios Doukakis
National Technical University of Athens, School of Surveying Engineering
University Campus, 9 Hiroon Polytechniou Str., 157 80 Zografos
Tel: 010-7722707, Fax: 010-7722670, email: edouk@central.ntua.gr
ABSTRACT
A large part of the growing human population in the world’s coastal zones is vulnerable to sea level
rise, erosion, storm surges and other physical and chemical phenomena. In light of the increasing
risks, there is a great need to assess the vulnerability of coastal zones to climate change. Various
assessment methodologies have been developed and applied for this purpose. Bruun model of sandy
beach erosion, inundation and historical retreat are reasonable and secure methods for assessing the
coastline setback due to global warming. In order to estimate the impacts of the coastal segments that
would be exposed to risks of erosion and flooding in view of an accelerated sea level rise, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scenarios of +100 cm sea level rise to the year 2100 will
be taken into account.
Greece has more than 15.000 Km of coastline where more than 6.000 Km are sandy or gravel
beaches or low-lying areas. It is therefore intuitively understood that an impact assessment is very
important for future development and sustainability in Greece. More than 150 Km of coastline are
studied in the present work covering a variety of coastal areas. The 3D maps used have a scale
between 1/500 to 1/5000 and the aerial photographs span a time interval of 50 years. The results
concerning the impacts are really impressive. Despite the fact that all the studied regions are low-lying
areas, the coastline setback due to the accelerated sea level rise is expected to be in the order of a
hundred meters or even much more in case of the wetlands, destroying the coastal landscape and the
infrastructure. Generalizing the results for Greece, it seems more than probable that measures have to
be taken if nature is going to be preserved according to the ideas of sustainability. Retreat,
accommodate and protect are the only measures to tackle the foreseen problem and time is not
enough to postpone the solutions and inherit it to the next generations.
Keywords: climate change, global warming, Greece, coastal zones, GIS
1. INTRODUCTION
Although we are currently concerned about global warming caused by mankind’s

enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect through greenhouse gas pollution, the
Earth’s climate has fluctuated many times in the past in response to natural
mechanisms of climate change. Such changes in global climate have also occurred
over much longer time scales. Actually the current global warming trend, which
began at the end of the 19th century, spans only a tiny fraction of the Earth’s climatic
history. Taking a longer perspective on climate variability can help us gain a better
understanding of the global climate and the evolution of the climate today and in the
future.
The overall state of the global climate is largely determined by balance between
energy the Earth receives from the sun and the heat, which the Earth releases back
to space, called the global energy balance. Many causes of climate change involve
processes that alter the global energy balance. The enhanced greenhouse effect is a
potential cause of climate change because the extra quantities of greenhouse gases
1
300
put into the air by mankind trap more heat in the atmosphere. This upsets the global
energy balance and causes a rise in global surface temperature. Although most
scientists agree that global warming is the result of the enhanced greenhouse effect,
natural processes can also upset the global energy balance in this way, causing
similar rises in global temperature.
The natural greenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s surface much warmer that it would
be otherwise. From the end of the last Ice Age about 10.000 years ago until the end
of the 18th century, the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere remained fairly
constant [3]. Since the industrial revolution 200 years ago, mankind has been
releasing extra quantities of carbon dioxide, methane, nutrius oxide etc. into the
atmosphere gradually destroying the ozone layer.
During the 20th century, the Earth’s surface warmed by about 0.60 C and climate
models are used to detect a human fingerprint in the climate. If the climate changes
in response to an enhanced greenhouse effect, as current computer models have
projected, global average surface temperature could be anywhere from 1.4 to 5.80 C
(with a best estimate of 30 C) higher by the end of the 21st century [2]. To understand
the significance of this temperature increase, one should mention here that the
increase in global average surface temperature, which brought the Earth out of the
last major ice age 14.000 years ago, was of the order of 4 to 50 C. The natural
climate change took thousands of years. Manmade global warming, in contrast, may
occur at a rate that is unprecended on Earth. Moreover, such a rapid change in
climate will probably be too great to allow many ecosystems to adapt and the rate of
species extinction will most likely increase. Additionally, human agriculture, forestry,
dry lands, water resources and health will all be affected. Such impacts will be
related to changes in precipitation, sea level, shore erosion and the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events resulting from global warming.
The global sea level has already raised by around 10 to 25 cm during the last 100 y.
Measuring past and current changes in sea level, however, is very difficult. There are
many potential sources of error and systematic bias e.g. the effect of the land itself
as it rises and subsides. It is likely that most of this rise in sea level has been due to
the increase in global temperature over the last century. Global warming should
cause the oceans to warm and expand thus increasing sea level. Climate models
indicate that about 25% of the sea level rise (SLR) this century has been due to
thermal expansion of seawater. A second major cause of rising sea level is the
melting of the ice caps. Forecasts of SLR are based on climate models results
indicate a rise between 9 and 88 cm by the end of the 21st century, if emissions of
greenhouse gases remain uncontrolled. This expected rate of 5mm/y is significantly
faster than that experienced over the last 100y. It has to be mentioned at this point
that some areas of Antarctica warmed by 2.50 C during the past 50y, a rate of
warming 5 times faster than that of the Earth as a whole.
2. COASTAL ZONES
The world’s coastal zones contain a large part of the world’s population, a
considerable portion of global GDP is produced in coastal zones and they are under
continuous urbanization trend. A range of coastal hazards such as flooding, erosion
etc., already threatens these developments. Human-induced climate change,
particularly SLR, is an additional pressure, which will produce important impacts on
301
coastal areas and interact adversely with all other natural trends. Coastal zones are
constantly changing due to winds, waves, storms, tectonic processes, tides, floods,
long-term changes in sea level, human modification of coastal processes etc. But a
shoreline responds to these forces and events by attempting to move toward
equilibrium, where the coastal ecosystems provide shoreline stabilization and
buffering services. Sandy and rocky shores serve as a first line of defense by
mitigating and responding to natural forces. Wetlands stabilize soils reducing erosion
and associated sediment pollution. But, these stabilization and buffering capacities
are not absolute. Compared with human-modified coastlines with artificial structures,
natural ecosystems are more adaptive to routine, irregular as well as long-term
changes in the dynamic coastal system. The best way to take advantage of this
invaluable services provided by beaches and coasts is to allow them the space to
move in seaward direction during accretionary phases and in a landward direction
during erosionary phases.
3. GREECE, CLIMATE CHANGE AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
Greece has one of the longest and most diverse coastlines in Europe (with
comparison to its size) extending over 15.000 Km. More than 6.000 Km are sandy or
gravel beaches or low lying areas. Greece has today about 400 large and small
wetlands and several of them are composite and form wetland mosaics or
complexes. The most common wetland types are rivers, estuaries, deltas, lagoons,
shallow lakes, shallow marine formations and marshes. Their total area is still quite
large (over 200.000 ha) inspite of the heavy losses that occurred during the last 60y.
Since the beginning of the last century the Greek populations of animals and plants
seem to decline. The main reason is apparently the deterioration of their natural
habitats originating from the intensification of human activities such as agriculture,
industry, forestry, energy production, transport and tourism development. Although a
growing national and international awareness of the importance of coasts and coastal
areas has increased, concern for resources such as tourism, coastal development,
aquaculture, navigation, trade, national defense etc., demands on coastal and marine
environments are growing as population and pressure increase in Greece, Europe
and globally. In many instances this awareness has generated laws, programs to
mitigate and reverse environmental decline. The trend of increasing population and
pressure on the Greek coastline is certain to continue, intensifying pressure and
stress on coastal and marine resources. Consequently, the effects of climate change
will be experienced concurrently with ongoing and growing pressures due to
increasing population and development in most coastal areas.
The vulnerability assessment is a critical step in the development of a local mitigation

strategy. The assessment process helps local mitigation planning organizations, if
any, define the hazards threatening the jurisdictions, how the communities are
vulnerable to those hazards and how often such hazardous events could occur. This
type of information can enable the central government to better understand how it
can develop programs to save lives, protect property and enhance the future
economic stability of the local communities. Sea level rise can have effects on
erosion of beaches, increased flooding and storm damage, inundation of wetlands,
salt intrusion into the coastal aquifers and higher water tables. With respect to
retreating or eroding shorelines, the simplest concept to quantify is the inundation
concept, whereby preexisting contours above shorelines are used to project new
shorelines. The analysis becomes more complicated when dealing with mobile
302
sediments such as sand-sized material along the beaches. Bruun introduced in 1962
a model to predict the equilibrium adjustment of shoreline profiles during a SLR [1]. In
simple words, the shoreline setback can be calculated as the result of the distance
between closure depth and shoreline by the amount of SLR divided by the depth of
closure. The model for shoreline changes that is used in the present work compiles
projections of new equilibrium shorelines using historical shoreline movements
(through a time series of air photographs), erosion driven by Bruun’s model and
inundation effects due to SLR.
4. THE ASSESSMENT OF THE STUDIED AREAS
More than 150 Km of coastline spread all over Greece were studied and presented in
the present work. The areas cover all possible types of coastal environment such as
urban areas, rural areas, heavily developed beaches, coastal airports, lagoons and
wetlands. The sites are listed in Fig.1.
Figure 1. The areas given by the circles indicate the location of the shorelines studied
in order to assess their vulnerability to sea level rise and erosion.
303
For assessing the vulnerability due to SLR of these very important areas, the
following material was used:
1. Topographic maps of 1/500, 1/1000 and 1/5000 scale with accurate height
information
2. Hydrographic maps of 1/50000 scale
3. Aerial photographs of 1/8000, 1/15000, 1/30000 and 1/42000 scale.
An X-Y digitizer was used to overlay all the maps and air photographs using control
points on each map set for orientation purposes. The digitized shorelines for each
area can then be compared to determine the shoreline change over the span of
years. Using 50 cm (mid scenario) and 100 cm (high scenario) for SLR and Bruun
model of erosion, the future shoreline change could be assessed. The obtained
results are given in Table 1.
Area Shoreline type Length Areas inundated/eroded

(km) (ha)
50 cm 100 cm
Mesologgi Coastal lagoon, Urban/Engineered 25 64 165
Keramoti Rural and Urban area 16 17.1 42
Kopraini Sandy Beach 2.5 9 17
Porto Lagos Lagoon, Rural and Urban area 35 9 29
Louros 2 Lagoons and Sandy Beach 5.5 22 43
Crete Mixed/heavily developed 10 10 17
Lesvos Urban, Engineered/Sandy Beach 2.5 2 9
Kerkyra Airport, Engineered 5 Total loss of runway
Thessaloniki Airport, Sandy and Engineered 1.5 Loss of one runway
Alexandroupoli Airport, Mudflats 4 Danger to runway
Kos Sandy Beach 15.6 26.5 57.3
Kotychi Lagoon 12 10 23
Nafplio Sandy beach, Rural / Urban area 4 7.4 26
Kos Urban area 2 5 12
Alyki Kitrous Wetland, Lagoon, Salt works 14 110 1150
Table 1. The studied areas, their length of the shorelines and the land loss using the
two scenarios of sea level rise and erosion.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study evaluated whether Greece should exercise severe impacts as a result of
global climate change. It concludes that Greece should begin to prepare itself for the
possible consequences given:
The significant possibility of global warming
The magnitude of the negative impacts if global warming theories and

scenarios are correct and
The potential for anticipatory measures to reduce adverse impacts if sea level
rises as projected, without imposing substantial costs if the projections are not
realized.
304
Any strategy to minimize damage from future sea level rise should not only control
the location of new development, but also consider the impacts of existing
development on natural coastal processes as shoreline position changes.
The mapping and vulnerability assessment for specific sites determined that the
component of Greece’s “soft coast” (e.g. coastal wetlands and lagoons), face the
prospect of significant coastal erosion and inundation even without accelerated sea
level rise, based on historic rates of change (e.g. Porto Lagos lagoon). And for beach
and coastal wetlands, that erosion and inundation will be exacerbated by an
accelerated sea level rise.
Under current conditions, with a significant rise in sea level, Greece is likely to suffer
a substantial reduction in its coastal zone. The reasons for this reduction are:
No laws designed to protect the ability of low-lying coastal areas to mitigate

inland
Natural upland barriers will contribute to beach loss even without human
interference and
Multiple stressors not directly related to sea level rise may contribute to the
death of coastal vegetation, which is critical to the process of vertical
accretion.
The Urban engineered shorefronts will essentially keep shoreline position with sea
level rise following optimistic or middle scenarios. However, it is probable that these
areas will experience negative impacts associated with flooding and storm surges
with greater frequencies, particularly in areas that already experience flooding during
a 100-year storm event.
Concluding, the key recommendation of the present work is that Greece should
protect and strengthen the ability of natural systems to adjust to changes in shoreline
position and prevent new development, which is likely to interface with the ability of
natural systems to adjust themselves.
6. REFERENCES
1. Bruun P.: 1962, Sea Level Rise as a Cause of Shore Erosion, Journal of
Waterways and Harbors Division (ASCE) 88: 116-130.
2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1996): Climate Change

1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-
Technical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA.
3. Shaw, R. W. (2001): Coastal Impacts of Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise on

Prince Edward Island, Climate Change Action Fund Project CCAF A041,
Synthesis Report, Natural Resources Canada.
305
REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY OF WATER IN

SLOVENIA1
Dr. Ana Vovk Korže

Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, University of Maribor
Sl- Koroška c. 160, 2000 Maribor
Tel. +386 2 22 93 647
e-mail: ana.vovk@uni-mb.si
ABSTRACT
All natural water forms are protected as the natural resource based on the Environmental Protection
Act. Water quality is assessed on the basis of the data compiled within the water quality monitoring
system in Slovenia. Monitoring is done for the quality of surface waters, underground waters, springs,
lakes and the sea. The Hydrometeorological Institute of Slovenia is authorized to perform the
monitoring. Geography investigates pollution, region and its reason. The main water polluters in
Slovenia are industrial and other production plants, the population and agriculture. It is very seldom
that the contents of pollution increases due to geological base or other natural factors. In this article
the quality of groundwater is discussed. The water quality monitoring includes 15 fields with
groundwater. Groundwater is controlled twice a year at 84 sampling points by individual parameters:
- Nitrates: the highest contents of nitrates are determined in the groundwater of the Prekmursko
field, Dravsko and Ptujsko fields and the lower Savinja valley. This pollution is increased at some
sites on the Apaško field, Sorško field and Krško field as well as in the Vipava valley.
- Pesticides consist of atrazine with metabolite, alachlore, metholachlore, dieldrin, promethrin. The
highest content of different arts of pesticides was measured in Kidričevo, on the Dravsko field, in
Sobetinci on the Ptujsko and Dravsko fields, in Brunšvik, Homec in the Kamniška Bistrica valley,
the underground water on the Ljubljansko field is also polluted with pesticides, the concentrations
are also very high in Rakičan on the Mursko field.
- Volatile organic compounds: this group consists mainly of chlorinated organic solvents and some
aromatic compounds. A very high content was measured in the drinking water in Homec and
Mengeš in the Kamniška Bistrica valley, on the Sorško field, in the Vipava valley, in the low
Savinja valley, on the Dravsko field and on the Krško field.
- Metals: the heaviest pollution with zinc, cadmium, copper, chrome, nickel and lead appears in all
fields and valleys in Slovenia with groundwater.
The purpose of this contribution is to show the regional dissemination of pollution of underground
water in Slovenia and then using the criteria for soil vulnerability determining self cleaning capabilities
of soils in the valleys and fields with groundwater. Using this knowledge the soil usage in the areas
with the underground water is easier to plan.
Keywords: water quality, Slovenia, environmental assessement, surface water,

undergroundwater
INTRODUCTION
The extent and level of environmental pollution in Slovenia are strongly effected by
regional variety, natural geographic specialities and economic development.
Slovenian territory is the contact four European macro regions – Panonic, Alpine,
Karst and Mediterranean (chart 1). Intensive agricultural production on plain areas of
Slovenia, which embraces only ten percent of the territory, with large consumption of
chemical preservative means and mineral fertilizers, endangers underground water.
Besides farming and industry water pollutants are also settlements, mostly those with
1
306
administrative, educational, catering industry and hospital buildings. Relief variety of

Slovene territory contributes a great deal to the fact, that settlements and the
majority of industry are concentrated on plain regions.
Groundwater is the one natural element, at which the situation in twenty years period
has not essentially improved, it has even deteriorated. Intensive agricultural activity
and local sources – waste dumps (illegal dumps) still, in spite of existing protective
areas, endanger groundwater. This indicates to the urgency of integral sanitation of
the endangered sources of fresh - drinkable water (greater protection of areas with
groundwater). An important alternative for water supply represent new water sources.
Quelle: Alpe-Jadran, 2000
Chart 1: Geographic position of Slovenia in Europe on the contact of four macro regions
The intention of this article is to indicate, what potentials according to groundwater

have individual statistical regions in Slovenia at their disposal. This question is
important, for it is essential to know, what are the possibilities of satisfying the needs
for fresh – drinkable water within each individual statistical region. Groundwater
namely is a natural source, meaning, that its insufficiency and pollution undoubtedly
present an obstacle for regional development.
METHODOLOGY
The quality of groundwater was defined according to twelve statistical regions. The
data given by Agency of Environment, have been transferred to the level of statistical
regions. This enabled the comparison between regions according to quality of
groundwater as a natural source.
The data about regional division of Slovenia have been acquired from the Statistical
bureau of Republic of Slovenia (SURS), and from the Catalogue of regional divisions
from 2001. Since Slovenia does not have regions comparable to Europe, the
307
statistical regions have been used instead, which in Slovenia are temporarily used for
presenting data.
The data about groundwater quality are available in the Environmental state report in
Slovenia in 2002.
Regional division of Slovenia
Statistical regions in Slovenia are one out of territorial units, for which Statistical
bureau of Republic of Slovenia gathers and presents statistical data. This is an
intermediate level between the state (nation) an local level (communes, settlements,
local communities). On regional level in Slovenia exist heterogeneous territorial
divisions (Chamber of Trade regions, regional units of Chamber of Agriculture and
Forestry, regions of electional units and others). The division on statistical regions is
economic and geographic and considers gravitational areas (employment, schools,
supply). Since year 2000, it is by the Ordinance of standard classification of territorial
units (web site 3) determined, that statistical regions are a national standard for
gathering and representing data on regional level. Statistical regions are, as far as
largeness is concerned similar to statistical territorial units which are used in the
European union as the units of the third level.
Slovene statistical regions are, according to their surface area and number of
inhabitants quite various. The most populated, with 484.000 inhabitants is the
Osrednjeslovenska region, while the smallest, Zasavska region only has 47.000
inhabitants. The division of Slovenia into twelve statistical regions is founded by
geographical, historical, relief, economical, functional and regional particularities
(chart 2). The division on statistical regions is also grounded due to current and in
longer time series gathered socio-economic data about the level of their development
(Pogačnik, A., Ravbar, M., 2002). The centres of statistical regions are as a rule the
headquarters of more important economic organizations, as well as social, health,
cultural, administrative and judiciary activities. Centres of those regions have service
and other economic activities, which influence on the environment.
Source: Catalogue of regional devision, 2001
Chart 2: Statistical regions of Slovenia
308
In geography it is most important to know regional structure of statistical regions.

Such data are important for understanding internal development possibilities from the
natural and social opportunities point of view. The data about economic and social
situation of individual statistical region are gathered from (SURS) on the basis of
inventory made in 2002. All the basic regional indexes, which indicate to the regional
developmental heterogeneousness, are included (table 1). Comparing statistical
regions according to stated data indicates, that the worst situation is in north east
Slovenia, which is a part of panonic macro region. It is plain, rich with subterranean
water, and with agriculture as prevailing activity. Isolated industry is in the phase of
transition and only in the last few years considers the normative for nature protection.
Table 1: Data according to statistical regions
The The number of

Regional The level of
expected students on
BDP on an registrated
Statistical regions length of life 1000
inhabitant in unemployment in
(together), inhabitants,
USD, 1996 %, 1998
1997 1996
Osrednjeslovenska 12.169 11 74,5 28,5
Obalno-kraška 9687 10,6 75,5 25,1
Gorenjska 8751 12,6 73,9 26,9
Goriška 9341 9,2 74,4 24,7
Savinjska 8953 16,7 72,5 22,7
Dolenjska 9274 10,4 71,9 23,2
Pomurska 7371 18,7 72,1 18,7
Notranjsko-kraška 8033 12,5 74,1 23,3
Podravska 7768 22 72,1 22,2
Koroška 8169 13 72,7 24,2
Posavska 8582 15,9 71,4 20,3
Zasavska 7999 19,2 71,9 23,3
SLOVENIA 9471 14,6 74,9* 24,6
Source: SURS, calculation UMAR; * - data for period 1997/98
The Osrednjeslovenska region is, according to given indexes above Slovenian

average, while all the other regions are below average. In the worst position are
Koroška, Posavska and Zasavska regions. The reason for such situation is strong
centralization of tertiary and quarter activities in middle Slovenia. Regions with low
DBP on an inhabitant and high level of unemployment have lower life length
expectancy and less students on a 1000 inhabitants. Great natural and social
differences between statistical regions influence on the amount and quality of
groundwater, which exactly in less developed regions is very polluted.
309
Regional characteristics of quality of underground water
Underground waters in Slovenia are endangered on 13 from 18 alluvial water

containing areas, that is on half of the state territory, on which fresh (drinkable) water
is gathered for supplying inhabitants. South and south east parts of Slovenia is karst,
where unfortunately Agency for Environment does not have enough measure points,
to give groundwater quality estimation.
Groundwater and specially its quality are an important natural potential of region.
Water, which gathers above the impermeable layers under the surface is in Slovenia
the most important source of fresh (drinkable) water. The main locations of
subterranean water are on Dravsko and Ptujsko fields, in Ljubljana basin on
Kranjsko, Sorško and Ljubljansko fields, and on fields by Mura and Savinja.
Precipitation are the most important source of water, which as well contains from the
surface washed and in the ground layers soluble materials. Partly it is also chemically
bound.
Underground waters are under plain alluvial sediments. Because Slovenia annually
accepts in average 1500 mm of rain, there is no lack in underground water, except
when extreme hydrological drought.
The main layers of underground water are by the mayor rivers, containing various
amounts of water (source: Lah, A., 1995).
Goriљka
1090 100 1000
Gorenjska
Osrednjeslovenska
3680
Zasavska
Posavska
4620
Savinjska
830 Podravska
1045 100
Pomurska
Chart 3: Groundwater in litre on the second by region
The quality of underground water
The network of state monitoring includes 84 gathering points on 18 alluvial water

containers for monitoring ground waters quality. Samples are taken twice a year, that
is in the late spring and after the period of intensive use of various preparations for
exterminating weeds (May, June), and then in the autumn after heavy rains (October,
November), which wash greater amounts of preparations into the underground water.
In all samples the most basic physical and chemical analysis are made: analysis of
heavy metals, phenol substances, pesticides, metabolites, easy volatile organic
substances and organic substances.
310
Slovenia has a lot of groundwater, which is used as fresh (drinkable) water. In some
regions the quality of groundwater is very bad. The results of monitoring show, that
the most polluted groundwater is on shallow plain alluvial water containers with
pesticides and nitrates. Due to intensive agriculture and thin non concentrated water
containing zone the pollution of groundwater is the biggest in north eastern part of
Slovenia and Celje surroundings. Most often present pesticide is atrazine and his
metabolites. The highest amounts of pesticides in the year 2000 were measured on
Prekmursko, Dravsko and Ptujsko fields, in the valley of Bolska and in lower
Savinjska valley, where in the period of several past years ascertain the worst
condition, and where besides already mentioned pesticides also metholaclore,
symazin, promethrin and propazin can be found. Nitrates in Slovenian groundwater
appeared in the year 2000 in a very wide concentration area from 3,1 to 138,3
mg/NO3/l. The highest amounts were assessed in Mursko, Prekmursko and Dravsko
fields, in lower Savinja valley and in the valley of Bolska (The quality of water in
Slovenia, 2001).
The quality of underground water according to statistical regions from 1997-

2000
The presentation of amounts of nitrates and pesticides in underground water,

according to statistical regions was made by considering measured values of both
substances in water and by locating the strata of underground water into statistical
regions. The four year period 1997 - 2000 shows the pattern of changing average
yearly values of nitrates and pesticides, which is an important information for
environment protection strategy.
Table 2: The average yearly values of nitrates 1997-2000 in mg NO3/l (the allowed
value is 25 mg NO3/l)
Region 1997 1998 1999 2000

1-Pomurska 46,7 48 42 45
2-Podravska 48 45 45.5 45
3-Koroška - - - -
4-Savinjska 56 55 51 55.5
5-Zasavska - - - -
6-Spodnjeposavska 12,5 21 20.5 21
7-Jugovzhodna - - - -
Slovenija
8-Osrednjeslovenska 15,6 16.7 17 16.7
9-Gorenjska 25,5 24,5 24,5 24,5
10-Notranjsko-kraška - - - -
11-Goriška 40 42 38 30
12-Obalno-kraška - - - -
* Shadowed regions indicate where in groundwater the allowed value of NO3 is

exceeded
311
Table 3: The average yearly values for the sum of pesticides 1997-2000 in µg/l (the
allowed value is 0.5 µg/l)
Region 1997 1998 1999 2000

1-Pomurska 0,53 0,5 7 0,47 0,4
2-Podravska 1 0,57 0,63 1,45
3-Koroška - - - -
4-Savinjska 0.18 0,16 0,25 0,22
5-Zasavska - - - -
6-Spodnjeposavska 0,15 0,1 0,1 0,1
7-Jugovzhodna - - -
Slovenija
8-Osrednjeslovenska 0,27 0,23 0,17 0,2
9-Gorenjska 0,17 0,19 0,21 0,17
10-Notranjsko-kraška - - - -
11-Goriška 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,1
12-Obalno-kraška - - - -
* Shadowed are regions where the allowed value of pesticides is exceeded.
The biggest violation of allowed / boundary values of NO3 and pesticides is in

Podravska region, followed by Pomurska and Savinjska, Gorenjska and Goriska
region. The main causes for groundwater pollution are releases from industry (meat
manufacturing plants, galvanic industries, mechanical and chemical workshops and
drycleaners). In Podravska and Pomurska regions are introducing some programmes
for sanation of gravel-pits which are often filled with dangerous waste. Groundwater
is polluted by wrongly deposited waste (remnants from constructing with dangerous
waste).
Because nitrates in groundwater are very concentrated, a new nitrate directive is

introduced, which forbids and restricts the use of fertilizers in particular areas. The
use of pesticides is already restricted and substituted with other means for crop
protection.
Pollution with pesticides is a consequence of an excessive and incorrect use of fito-

farmaceutical means for destroying weeds, pests or mould on cultivated areas,
parks, playgrounds, roads and railroads.
The most polluted with pesticides are ground waters of Mursko field, Prekmursko,
Dravsko and Ptujsko fields and in Bolska valley, where the majority of average
amounts of pesticides sum in the period 1997 – 2000 is higher than allowed 0,5 µg/l.
Due to atrazine use prohibition, it is substituted with others, mostly metholachlore,
which in some areas twenty times exceeds the allowed values. (Podreča on Sorško
field, Sobetinci on Ptuj field) (Bauman, 2002). Three year averages of pesticides in
ground waters show constant decreasing, however on Prekmursko, Dravsko and
Ptujsko fields the average amount of pesticides sum in the period 1998 – 2000 is still
higher than the allowed value 0,5 µg/l. (The report about environment condition
2001/2, MOP).
312
QUALITY OF UNDERGROUND WATER AND FOREST AREAS

Prekmursko
field
Mursko
field
Bolska vally
Dravsko Ptujsko
Kranjsko field field
field
Sorško Kranjsko Sp. Savinjska
field field vally
Ljubljansko
Soča vally Brežiško field
field
Krško
field
Author: A.V.Korže,2003
Key: Groundwater pollution degree
very high degree
high degree
medium degree
Chart 3
In Slovenia is more than 50 % of forest areas. The Flatlands are very high /high
polluted, because all activity (settlement, traffic, rural and urban economy) are there
concentrated.
313
Very high degree pollution
Podravje Pomurje
region region
Low DBP on an inhabitant
Low expected length of live
High level of registrated unemployment
Comparable number of students on 1000

inhabitants (but they do not stay in region)
Chart 4: Water quality and social properties of region - linking
CONCLUSION
In Slovenia, the period between 1997 – 2000, was the most critical as far as pollution
of underground water with pesticides, mostly atrazine and his metabolite desetil-
atrazine and nitrates is concerned. Pollution was the worst in the north east part of
Slovenia. Most polluted with nitrates were water containers in Pomurje and Podravje
region, in lower Savinjsko, where average yearly amounts of nitrates in underground
water have exceeded the allowed values 25 mg NO3/l. In some individual measure
areas the amounts of nitrates have constantly increasing since 1997 (Sorško,
Dravsko fields). Although long termed measures of nitrate amounts in underground
waters show a decrease pattern, the average amounts of nitrates for three year
period 1998 –2000, are sill higher than allowed values. That is on Prekmursko,
Mursko, Dravsko, Ptujsko, Sorško and Krško fields, in lower Savinja valley, valley of
Bolska, Kamniška Bistrica and Soča valley.
Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Agriculture endeavour for

protecting the underground water. The geographical knowledge of region and their
structure is very important.
314
REFERENCES
Alpe-Jadran, 2000. Prispevek k trajnostnemu prostorskemu razvoju. Delovna skupina

kantonov, dežel, županij, regij in republik vzodnoalpskega območja. . Ljubljana, str.
91
Agency of Environment, Ministry of Environment, Space and Energy.
Bauman, B., 2002: Podtalnica je povsod ogrožena. Večer, 12.12. 2002, str. 3.
Catalogue of regional divisions from 2001. Statistical bureau of Republic of Slovenia

(SURS). Project leader Branko Pavlin, Ljubljana 2001.
Environmental state report in Slovenia in 2002
Lah, A., 1995: Lexicon Environment and Human, ČZD Kmečki glas, Ljubljana, page.
244-245.
Pogačnik, A., Ravbar, M., 2002: The outline of possible regionalizations in Slovenia
and the suggestion of an optimal variant. UMAR, IB magazine, 1/2002, page. 42-59.
Popis 2002. SURS.
SURS, calculation UMAR; * - data for period 1997/98
The quality of water in Slovenia, MOP, Agency of Republic of Slovenia for

Environment, 3.12.2001.
Web site 1: (http://www.ijs.si/expo98/slo/paviljon/ureditev/inforamtivno-jedro/okolje).
Web site 2: (http://surs.gov.si/katalogrds/podstrani/dodatek2.html).
Web site 3: (http://objave.uradni-list.si/bazeul/URED/2002/051/B/5224902304.htm).
315
INTEGRATING CONSERVATION ACTIONS

IN PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT IN ROMANIA
CASE STUDY: IRON GATES NATURAL PARK 1
Cristian Tetelea
1 N. Balcescu 70111, Bucharest, Romania, tel/fax: +40+21+3103872
e-mail: cristian@portiledefier.ro
ABSTRACT
University of Bucharest – Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies initiated in 1996 a
campaign for creation of a conservation structure for Iron Gates Natural Park. In 2000 with the financial
support of the European Commission and whit the agreement of the local authorities these efforts starts
become visible with the implementation of the programme LIFE NATURE Iron Gates Natural Park –
habitat conservation and management.
This article try to present conservation action for threatened species, whit particular analysis on a natural
park, and a methodology for developing a long term habitat management scheme (joint action plan with
the local authorities) that will cover all necessary conservation precautions for the specific species and
their habitats, whit an wide application for the further managing of protected areas in Romania.
INTRODUCTION
Being located especially in mountainous areas, with Danube River as central element,
with sub-Mediterranean climatic influences, the species meet here and the habitats
developed in the Iron Gates Natural Park are unique in Romania. Among 4000 plants’
species, 28 are endemic species and 14 of those are found only at this location (e.g.
Minuartia cataractorum, Rubus banaticus, R. niveoserpens, R. severinesis, Tulipa
hungarica, Stipa danubialis etc.). The Romanian geo-botanists described 196 types of
habitats developed in this area but 17 are characteristic only to this location. Also,
habitats of Fagus sylvatica were discovered at the lowest altitude and spontaneous
exemplars of Taxus baccata were found. Almost all populations of Testudo hermanni
live in this area. The specie, found on Bern Convention List, is in great danger of being
extinct due to the physical extermination (for example, people use the turtles’ shell to
manufacture ashtrays). In the years ’60-’70, large number of exemplars was taken from
their habitats for commercial reasons (the German merchants required the turtles’ meat
because this was appreciated as a delicatessen).
The first proposal to set up a conservation structure within this area dates back in 1970
and it belongs to the Natural Monuments Commission of the Romanian Academy. This
proposal initiated the building of a natural park in the area but did not include the
necessary steps toward its registration with international bodies.
1
755
After 1972 (when the dam was built), in spite of various difficulties, conservation efforts
continued and were partly successful. Thus, there were created smaller conservation
areas – 22 protected areas on some 2700 ha. (Patroescu and Rozylowicz 1999).
After constructing the “Iron Gates” dam on the Danube river, an artificial lake was
created and in the western part of the new lake the initial habitats were transformed into
veritable wetlands. In the last 30 years there were point out exemplars of de Egretta
garzetta, Phalacrocorax pygmaeus, Ph. carbo, Ardea purpurea and so on. For all the
above-mentioned qualities, the lake artificially created in this area became A.I.A. zone
(the meaning is “area of bird habitat high significance”). Another important species, meet
here, are sand viper Vipera ammodytes and lesser kestrel Falco naumanni.
Through implementing a habitat management scheme, conditions will be created for an

effective protection for all the significant species in Romania (unique floristic
associations, species declared as nature monument, vulnerable species, and habitats
with European relevance, species included in the international conventions).
The “Iron Gates” was declared as protected area (Natural Park).Like most of the
protected areas, declaring a protected area but not defining a structure and a protection
methodology represents a negative aspect of the Romanian legislation concerning the
environmental conservation
The human activities, the lack of understanding the species’ importance and
vulnerability or the necessity to save from harm the species, the human behavior in
generally, put in danger the protected species in Romania. These dysfunctions were
pointed out before Romania signed the Bern Convention. Fact is that ulterior, these
aspects were not followed by protection measures and the specialists’ messages
remained without echo specially because the lack of funding.
Beyond the protection measures that should be strictly applied, it is necessary to create
a structure to manage the protected areas and provide support for developing those
activities that are friendly whit nature. The present proposal wants to design a habitat
management scheme that in the future can be used by the national and regional
authorities. There is no other alternative for protecting the vulnerable habitats and the
threatened species in the actual legislative and socio-economic context in Romania.
This proposal proposes also the protected areas from Romania to become areas of
special conservation and to be registered on the lists of the protected areas networking
within NATURA 2000 frame.
METHODOLOGY AND EXPECTED RESULTS
We consider necessary to make, for every protected area, a habitat inventory/species

that are presented in the most important lists or legislative acts (Romanian Protected
Areas List, Habitat Directive and Bern Conventions). Knowing the major threats for the
species and protected areas constitutes an important step in taking conservation action
and elaborating management scheme.
756
Also for a better knowledge at the further action of conservation we link these threats
whit the precise location (where this is relevant), impact for the species or habitats
(known at that time and quantifiable if possible) and expected results of the actions
undertaken for each one.
We will give Iron Gates Natural Park as example were we identified several threats for
the Testudo hermanni, Vipera ammodytes and several difficulties in implementation a
administrative structure:
§ Collecting Testudo hermanni exemplars for commercial purposes! This activity had a
large proportion in the years ‘60-’70 when the specimen was commercialized
especially to foreigners. Afterwards, a decrease has occurred due to the political
conditions intervening in the areas (the frontier zone became inaccessible). After
1989, the socialist political system was removed and a recrudescence in collecting
for commercial purposes was remarked. The last events were linked with the fact
that the Romanian-Yugoslavian boarder is permeable.
- Location: The traditional habitats of Testudo hermanni
- Impact on habitat/species (quantify if possible): Drastic decrease of the

Testudo hermanni exemplars
- Expected results: Establishing a concrete frame in order to prevent collecting

for commercial purposes, to protect effectively Testudo hermanni exemplars.
§ Destroying the Testudo hermanni exemplars considered being harmfulness for the
farmers. Destroying the Testudo hermanni exemplars can be done by the farmers
with intention (destroying the eggs’ nestles, annihilating the mature exemplars) or
indirectly through the use of fertilizers on the meadows and grasslands.
- Location and impact on species/habitat the same as above.
- Expected results: Creating a cert frame for habitat protection by designing and
introducing clear rules and responsibilities
§ Exterminating the Vipera ammodytes specie. The sand viper (Vipera ammodytes)
habitat distribution decreased in the last year due to the fact that the shepherds
exterminated important number of exemplars. The specie is poisonous for
humans or animals but the ethological behavior put the specimen in the position
of being very facile avoided.The meadows and grasslands habitats area extent
between Moldova Noua and Svinita-Gura Bahna. Drastic decrease of Vipera
ammodytes exemplars. In summer time, killed exemplars are pointed out almost
daily.
- Location: Especially snakes habitat whit rocky, steep slops and shrub
vegetation
- Estimation of impact was unknown at that time.
757
- Expected results: Establishing the protection areas and ensuring a

concrete frame for conservation. Stop the decline and improve the specie’s
chances to recover and increase in number.
§ Lack of a leading structure for the “Iron Gates” Natural Park. Though the “Iron
Gates” Natural Park was legally confirmed since 1990, there is no leading
structure. This issue is known in literature as Paper Park Syndrome which cancel
the protected area status.
- Location: the entire park area.
- Impact on species: Habitats and species for which the area was declared
protected do not benefit of effective protection and the populations
decrease every year.
- Expected results: Designing a methodology and creating a leading structure

for the “Iron Gates” Natural Park covering, whit the support of the European
Commission and LIFE NATURE programme, the actions related to the
habitat management
- Expected results: Creating a functional entity capable to manage the natural

capital resources in the area (administration structure).
§ The lack of a habitat management plan for the “Iron Gates” Natural Park. The
lack of a habitat management plan for the areas within the natural park should
lead to a decrease in the quality of the habitats. This plan should have clear
actions and deadlines for habitats’ conservation and management.
- Location: The entire park area
- Impact: Habitats and species for which the area was declared protected do
not benefit of effective protection and the populations decrease every year.
The situation regarding the protection is unclear, the reserves are only
declared as protected areas and the legislation is not strictly applied. This
overlaps the impression that declaring a protected area solves the problem
and it is not. Thus the vulnerable species will suffer even more.
- Expected results: Elaborating the habitat management plan will create the
necessary levers to ensure the protection of the habitats and the
vulnerable species.
This links complete to a set of three components of activities that will help to integrate
successfully conservation actions in management plan for Iron Gates Natural Park.
A first set of activities is related to the scientifically research about the habitats and
species. This set of actions can be very large and includes the fallowing activities:
758
§ Evaluating the biota and non-biota resources within the “Iron Gates” Natural Park
(scientifical research dedicated to the above-mentioned habitats and populations,
complex studies targeting the evaluation of biota and non-biota resources, park
zoning for determining the priority areas, synthesis of all the collected data,
creating a database, etc.).
§ Inventory of the habitats populated by Testudo hermanii, Vipera ammodytes

(scientifical research dedicated to the above-mentioned habitats and populations,
updating the database).
§ Inventory of birds’ population and habitats (special regard to Egretta garzetta,

Ciconia nigra, Falco naumanni).
§ Restructuring the testudo hermanni habitats by reintroducing new individuals in

the unstructured habitats.
§ Monitoring and evaluating the experimental results of the testudo hermanni

reintroduction procedure.
§ Monitoring of birds’ population and habitats (special reference to egretta garzetta,

ciconia nigra, falco naumanii)
The presented tasks are necessary in order to figure out the real state regarding
the Testudo hermanii and Vipera ammodytes habitats’ distribution, and bird’s species.
This will help to make correct decisions on introducing new individuals to restructure the
habitats, respectively to protect them, and to elaborate an Action Plan as basis to start
projects for protecting strictly the birds present on the Bird Directive.
Those activities represent one of the most important phases in elaborating the
management plan. There is no way of establishing principles and planning actions
before knowing the details on the resources of the park (practical field aspects,
population and habitats status, the impact of the human activities on the habitats and so
on).
A second set of activities includes those related to management action as follow:
§ Creating two bodies that will ensure the quality of the habitat management act:
the consultative council and the habitat management team.
§ Elaborating the habitat management plan/scheme (setting up the principles for

habitats’ protection, elaborating the Park Statute, planning of the management
and conservation actions, establishing the Park Leading structure)
We acknowledged the importance to create a unified thinking and a set of controllable

actions in order to establish a concrete habitat management scheme .
759
§ Implementing the habitat management plan/scheme (training of the habitat

management staff, ensuring support to implement the habitat management
structure, establishing and arranging the headquarters,
§ Creating information-documentary centres (training of the IDC staff activities of

the centres). The introduction of such structure is motivated by the necessity to
ensure the links between educational institutions, local players, and local
authorities
The Consultative Council (or similar body) will consist of local actors, local and regional
administration representatives, and economic agents – project partners or not. The
number of members will be decided whit all the actors involved.
The Habitat Management Team (as we named) will be created as working body, which
will evaluate the resources and the possibilities to manage the protected areas. This
team will be formed of persons having scientifical experience and expertise. The team
will be interdisciplinary. They will produce the habitats’ management scheme and plan.
The Council will carefully analyse every proposal of the Habitat Management Team and
decisions will be done in agreement with the local interest.
Co-ordinating the elaboration of habitat management plan and the management process
itself represent the most important piece and the goal of the project. The Consultative
Council is formed by people with competence and major interest in applying the
conservation principles within park area. Altogether, they will assure a faster access to
the decisional mechanisms. The creation of this Council will facilitate a faster decisional
procedure avoiding contradictory interests.
The Habitat Management Team is necessary as structure because the biotope

management principles and park statute can be realized only by researchers with large
interdisciplinary experience and scientific expertise providing a correct scheme/plan.
A third set of action is related to public awareness and dissemination of results, and
includes the following activities:
§ Press releases, press conference, web page.
§ Organising events (Earth Day, Inauguration of Birds observatories, official

opening of IDC, etc.).
§ Organizing 4 workshops dedicated to every specie subjected by the actual

project.
§ producing promotion materials
CONCLUSIONS
760
Integrating the conservations action in protected area of Iron Gates Natural Park
involves many authorities from local, regional and national level. Authorities involved in
habitats management plan establishment are the decision-makers ones in the region, or
administrating important surfaces or being involved in the implementation of the legal
framework (environmental protection inspectorates, county councils, forestry
departments etc.).
Habitats management plan principles are trying to emphasise the general

directions, which will act as support for the establishment of the habitats management
plan. This step is also trying to build a unanimous opinion related to the directions for
natural park development. Habitats management plan must include those measures
necessary for biodiversity conservation but also viable to be accomplished in practice by
the authorities. Measures must also be in accordance with the European legislative
framework that Romania is trying to harmonise with.
Management plan is looking to improve the management of natural and cultural

patrimony of the region by promoting the activities with a low impact on the environment,
avoiding the generation of mono-functional structure. Management plan will promote the
sustainable valuation of natural spaces, in accordance with protection and conservation
conditions of the species protected in the park.
During the activities performed with the precise aim of integrating the measures
for threatened species protection it was emphasised the need for a special attention that
must be paid to measures to raise awareness of local population about the importance
of conservation activities. These actions must be complementary with the activities of
other organisations (cultural centres, NGO’s etc.) having similar objectives and target
groups.
REFERENCES
Glăvan, Vasile (1976) – Consideraţii asupra rolului activităţilor antropice în dinamica mediului
înconjurător din SV Banatului, B.S.S.R., vol. IV
Grigore M., Popescu Dida, Popescu N. (1967) – Relieful structural din zona defileului Dunării
şi Munţii Almăjului, Natura, seria geologie – geografie, nr. 1, Bucureşti
Posea Gr. (1964) – Defileul Dunării, Natura, seria geologie – geografie, nr.1, Bucureşti
* * * (1969) – Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1972) – Atlasul complex Porţile de Fier, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1976) – Geografia / Academia R.S.R. Grupul de Cercetări Complexe Porţile de Fier,

Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1983) – Geografia României, vol. I Geografia fizică, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1987) – Geografia României, vol. III Carpaţii Româneşti şi Depresiunea Transilvaniei,

Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
761
* * * (1990) – Solurile în zona Defileului Dunării, Grupul de cercetări complexe „Porţile de Fier” –
seria monografică, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1999) – Planul local de măsuri privind dezvoltarea durabilă şi reducerea poluării mediului în
Clisura Dunării, Inspectoratul de Protecţie a Mediului, Reşiţa
* * * (2000) – Legea nr. 5/2000 privind Planul de amenajare a teritoriului naţional – Secţiunea a
III-a – zone protejate
* * * (2000) – Ordonanţa de urgenţă nr. 236/2000, privind regimul ariilor naturale protejate,
conservarea habitatelor naturale, a florei şi a faunei sălbatice
762
THE IMPACT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF METAL MINING ACTIVITIES ON

THE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OF ROMANIAN RIVER SYSTEMS1
Graham Bird1, Paul A. Brewer1, Mark G. Macklin1, Dan Balteanu2,

Basarab Driga2, Mihaela Serban2 and Sorin Zaharia3
1
Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Wales, Aberystwyth,
Ceredigion, SY23 3DB, UK. Email: gbb97@aber.ac.uk
Tel: +44 (0)1970 622588 Fax: +44 (0)1970 622659
2
Institute of Geography, The Romanian Academy, 12 Dimitrie Racovita, Sector 2,
RO-70307, Bucharest, Romania.
3
ARIS Design Institute, Str. Ghe., Marinescu 2/15, Baia Mare,
Maramureş County, Romania
ABSTRACT
Mining of base and precious metals occurs in many Romanian river catchments often resulting in the
release of heavy metals into local fluvial environments. Metal concentrations in surface water and river
channel sediment have been measured in rivers in Maramureş County, Satu Mare County and the
Metaliferi Mountains as part of ongoing research into the patterns and processes of metal contamination
in Romanian riverine environments. It is possible to identify three broad types of mining affected river
catchment in Romania, 1) those with historically active, but presently inactive mines, 2) those with
presently active, and 3) those which have been impacted by mine tailings dam failures. Systematic
geochemical surveys carried out between 2000 and 2002 in north and west Romania have specifically
focussed on these three types of mining affected catchment. This paper reports the findings of these
geochemical surveys, and attempts to identify the physical and chemical controls upon spatial and
temporal patterns of metal pollution in Romanian river catchments. Data regarding river system recovery
following both the cessation of mining activity and tailings dam failures is related to development of new
large-scale mining activity at Roşia Montană.
Keywords: metal mining activities, surface water quality, heavy metals, Metaliferi
Mountains, Romania
INTRODUCTION
Pollution of river systems with heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) occurs due to 1) the
occurrence of acid mine drainage 2) the release of waste slurries containing solute and
particulate metals, and 3) the occurrence of mine tailings dam failures. The ability of
metal mining activity to degrade the environmental quality of riverine environments
around the world has been noted in numerous studies (Bradley and Cox, 1986; Graf et
al., 1991; Taylor, 1996; Hudson-Edwards et al., 1999; Shu et al., 2001). However,
research into the patterns and processes of metal contamination in Romanian river
systems is less well documented (but see Brewer et al., 2002a; Brewer et al., 2002b;
Macklin et al., 2003).
1
316
Precious (Au, Ag) and base (Cu, Pb, Zn) metal ores are actively mined in numerous
river catchments within Romania. Mining activity is particularly well developed in
Maramureş and Satu Mare Counties and in the Metaliferi Mountains that form part of the
southern Apuseni (Figure 1). A lack of control over the management of metal-rich
mining waste, and the occurrence of several high profile mine tailings dam failures in
Maramureş County during the year 2000, have led the degradation of fluvial
environments with potential implications for environmental and human health. River
catchments in Romania can be affected by mining activity in one or more of the following
ways: 1) by historically active, but presently inactive mines, 2) by presently active mines,
and 3) by mine tailings dam failures. This paper reports the findings of ongoing
geochemical surveys within a number of Romanian river catchments affected in different
ways by mining activity, it examines how contamination patterns can vary over time, and
assesses the degree to which river systems affected by tailings dam failures have
recovered.
STUDY AREA
This paper presents results from geochemical sampling carried out in river catchments
in three regions, 1) Maramureş County, northwestern Romania (Figure 1a), 2) Satu
Mare County northwestern Romania (Figure 1b) and 3) River Mureş drainage basin,
western Romania (Figure 1c). Mining activity in both Maramureş and Satu Mare
Counties is widespread, with evidence that it has been in operation since Roman times
(Lang, 1979). The Someş and Viseu river systems, part of the upper Tisa basin, drain
actively mined regions of the Guttii and Maramureş Mountains, respectively. Base and
precious metal deposits are found in association with hydrothermal veins (Donisa et al.,
2000), with polymetallic sulphide and gold deposits being formed by volcanic activity that
began in the early Miocene, giving rise to metal ore bodies within calc-alkaline andesites
(Lang et al., 1994; Cook, 1997). In January and March 2000, mine tailings dam failures
occurred at the Aurul gold reprocessing plant near the Baia Mare and the Novaţ-Rosu
tailings pond facilities, respectively. These events released metal rich wastes into the
Sasar-Lapuş-Someş and Novaţ-Vaser-Viseu river systems (Figure 1a).
Mining operations within Satu Mare County, to the west of Maramureş County, are now
mostly inactive. Mines in the upper Tur and Tarna Mare river catchments (Figure 1b)
extracted metals from Neogene volcanic rocks in the western Guttii Mountains.
Presently, there is only active mining at one site in the River Turţ catchment.
Metal mining in the Mureş drainage basin is centred on the Metaliferi Mountains, one of
Romania’s most productive metal mining regions. Of particular importance is the River
Arieş, a tributary of the Mureş, which drains actively mined lands near Rosia Montană
and Baia de Arieş (Figure 1c). Precious and base metal deposits are hosted in calc-
alkaline andesites formed by Neogene volcanic activity. The deposits of Au at Roşia
Montană are believed to constitute Europe’s largest unexploited gold deposit, and
proposals have been put forward to begin fully exploiting the reserves using large-scale
open-cast mining methods.
317
FIELD SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

Sampling of river water and river channel sediment was carried out in July 2000, July
2001 and July 2002, yielding geochemical data for over 820 samples. This paper
focuses on data collected in the Tur, Sasar, Arieş, Certej and Novaţ-Vaser-Vişeu river
systems, which are subject to the influence of varying aspects of metal mining activity.
Surface waters were filtered through 0.45 µm cellulose nitrate membranes in the field,
acidified using three drops of 50 percent HNO3, and analysed using a VG Elemental
Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) at the University of Wales
Aberystwyth. Samples of river channel sediment were collected using a stainless steel
trowel from bar surfaces, air-dried, disaggregated using an agate pestle and mortar and
sieved through a 63 µm stainless steel membrane to isolate the chemically active silt
and clay fraction. Samples were then digested in 70 percent HNO3 at 100°C for 1 hour
and metal concentrations determined using an ICP-MS.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Metal concentrations in surface water are compared with European Union target and
imperative values (75/440/EEC) required of surface water intended to be used for the
abstraction of drinking water (Table 1), whilst sediment-metal concentrations are
compared to the latest Dutch target and intervention guidelines for soil and sediment
quality (Table 2).
Metal pollution arising historical mining activity
The River Tur catchment in Satu Mare County, upstream of its confluence with the
actively mined River Turţ, contains five sites that were historically mined (Figure 1b).
Table 3a shows maximum, minimum and mean metal concentrations measured in
surface waters and river channel sediments collected in July 2001 from nine sites
downstream of historically active mines. Both solute and sediment-bound metal levels
are relatively low compared with both guideline values (EU and Dutch, respectively) and
with metal concentrations in the actively mined River Turţ (Table 3b). The data indicate
that the Tur river system, which is subject to historical mining activity, is not polluted by
Cd, Cu, Pb or Zn. This suggests that inactive mine sites in the Tur catchment do not
constitute a source of metal pollutants to the River Tur, in contrast to the findings from
the majority of previous studies in other river catchments (Abdullah and Royle, 1972;
Fuge et al., 1991; Fuge et al., 1993). The reasons for the lack of present day pollution in
the Tur may include i) the nature and scale of mining activity, ii) the lack of a direct
hydrological link between the mine sites and local rivers, and iii) the presence of a
naturally buffered environment that gives rise to an aqueous pH in surface waters of up
to 9.2.
In contrast to the Tur system, Table 3 (b and c) shows that solute and sediment-bound
Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations in the Rivers Seciului and Tarna Mare, downstream
of the closed Socea mine (Figure 1b), are generally higher than in the Tur system.
Indeed, solute Cd, Cu and Zn concentrations in the River Seciului exceed EU imperative
values, indicating that, despite being inactive, the Socea mine is still acting as a point-
318
source of metal contaminants to the local riverine environment. It is possible that this
due to the presence of a direct hydrological link between the mine and the local
drainage network, thus facilitating the direct release of metals into the River Seciului.
This serves as an example of how important it is to environmentally manage inactive
mine sites.
Metal pollution arising from present-day mining activity
Pb and Zn concentrations in surface water and river channel sediment samples

collected during 2000, 2001 and 2002 in the River Sasar are plotted against distance
downstream from the Sasar’s source in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. In 2000, metal
concentrations in surface waters in the upper Sasar were relatively low but rose sharply
downstream of the Esmeralda Baia Sprie mine (river km 11). Zn concentrations
remained above imperative values at Baia Mare and then reduced to near imperative
values immediately upstream of the Aural tailings pond (river km 27). At the Esmeralda
Mine site in Baia Sprie, Pb and Zn concentrations were significantly lower in 2001 and
2002 than they were in 2000.
The pattern of metal contamination in Sasar river sediments has remained largely stable
over the 3 year sampling period and broadly matches the patterns described above for
surface water (Figure 3). Pb and Zn concentrations exceed Dutch target values at
headwater sample sites, but then increase to exceed intervention values between Baia
Sprie and Baia Mare. Metal concentrations then reduce downstream of Baia Mare
(adjacent to the Aural tailings pond) to levels either just above intervention (Zn) or above
target (Pb) values. However, Pb and Zn concentrations exceed Dutch target values at
all sites in all three years, and 60% of all samples exceed Dutch intervention values. In
general, metal concentrations in river channel sediments were lowest in 2001, with Zn
concentration tending to be highest in 2000, and Pb concentrations tending to be
highest in 2002.
Water and sediment quality data from the last three years show that the Sasar is
persistently polluted by heavy metals, however, Pb concentrations did comply with EU
directive 75/440/EEC at all but two sites in the River Sasar between 2000 and 2002.
Although it appears that the Esmeralda Baia Sprie Mine was not contaminating the River
Sasar to the same extent in 2001 and 2002 as it was in 2000, Zn levels in river water
flowing through Baia Mare did exceed imperative values in all three years. In summary,
surface water quality in Baia Sprie and Baia Mare poses a potentially serious hazard to
human health and it is interesting to note that metal concentrations adjacent to the Aural
tailings pond, some 10 km downstream of Baia Mare, are consistently lower than in the
town itself.
Downstream variations in surface water and river channel sediment Cu and Zn

concentrations in the River Arieş are plotted against distance downstream in Figures 4
and 5, respectively. Despite the presence of long-established mining activity in the Arieş
system, particularly at Baia de Arieş and Roşia Poieni, solute metal concentrations are
relatively low compared to the River Sasar, and with the exception of three sites
downstream of the Valea Sartaş, do not exceed target values at any of the sample sites.
319
Three controlling factors can be identified to account for this phenomenon. First, unlike
the River Sasar, there may not be a direct hydrological coupling between mine sites and
river channels in the Arieş catchment. Second, the large number of unmined tributary
catchments in the Arieş basin may deliver uncontaminated water to the river and thus
dilute contaminants delivered from active mine sites. Third, the high natural buffering
capacity of the local, limestone rich, geology, which creates high pH in the River Arieş
system (7.3 – 8.7), will promote dissolution of solute metals, thus giving rise to low
solute metal levels in the River Arieş. In all likelihood a combination of these three
controls is probably responsible for the relatively low solute Cu and Zn concentrations
present in the River Arieş.
In contrast to solute metal levels in the River Arieş, levels of Cu and Zn in channel
sediments exceed intervention values at 61 and 16 percent of sample sites, respectively
(Figure 5). Whilst absolute metal levels are lower than they are in the River Sasar
sediments, channel sediments are relatively more contaminated than surface waters in
the River Arieş, particularly for Cu. Cu and Zn concentrations increase downstream of
mining-affected tributaries, suggesting their importance as a source of metals to channel
sediments in the River Arieş. The presence of large-scale Cu mining at Roşia Poieni
may in part account for the number of sites where Cu concentrations exceed the defined
Dutch intervention value. In addition, the physical nature of mine-waste released into
the Arieş system, and the promotion of metal adsorption due to high pH, may influence
the partitioning of metals between the solute and particulate phases. Under periods of
flood discharge on the River Arieş, it is these contaminated channel sediments that are
remobilised and deposited on local floodplains, ultimately being incorporated into
agricultural soils and thus available for uptake by both crops and livestock.
The onset of large-scale ore extraction from the Roşia Montana gold deposit could pose
potentially serious problems with respect to metal contamination in the Arieş-Mureş
system. Data collected from the River Arieş has indicated that the decoupling of mining
activity from river systems, in addition to a well-buffered natural environment, can help to
keep solute metal levels relatively low, despite the presence of large-scale mining
activity and polluted tributary streams. However, it is also apparent that channel
sediments in the River Arieş are often highly polluted, and highlights the fact that even
now attention needs to be paid to the potentially deleterious effects of existing metal
mining on local river systems. However, if large scale mining operations are initiated at
Roşia Montană, there is still an opportunity to adopt more stringent environmental
quality controls to ensure the Arieş and Mureş river systems are not degraded to the
same extent as many of the mining affected rivers in Maramureş County.
Metal pollution arising from mine tailings dam failures
The mine tailings dam failure at the Novaţ-Rosu tailings pond during March 2000,
released approximately 100,000 m3 of contaminated water and 20,000 tonnes of
mineral-rich solid waste in the Novaţ-Vaser-Viseu river system. Surface water and river
channel sediment metal concentrations (Pb and Zn) measured during July 2000, July
2001 and July 2002 in the Novaţ-Vaser-Vişeu river system are plotted against distance
downstream from the Novaţ’s source in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
320
All surface water samples in the Novaţ-Vaser-Vişeu river have dissolved Pb and Zn
concentrations that are below EC target values (Figure 6), including waters sampled
immediately downstream of the Novaţ tailings pond that failed in 2000. Zn
concentrations generally decrease downstream in the Novaţ-Vaser Vişeu system, but
Pb concentrations increase downstream of the Vaser-Vişeu confluence. In general,
surface water metal concentrations in the Vaser and Vişeu rivers were lower in 2001
than in 2000, and were lower again in 2002, suggesting a possible recovery of surface
water quality in these rivers following the March 2000 tailings dam failure. It is also
interesting to note that, although Pb concentrations are similar in the Sasar and Novaţ-
Vaser-Vişeu river systems, Zn concentrations are typically 10 to 100 times higher in the
Sasar. The principal source of contamination in the Novaţ-Vaser-Vişeu river system is
from the Novaţ-Rosu tailings pond, and it may be that additional Zn is being supplied to
the Sasar from ore processing activities or from municipal waste produced from Baia
Mare and Baia Sprie.
Over the three year sampling period metal concentrations in Vaser and Vişeu river
sediments were at their highest in July 2000 (4 months after the Novaţ-Rosu tailings
dam failure), with metal concentrations in all samples exceeding Dutch target values
(Figure 7). In the Vaser, metal concentrations were similar in 2001 and 2002, but in the
Vişeu they were higher in 2002 than in 2001. Although metal levels in the Novaţ in 2001
were similar to levels in the Vaser and Vişeu, the highest concentrations, found at sites
close to the Novaţ-Rosu tailings pond, did exceed Dutch intervention values and indicate
that the channel sediments downstream of the tailings pond are still a significant
potential source of sediment bound metals.
The Certej catchment, a tributary of the River Mureş, contains both an inactive
(Miresului) and active (Mialu) tailings pond, as well as being subject to a mine tailings
dam failure in 1971. Whilst the Miresului pond has revegetated and appears physical
stable, samples taken from the active Mialu pond show that tailings material contains Pb
and Zn concentrations are 6 and 3 times higher than Dutch intervention values,
respectively. If this 65 m high dam were to fail, several hundred thousand, if not
millions, cubic metres of highly contaminated tailings would flow down the Certej valley
and then into the Mureş River. The environmental consequences of this would be
profound, not least because of the impacts on valley floor agriculture. An investigation is
presently being undertaken which is examining the long-term effects of 1971 dam
failure, particularly on downstream floodplain sediment quality in the Certej valley. Initial
data suggest that highest metal concentrations (550 mg kg-1 Pb and 1000 mg kg-1 Zn) in
surface floodplain soils (0-15 cm) are found within 20 metres of the river channel, but
additional data are required to establish if tailings released during the 1971 accident are
still buried at depth within the floodplain profile.
CONCLUSIONS
Metal mining activity occurs in many Romanian river catchments, and contamination
released by mining and processing operations often leads to the chronic pollution of
local river systems. Heavy metal concentrations in many Romanian rivers have been
321
found to greatly exceed environmental quality guidelines for surface water and river
sediment, and therefore pose a significant risk to environmental and human health.
Catchments affected by historical, but presently inactive, mining (e.g. Tur) are generally
unpolluted and indicate the potential for river system recovery following the cessation of
mining, however, data from the Tarna Mare river system suggests that, depending on
the operation of local controls, pollution of rivers can still occur following mine closure.
Catchments still affected by long-term mining activity (e.g. Sasar) are characterised by
very high metal concentrations often due to inadequate waste treatment facilities.
However, data from the River Arieş has indicated that the degree of pollution is
dependent upon the nature of mine waste, the presence of a hydrological link between
mines and local rivers, and the local physico-chemical environment. Catchments
affected by tailings dam failures (e.g. Novaţ-Vaser-Viseu and Certej) by definition have
also been affected by mining activity. However, the volume of material released during
a dam failure will greatly exceed the volume of contaminated material released by
normal processing activities. Although surface water quality waters seem to have
recovered in the Novaţ-Vaser-Viseu system, channel sediments are still contaminated
with mine tailings and provide are a reminder of the long-term legacy of tailings dam
failures. Identifying contaminant sources, the location of temporary contaminant stores
(e.g. floodplains) and characterising the physical and chemical controls on the
mobilisation and dispersal of contaminant metals is critical to the successful
development environmentally sustainable future mining operations in Romania and
elsewhere.
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Donisa, C., Mocanu, R., Steinnes, E. and Vasu, A. (2000). Heavy metal pollution by
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acidic mine and spoil drainage on water quality in the mid-Wales area. Environmental
Geochemistry and Health 13: 70-75.
Fuge, R., Pearce, F. M., Pearce, N. J. G. and Perkins, W. T. (1993). Geochemistry of Cd

in the secondary environment near abandoned metalliferous mines, Wales. Applied
Geochemistry Supplementary Issue 2: 29-35.
Graf, W. L., Clark, S. L., Kammerer, M. T., Lehman, T., Randall, K. and Schroeder, T. R.
(1991). Geomorphology of heavy metals in the sediments of Queen Creek, Arizona,
USA. Catena 18: 567-582.
Hudson-Edwards, K. A., Schell, C. and Macklin, M. G. (1999). Mineralogy and

geochemistry of alluvium contaminated by metal mining in the Rio Tinto area, southwest
Spain. Applied Geochemistry 14: 1015-1030.
Lang, B. (1979). The base-metals-gold hydrothermal ore deposits of Baia Mare,

Romania. Economic Geology 74: 1336-1351.
Lang, B., Edelstein, O., Steinitz, G., Kovacs, M. and Halga, S. (1994). Ar-Ar dating of
Adularia - a tool in understanding genetic relations between volcanism and
mineralisation: Baia Mare area (Gutii Mountains) northwestern Romania. Economic
Geology 89: 174-180.
Macklin, M. G., Brewer, P. A., Balteanu, D., Coulthard, T. J., Driga, B., Howard, A. J.
and Zaharia, S. (2003). The long term fate and environmental significance of
contaminant metals released by the January and March 2000 mining tailings dam
failures in Maramures County, upper Tisa Basin, Romania. Applied Geochemistry 18:
241-257.
Shu, W., Ye, Z., Lan, C., Zhang, Z. and Wong, M. (2001). Acidification of lead/zinc mine
tailings and its effects on heavy metal mobility. Environment International 26: 389-394.
Taylor, M. P. (1996). The variability of heavy metals in floodplain sediments: a case

study from mid Wales. Catena 28: 71-87.
323
APPENDIX
Table 1: EU directive concerning the quality required of surface water for the abstraction
for drinking (75/440/EEC). Values in µg l-1.
target value imperative value

Cadmium 1 5
Copper 20 50
Lead none 50
Zinc 500 3000
pH 6.5 – 8.5 None
Table 2: Target values and soil remediation intervention values for selected metals from
the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment. Values have been
expressed as the concentration in a standard soil (10% organic matter, 25% clay).
Values in mg kg-1.
target value intervention value

Cadmium 0.8 12
Copper 36 190
Lead 85 530
Zinc 140 720
Table 3: Metal concentrations in surface water (µg l-1) and river sediment (mg kg-1) in a)
the River Tur catchment (9 samples), b) the River Turţ (3 samples) and c) downstream
of the Socea mine (2 samples). ND denotes non-detectable concentration.
a)
Surface water Channel sediment
Cd Cu Pb Zn Cd Cu Pb Zn
Minimum ND ND ND ND ND 6.4 3.6 40
Mean 0.1 0.9 1.4 20 0.1 10.7 6.6 60
Maximum 0.1 7.9 5.9 60 0.4 16 10 87
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b)
Minimum 71 4100 100 50000 2.9 41 11 780
Mean 91 4400 100 60000 3.2 75 23 1000
Maximum 120 5100 100 70000 3.8 115 38 1400
c)
River Seciului 18 140 14 4100 0.1 28 100 48
River Tarna 3.2 17 28 900 ND 24 22 91
Mare
Figure 1a. Maramureş County showing principle study rivers and the location of sample
sites.
325
Figure 1b. Satu Mare County showing the location of mines and sample sites.
Figure 1c. The River Arieş catchment showing the location of mining activity and
sample sites.
326
Figure 2. Pb and Zn concentrations measured in surface water in the River Sasar

during 2000, 2001 and 2002.
327
Figure 3. Pb and Zn concentrations measured in river channel sediment on the River

Sasar during 2000, 2001 and 2002.
328
Figure 4. Cu and Zn concentrations measured in surface water in the River Arieş and
mining affected tributaries.
329
Figure 5. Cu and Zn concentrations measured in river channel sediment in the River

Arieş and mining affected tributaries.
330
Figure 6. Pb and Zn concentrations measured in surface water in the Novaţ-Vaser-

Viseu river system during 2000, 2001 and 2002.
331
Figure 7. Pb and Zn concentrations measured in river channel sediment in the Novaţ-

Vaser-Viseu river system during 2000, 2001 and 2002.
332
IMPROVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF CONTAMINANT

DARK GREEN RIVER SEDIMENT1
Yücel Güney, Assist.Prof. Dr; Hakan Koyuncu, Assist.Prof. Dr.

Anadolu University Civil Eng.Dep. Eskisehir-TURKEY, Tel:90-222-3213550,
hkoyuncu@anadolu.edu.tr; yguney@anadolu.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
In this study, deep green river sediments from Çalca region containing high amounts of heavy metals
(2448 mg/kg Zn, 313.7 Pb, 102.7 Ni) were used. Using additional materials like lime, cement and
zeolite stabilized these sediments. In wet sediment stabilization (WSS) tests, river sediments with
natural water content were mixed with additional materials in a ratio of 5%, and they were compacted
under pressure. In dry sediment stabilization (DSS) tests, river sediments were dried in 105 °C oven,
and after mixing with additional materials in a ratio of 5% (dry weight), and they were compacted in
optimum water content. At the end of tests, stabilization of the sediments, contaminated by additional
materials, was made successfully. Quality standards of sediments were improved by improving their
physical properties.
Keywords: deep green river sediments, polution, environmental assessments
1. INTRODUCTION
River Porsuk originates from the mountain Murat to the west of Kütahya, and it
passes through the plains of Kütahya and Eskişehir cities. It is approx. 436 km long
and it reaches to river Sakarya through the north region of Polatlı. Sediment load of
the river is estimated to be 4 million cubic meters approximately. The wastes coming
from houses and industrial plants contaminate river Porsuk. Major contamination
sources are wastewaters coming from houses, industrial wastewaters, garbage
thrown into the river, water coming from agricultural areas, and residues carried by
small streams. This sediment load and pollution potential of Porsuk River keep on
being a big environmental problem. In the places, where there is no coastal
structures, sediments accumulated at the sides of the river, form swamps. When
swamps dry, or as swamp plants come out, artificial coastal areas are formed here.
Also, during the elevation and lowering of river water, sediments adhere to and
pollute the natural coasts. These coasts can affect the areas, which are 2-3 m wide in
some parts.
Sediments in the city parts of the river are cleaned at every 4-5 years. For this
purpose, dredge method is applied by using buttocks. Cleaned off sediments are
stored randomly. Storage areas are near to the agricultural areas and the places
where underground water level is high. So, the sediments keep on threatening the
environmental or human health even after they are stored. For this reason, sediment
storage areas must be selected from the places where underground water level is not
high.
Several methods are implemented throughout the world for the stabilization of
sediments. Most important of these methods are sequential extraction, pretreatment,
1
333
physical separation processes, washing, thermal extraction, bioremediation, electro

kinetics, solidification/stabilization, vitrification, chemical oxidation techniques.
Stabilization solidification method is retaining the metals in the sediments by using
different additives like cement, fly ash and lime. This is a good improvement method
for retaining the metals like arsenic, lead, chromium and mercury. It is a good method
for the retention of some other metals like cadmium, copper, and zinc (Mulligan et al.,
2001).
2. MATERIALS
2.1. Sediment
Sediments were taken from Çalca region on river Porsuk. Çalca is located around
Kütahya outlet of the river Porsuk. River Porsuk is contaminated by Nitrogen
Products Plant, ceramic factory, sugar factory and magnesite wastes. There are high
concentrations of zinc, lead and nickel in Çalca river sediments. Two different
improvement methods were used for the sediments of this river.
Some properties of Çalca sediments are given in Table 1 and Table 2. These
sediments contain high amount of water and organic materials. According to
triangular classification method, clay of this sediment is silt. Sediments are found to
be highly contaminated by metals.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of Çalca Sediments.

w n SM TOC FC Gs γn e γk LL PL Silt Clay
(%) (%) (%) (%) (Mg/m3) - (Mg/m3) (%) (%) %
UCS AASHTO %
Sediment
s 351 23,2 19,1 80,9 2,3 1,163 8,012 0,258 69 53 74 26 OH A-7-5
wn= water content, SM= solid material, TOC= organic content, FC= fixed content, e=void ratio
Table 2. Physico-chemical properties of Çalca Sediments.

CEC pH EC OM P2O5 N Metals (mg/kg dry weight)
meq/100gr mS/cm (%) mg/l (%) Pb Zn Cu Ni Cd Cr Mn
Sediments 86,51 8,78 0,85 11,80 381 0,86 314 2448 66 102 3 102 125
2.2. Lime
Reactions taking place after lime (CaO) stabilization are cation exchange and
flocculation –agglomeration reactions. These reactions are also called colloidal
(particle diameter smaller than 0.001 mm) reactions. This reaction is the first reaction
to occur in ground, water and lime. Strong Ca++ ions of lime are replaced by weak
ions on the clay surface like sodium, magnesium and hydrogen, and clay particles
attract each other by the effect of surface polar attraction forces. Clay particles in ion
exchange keep calcium cations on the surface. X-ray diffraction analyses of lime give
the following components for lime, 2.72% SiO2, 0.37% Al2O3 , 0.06% K2O , 4.00%
MgO, 0.25% Fe2O3, 63.88% CaO, 0.01 Na2O and 0.02% SO3.
2.3. Cement
Cement is a hydraulic binding material, which hardens in air and water and which is
not soluble in water. When cement reacts with ground, it increases the strength of
stabilized material, and decreases its permeability. Properties of clay and silt grounds
334
change when they are mixed with cement. It reduces the harmful effects of organic
materials and petroleum hydrocarbons in the waste material (Conner, 1993). Addition
of cement reduces the plasticity of the ground. X-ray diffraction analyses of lime give
the following components for cement, 20.35% SiO2, 5.19% Al2O3 , 0.70% K2O ,
1.52% MgO, 3.34% Fe2O3, 64.56% CaO, 0.05 Na2O and 2.04% SO3.
2.4. Zeolite
Zeolites are a group of basic, hydrous alumino-silicate minerals. They have an open
alumino silicate framework structure containing channels filled with water molecules
and cations which are usually exchangeable at temperatures below 100oC. Natural
zeolites are common in saline-alkaline lake deposits, hydro thermally altered volcanic
or sedimentary rocks and deep-sea sediments (Bish and Guthrie, 1994).
Clinoptinolite is one of the most predominant species of sedimentary zeolite and
generally occurs in association with montmorillonite (Minato, 1980). The chemical
composition of clinoptinolite is given by (NaK)6 (Al6Si30) O7220H2O. Natural zeolites
have CECs usually between 100 and 400 meq/100g (Grim, 1968; Bish and Guthrie,
1994). X-ray diffraction analyses of zeolite give the following components: 71.39% Si,
13.30% Al, 3.69% K, 2.74% Mg, 0.94% Fe, 0.47 Na, 0.03% P and 0.01% S. Zeolite is
much like a sandy soil with a high internal friction angle and low cohesion.
3. METHODS AND RESULTS
3.1. Wet Sediment Stabilization (WSS)
In the first group experiments made, wet sediments with natural water content taken
from the river were separately mixed with 5% lime, 5% cement and 5% zeolite. Then,
they were pre-consolidated for 7 days under 50 psi (345 kPa) of high pressure with a
pneumatic device, which was developed in the laboratory, working with air pressure,
and provided with drainage at its upper and lower parts (Figure 1). With this static
load device, pressure conditions in the landfill area were simulated. This method is
called as wet sediment stabilization (WSS). On the wet stabilization samples, sliding
strength (resistance), permeability and leachate tests are made.
Water content is defined as the ratio of water weight to aggregate weight or total solid
matter within the waste material. Water content is important in understanding settling,
flocculation, leaking and adsorption properties. It is the preliminary parameter for the
selection and design of Solidification/stabilization technology or the determination of
material proportions. In determining the water content of the samples, ASTM D2216-
80 (1985) method was used. Test results are given in Table 3.
335
Fig 1. Preconsolidation apparatus for sediments.
Table 3. Water content after and before preconsolidation tests (%).

Water content before Water content after
preconsolidation preconsolidation
Wet Sediment (WS) 142 52
100% WS+5% Lime 95 63
100% WS+5% Cement 109 57
100% WS+5%Zeolite 108 52
3.2. Dried Sediment Stabilization (DSS)
In the second group experiments, sediments taken from the river were dried in 105 C
oven for 16 hours. Dry samples were separately mixed with 5% lime, 5% cement and
5% zeolite, and compacted with standard compaction device (ASTM D698). This is
called as dry sediment stabilization (DSS).
On the stabilized sediment samples, geotechnical and chemical tests were

performed. On the collected leachate waters, pH, electrical conductivity, heavy metal
determination tests were performed. On dry stabilization samples, sliding strength
(resistance), permeability, leachate tests were performed. In order to determine the
optimum water content, standard proctor test (ASTM D698) was performed. Water
content was determined separately for lime, cement and zeolite mixes, and the
samples were compacted at the optimum water content by using dynamic standard
compaction device. Test results are given in Table 4.
336
Table 4. Standard Proctor test results (%)

Optimum Water Maximum Dry Unit
Content Weight (gr/cm3)
Dried Sediment (DS) 142 52
100% DS+5% Lime 95 63
100% DS+5% Cement 109 57
100% DS+5% Zeolite 108 52
4. TESTS AND RESULTS
4.1. Grain Size Distribution
Grain size distribution for WSS and DSS samples was determined with wet analysis
method (ASTM D422-63). Test results are given in Table 5.
Table5. Grain size distributions for WSS and DSS.

WSS DSS
Sand Silt Clay Sand Silt Clay
Sediment (S) - 66 34 3 54 33
100% S +5% Lime - 65 35 - 65 35
100% S +5% Cement 25 45 30 10 58 32
100% S +5% Zeolite - 65 35 - 64 36
4.2. Liquit Limit and Plasticity Limit
Stabilized WSS and DSS samples dried in oven were sieved through the Sieve #40.
Then, by using dropping cone method, liquid limit and plastic limit values were
determined. Liquid limit and plastic limit results are shown in Table 6. As it is seen in
Table 6, liquid limit values, obtained from the samples with additives, are lower than
those of pure sediment samples.
Table 6. Liquid ve plastic limits for WSS and DSS.

WSS DSS
WL WP WL WP
Sediment (S) 63 NP 63 NP
100% S +5% Lime 59 47.5 59 47.5
100% S +5% Cement 58 46.7 58 46.7
100% S +5% Zeolite 60 49.1 60 49.1
4.3. Unconfined Compressive Strength
Unconfined compressive strength test (ASTM 2166-91), sliding (without drainage)

strengths of the samples are determined. Results of this study are given in Table 7.
As it is seen in Table 7, highest shear strength is obtained with the samples mixed
with cement.
337
Table 7. Unconfined compressive strength test results. (kg/cm2)

WSS DSS
qu c qu c
Sediment (S) 0.56 0.28 1,20 0.60
100% S +5% Lime 0.71 0.36 1.44 0.72
100% S +5% Cement 0.87 0.44 1.60 0.80
100% S +5% Zeolite 0.73 0.37 1.50 0.75
4.4. Permeabily and Leachate Tests
One of the main purposes of stabilization is decreasing permeability, thus preventing

leakage. Permeability coefficient shows the physical isolation of pollution. As the
Permeability decreases, internal flow motions of liquids slow down (Martin, et al.,
1990). Acids and bases the minerals and other solid matter in the soil liquidify, thus
increasing the voids and permeability thereof. Permeability tests in this study are
performed in the tri-axial test system after being consolidated (EPA 9100).
After the sample was placed in the cell for Permeability test, 20 psi of cell pressure
was applied. Water was sent onto the sample at a pressure of 14 psi. Meanwhile,
water was collected from the bottom part of the sample. This operation was kept on
until the sample came to saturated state. As the sample was saturated, permeability
coefficient was calculated. Permeability test results are given in Table 8. After the
completion of Permeability test, leachate tests were performed on the same samples.
For this, water is sent to the samples under same pressure. In the mean time,
leachate waters were collected from the bottom of the samples at the end of 24th,
48th and 72nd hours. Then, metal contents, pH and electrical conductivity values for
these waters were determined. As it is seen in Table 8, permeability value of pure
sample is highly lower than that of the samples with additives.
Table 8. Permeability test results (cm/sn)

WSS DSS
Sediment (S) 6.43×10-8 1.08×10-7
100% S+Lime 5% 10.13×10-7 6.36×10-7
100% S +Cement 5% 8.43×10-8 9.85×10-7
100% S +Zeolite 5% 8.57×10-8 9.54×10-7
4.5. Loss of ignition
Amount lost in dry burning method, reflects the rough amount of organic matter in the
waste material. Clays, decrease the amount of organic matter due to their large
specific surface areas. Since excess Ca++ in the soil speeds up microbiological
activities, it causes organic matter decompose readily (Horneck, 1993). Amount of
organic matter is a good indication of water content. As the amount of organic matter
increases in the ground, water content increases. This is because water is retained in
organic matter-clay containing media. In this method, samples were dried in 105 °C
oven for 24 hours. These samples were then burned in a furnace at 550 °C for 2
hours. Organic matter test results are shown in Table 9.
338
Table 9. Loss of ignition (%)

WSS DSS
Sediment (S) 4.24 6.8
100% S +5% Lime 3.94 6.9
100% S +5% Cement 3.90 5.9
100% S +5% Zeolite 4.15 8.6
There occurs a certain decrease in the amount of organic matter after stabilization.
Highest rate of decrease was observed in lime mixture.
4.6. pH
High pH value of the mix disperses the clay particles and increases the negative
charges on the surface of clay particles. It therefore increases the repulsion between
the particles. A change in pH value, remarkably affects the ground/water mix. pH
results obtained in the tests are given in Table 10.
4.7. Electricity Conductivity Tests
Electrical conductivity between the water and the waste material is a criterion for
electrical carrying capacity of the medium. Electrical conductivity increases in
proportion with the type and number of ions in the mixture. As particle concentration
increases, ions on the surface of the clay move into the solution. Conductivity of
cations in electrical field, and motion of colloidal particles increase the conductivity of
solution. Electrical conductivity results obtained in the tests are given in Table 10.
Table 10. pH and electrical conductivity for WSS and DSS.

WSS DSS
pH EC pH EC
mS/cm mS/cm
Sediment (S) 6.95 2.35 7.55 1.89
100% S +5% Lime 10.56 2.54 8.80 2.54
100% S +5% Cement 8.91 2.05 8.30 1.64
100% S +5% Zeolite 6.94 2.29 7.75 1.63
4.8. Total Metal Content
Metals are adsorbed on the surface of clay minerals in the ground by means of cation
exchange capacity. Metals are usually firmly bound to clays and organic matter.
Processes between metals and clay are dependent to the factors like metal type,
ground type, pH and heat. Advance of metal concentration in the soil with low cation
exchange capacity can easily be observed. Heavy metals, iron and manganese
oxides diffuse into the layers of clay minerals at a broad scale, and they are bound
irreversibly. Heavy metals form metallic-organic bonds with organic matter in the soil.
In order to determine the total amount of metals in the samples, wet burning method
was used. Total metal contents and leachate results obtained in the tests are given in
Table 11 and Table 12.
339
Table 11. Total metal contents for WSS and DSS (mg/kg)
pH EC Pb Zn Cu Ni Cr
Wet Sediment Stabilization (WSS)
Wet Sediment (WS) 6.95 2.35 314 2448 66 102 101
100% WS+5% Lime 9.25 1.74 181 1306 32 59 51
100% WS+5% Cement 8.73 1.63 238 1593 41 89 75
100% WS+5% Zeolite 6.94 1.69 103 857 26 20 31
Dried Sediment Stabilization (DSS)
Dried Sediment (DS) 7.14 2.47 314 2448 66 102 101
100% DS+Lime 5% 10.5 2.54 125 1026 27 36 34
6
100% DS+Cement 5% 8.91 2.05 153 1478 35 24 45
100% DS+Zeolite 5% 7.02 1.74 53 341 15 12 11
Table 12. Leachate for WSS and DSS (ml/l)

pH EC Pb Zn Cu Ni Cr
Wet Sediment Stabilization (WSS)
Wet Sediment (WS) 7.22 0.24 31 53 2 3 1
100% WS+5% Lime 8.08 0.56 19 34 <1 1 <1
100% WS+5% Cement 7.68 0.34 24 25 <1 2 <1
100% WS+5% Zeolite 7.12 0.35 12 18 <1 <1 <1
Dried Sediment Stabilization (DSS)
Dried Sediment (DS) 7.14 0.45 35 73 4 2 2
100% DS+Lime 5% 8.34 0.34 14 28 <1 1 <1
100% DS+Cement 5% 7.89 0.30 16 21 2 1 <1
100% DS+Zeolite 5% 7.09 0.26 11 14 <1 <1 <1
4. CONCLUSION
Harmful effects of river Porsuk on environment and human health are remarkably
high. The sediments, cleaned off at certain intervals are randomly stored in the
surroundings. No improvement work is done in storage areas. Therefore
environmental pollution keeps on even after storing the sediments. In order to find a
solution to this problem, a preliminary study was carried out in the laboratory for the
stabilization of these sediments. Experiment results show that lime and zeolite
stabilization remarkably reduces especially the heavy metal pollution. If Porsuk
sediments are stabilized with some additional materials, they will be less harmful on
environment and human health after they are stored and potential risk arising from
especially zinc, lead and nickel elements will be reduced. At the end of the
experiments, it was noted that heavy metal contents of the sediments were
remarkably reduced. Also, improvement works decreased the consolidation settlings.
340
REFERENCES
ASTM, (1985), Annual book of ASTM standards, Natural building stones; soil and
rock. (1985). Vol. 04.08, Philadelphia, Pa.
Conner, J.R., (1990) Chemical fixation and solidification of hazardous wastes. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 692 p.
Grim, R.E., 1968. Clay Mineralogy, McGraw Hill, New York, 596 pp.
Martin, J.P., Biehl, F.J., Browning, J.S. ve Van-Keuren E.L., (1990), “Constitutive
behavior of clay and pozzolon-stabilized hydrocarbon refining waste”, Geotechnics of
Waste Fills Teory and Practice, ASTM STP 1070, Philadelphia, 185-203.
Mulligan, C.N., Yong, R.N., Gibbs, B. F., 2001, An evaluation of technologies for the
heavy metal remediation of dredged sediments, J.Hazardous Mat., 85, 2001, 145-
163.
Bish, F., and Guthrie, G.D., 1994, Clays and zeolites in: G.D.Guthrie and B.T.
Mossmann (Editors), Health effects of Mineral Dusts. Rev. Mineral, 28:168-184.
Horneck, D.A., Hart, J.M., Topper, K. And Koepsell, B., 1989, Methods of soil
analysis used in the soil testing laboratory at Oregon State University. SM 89:4-16.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, USA.
Minato, H., 1980. Chamical composition of coexisting clinoptinolite and

montmorillonite. Proceeding of the Fifth International Conference on Zeolites, Naples.
Italy, pp. 179-185.
U.S. EPA Method 9100, (1986), Physical/chemical methods., saturated hydraulic

conductivity, saturated leachate conductivity, and instinsic permeability, triaxial-cell
method with back Pressure, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, (SW-846),
Vol’s. IA, IB, IC and II., Third Edition, Doc. Control No:955-001-00000-1, Office of
Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC. 20460, Environmental
Protection Agency, pp. 9100-20-24, September, 1986.
341
ASSESSMENT OF RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

IN SURFACE WATERS OF THE MESTA RIVER1
Liuben Yonchev1, Bernardo Lizama Rivas2

1
National Center of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection, Sofia, Bulgaria.
E-mail: ncrrp@ ncrrp.org
2
National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Department of Hydrology, E-mail: bernardo.lizama@meteo.bg
ABSTRACT
The Mesta River is located in the Southern western part of Bulgaria and mouths into the Marmara Sea
through territory of Greece. In the Mesta catchment are located miner’s objects for exploitation and
treatment of uranium ore. In this paper be considered river pollution of uranium and radium as result of
miner’s activities in the study region. The data used are for three periods – during the completely
productive engagement, during the technical liquidation and after end of technical liquidation. The
measured data were processed and analyzed. With the help of correlation analysis was searched the
relationships between radioactive pollution observable in the water-quality sampling sites and the
discharges of the Mesta river. The results were compared with permissible levels.
Keywords: radioactive pollution, surface water, Mesta river, Bulgaria
INTRODUCTION
The river receives water from both runoff in the highlands and spring discharge in the
lowlands. Therefore the river runoff is dependent on both the quantity aquifer
discharge to the river and the quantity of surface runoff received by the river from the
tributaries. The health risk to humans presented by radioactive waste depends upon
the radionuclides present, the type of radiation emitted by the radionuclides, their
concentrations, and their chemical and physical form.
In the Mesta watershed are located miner’s objects for exploitation and treatment of
uranium ore. They are situated in the proximity of the village of Eleshnitsa in the
Zlataritsa tributary. There are 4 shafts, several small open pit mines, many
underground passages, and installations for extracting uranium from solutions in the
surroundings. Besides, a plant for treatment of uranium ore with a depot of waste
sediments, which has direct hydrological connection with the Mesta River, is
constructed in this area. The aim of this paper is to assess the river pollution of
uranium and radium as result of miner’s activities in the study region.
The Mesta River is located in the Southern western part of Bulgaria and mouths into
the Marmara Sea through territory of Greece. The Mesta watershed is situated
between Rila Mountain, Pirin Mountain and Rodope Mountain (Fig. 1). The longitude
of the river in Bulgarian territory is 126 km with a watershed area of 2767 km2. The
Mesta River has 25 tributaries one of these is Zlataritsa River. The feeding of the
Mesta river is mainly rainy and/or rainy-snowy. Because of influence of mountains the
runoff regime has two types of hydrographs: four phase hydrograph for the upper
stream and two phase for the mean and low stream. According to the streamflow
1
342
observations at Momina Kula gauging station (Q215), the high flows period occur in
April, May and June. The low flows period occur from July to the end of October. The
average annual water discharge of the Mesta River near to Momina Kula gauging
station is at the rate of 19.52 m3/sec, that represents an average annual volume of
about 616 million cubic meters. The percentage distribution of this volume at gauging
station Momina Kula for the above mentioned periods is about 47% for the spring
high waters period, about 38% for the autumn-winter increase of the runoff and 15%
for the low flows period. The runoff regime of the Zlataritsa tributary is controlled by
the discharge gauging station at the village of Eleshnitsa (Q228). The river is
characterized by considerably variable and inconstant runoff.
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er
ROMANIA
Danube
River Ruse Q215
YUGOSLAVIA
Varna
B U L G A R I A
SEA
SOFIA
Burgas
Me Discharge gauging station
BLACK
Plovdiv st
a
MACEDONIA
EY Ri
TU
RK
ve
GREECE r Water-quality sampling site
GREECE
Fig. 1. The Mesta Catchment and the schematic figure showing the location of the
water-quality sampling sites and the discharges gauge stations in the Mesta River
The investigations have been performed on the basis of observation data (1983–
2000) for Uranium and Radium concentrations in the waters and river discharge. The
data used were collected for three periods – during the completely productive
engagement, during the technical liquidation and after end of technical liquidation.
The region of the uranium mine, the Zlataritsa River and the creeks debouchment
into the Mesta River are shown in Fig. 1. Here is given the pollution sources (ore
water from the underground passages), the water-quality samplings sites (from M1 to
M10) and the discharge-gauging stations at the Zlataritsa river (Q228) and at the
Mesta river (Q215). To the Mesta River mouth three streams which drain waste water
from the region of ore activity and from the treatment plant of uranium ore. The water-
343
quality sampling sites in the Mesta River are located before and after each
wastewater debouchment.
The water samples for uranium and 226Ra are taken once per every three months,
but they are incomplete for the first and the second period. The data of observed
discharge are averaged per every month.
There are not data for the concrete technological processes of the activities in the
uranium ore-mine during the days when the water samples were taken. These
uncertainties influence to a certain extend on the analysis of the final outcomes, but
the trend of the pollution levels of the river waters is clear enough.
According to the Bulgarian legislation, the permissible concentrations of radioactive

elements in waters for drinking are different from those of the debouchment of the
polluted waters into water bodies. Concerning the debouchment of the polluted
waters the permissible concentration is 2.0 mg/dm3 and 0.7 Bq/dm3 of uranium and
226
Ra respectively [3]. The permissible concentrations for debouchment of industrial
waste waters are referred to the polluted-water debouchment site into a receiver
(sewage or water body).
On this supposition, at a certain distance from the debouchment, these

concentrations will decrease as a result of the dilution with greater and clearer water
volume.
The Figures 2a and 2b show plots of the uranium and 226Ra concentrations in water
samples, taken at the sampling sites M1, M3, M7, M9 and M10 (Fig. 1) at the Mesta
River watershed. Significant difference in the values of concentrations, even of two
consecutive periods of water sampling is evident in both figures.
The situation observed in the last studied period: 1999-2000 is different. Here the
compactness of the data for the two radionuclides in the water sampling sites is in
evidence. The influence of the uranium ore mine is distinct in these figures.
10,0000
Uranium (mg/dm 3)
1,0000
0,1000
0,0100
0,0010
0,0001
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
89
89
90
90
99
99
99
99
00
00
00
00
10.19
01.19
04.19
10.19
01.19
04.19
07.19
02.19
11.19
02.19
03.19
03.19
04.19
08.19
12.19
03.20
06.20
09.20
11.20
Time a)
M1 M3 M7 M9 M10 Permissible level
344
Radium (Bq/dm 3) 10,0000
1,0000
0,1000
0,0100
0,0010
0,0001
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
89
89
90
90
99
99
99
99
00
00
00
00
10.19
01.19
04.19
10.19
01.19
04.19
07.19
02.19
11.19
02.19
03.19
03.19
04.19
08.19
12.19
03.20
06.20
09.20
11.20
Tim e b)
M1 M3 M7 M9 M10 Permissible level
Fig. 2. Observed pattern of Uranium and 226Ra concentrations in the Mesta

watershed
The Fig. 3a shows that the values of uranium concentrations are lower than the
permissible level. In respect of radium pollution (Fig. 3b) the situation is similar.
Except in the measurements carried out during February 1989 and 1990. These high
values are the consequence of high pollutant waters from the mill tailing pond which
debouch to the Valcho Dere Creek which is tributary of the Mesta River.
10,0000
1,0000
Uranium (m g/dm 3)
0,1000
0,0100
0,0010
0,0001
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
89
89
90
90
99
99
99
99
00
00
00
00
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.20
.20
.20
.20
10
01
04
10
01
04
07
02
11
02
03
03
04
08
12
03
06
09
11
Tim e
a)
Before uranium ore mine (M1) After uranium ore mine (M10) Permissible level
345
1,0000
Radium -226 (Bq/dm 3)

0,1000
0,0100
0,0010
0,0001
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
89
89
90
90
99
99
99
99
00
00
00
00
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.19
.20
.20
.20
.20
10
01
04
10
01
04
07
02
11
02
03
03
04
08
12
03
06
09
11
Tim e
b)
Before uranium ore mine (M1) After uranium ore mine (M10) Permissible level
Fig. 3. Uranium and Radium-226 concentrations before and after ore mine compared
to permissible level for debouchment of wastewater into the water bodies.
In Table 1 are given the mean values of uranium and radium content in Mesta River
waters, before and after uranium ore mine. It can be seen that the mean values for
both radionuclides before uranium ore mine are small compared with the one after
uranium ore mine. Except in the radium data for the period 1989 - 1990. These high
values are due to above-mentioned causes. It is obviously after the cessation of
uranium ore exploitation, the pollution due to mining activities is not observed. In
most cases the increase or decrease of one radionuclide contents responds to the
other.
The obtained results indicate that the definitive cessation of the exploitation activities
and the liquidation events brought to significant natural decrease of the radionuclide
concentration in the surface waters of the Mesta watershed.
Table 1. Mean values for three characteristic periods, referring to the activities
of the uranium ore-mine
Mesta River before uranium ore-mine

1983-1985 1989-1990 1999-2000
3
U mg/dm 0.0015 0.008 0.023
Ra Bq/dm3 0.026 0.075 0.058
Mesta River after uranium ore-mine
1983-1985 1989-1990 1999-2000
U mg/dm3 - 0.027 0.065
Ra Bq/dm3 - 0.240 0.048
Permissible levels
U mg/dm3 2,0 [3]
Ra Bq/dm3 0,7 [3]
346
In order to investigate the relationships between water discharges and the uranium
and radium concentrations in the region of the village Eleshnitza a correlation
analysis was used. For this purpose a correlation matrix was calculated, which
includes the water-quality sampling sites and discharge gauging stations at
Eleshnitsa (Q228) and Momina Kula (Q215). The significance of the correlation
coefficient was verified with help of the Fisher criterion [2]. The analysis of the
correlation matrix indicates that the relationships between the radionuclides in
sampling sites, located in the Mesta watershed and the discharges measured in the
gauging station Q215 are significant enough. The correlation coefficients for 226Ra in
the Mesta River are between -0.33 and -0.77. The highest correlation coefficient (-
0,77) is observed with the sampling site M4, which is situated after the debouchment
of Zlataritsa River to the Mesta River. In respect of uranium concentrations, the
relationships, concerning the Mesta River, are between 0.42 and 0.76, which
indicates good correlation dependence. The more significant relationships occur with
the sampling site M4, which is situated after the debouchment of Zlataritsa River and
with the sampling site M8, which is located immediately after Valcho Dere Creek. In
respect of radium, the peculiarity of the obtained results is that the correlation
coefficients are negative. This indicates that the increase of water volume causes the
decrease of the radium concentration. For uranium concentrations can be
emphasized that the relationships are positive. This can be explicated with the mining
activities.
CONCLUSION
The radioactivity measurements in the surroundings of the uranium mine at

Eleshnitsa showed that uranium and radium concentrations in the waters of the
Mesta River during the three selected periods do not exceed the permissible
concentrations in the wastewater discharged into the water bodies. As a whole, the
obtained results demonstrate that radionuclide concentrations do not affect the
waters of the Mesta.
REFERENCES
1. Archives of DIAL, Buhovo. (in bulgarian)
2. Himmelblau, D. M., Process Analysis by Statistical Methods, John Wiley, New

York, 1970.
3. Ministry of Environment and Waters, Ministry of Territorial Development and

Reconstruction, Ministry of National Health, Ministry of Economy (2000).
Regulation No 6 concerning emissions norms for permissible content of harmful
and dangerous substances in the wastewaters discharged into the water bodies.
State Newspaper No 30. (in bulgarian)
4. Jakubick Al. – Training in International Standards and Methods for the

Reclamation of Uranium Mines, PHARE – Project B 9107-01-15-(4).
5. Decommissioning of Facilities for milling of Radioactive Ore and Closeu of

Residues, Technical reports Series N 362 IAEA, Vienna 1994.
347
6. Perez Esteves C., M. Sanchez Delgado – Decommisioning Plan for Andujar

Uranium Mill Facilities, Technical Co-operation Project on Environmental
Restoration in Central and Eastern Europe, IAEA TECDOC 865, vol. 1, Budapest,
Hungary, 4-8 October 1993, February 1996.
7. Juhasz L., Zs. Loudvai, M. Csovari – The Restoration Work on the Hungarian
Uranium Mining Area, Contribution to 3rd Workshop on Environmental for Central
and Eastern Europe, Rez, Czech Republic 12-16 December 1994, IAEA
TECDOC 865, vol. 3, IAEA, May 1996.
8. Fekete I., N. Bardan, C. A. Redulisen – Planing Environmental Restoration in

Romania: Progress Report – RER/9/022, Regional Workshop in environmental
and Restoration, Sofia, Bulgaria, 9-13 October 1995.
348
ASSESSMENT OF HYDRO-METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE ECOSYSTEMS IN THE REGION
OF NATURAL PARK “STRANDJA”1
Ivanka Koleva-Lizama1, Bernardo Lizama Rivas2

1
University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria. Department of Ecology
10 bul. Kliment Ochridski, 1756 Sofia
E-mail: ivanka_lizama@abv.bg
2
National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Department of Hydrology
66 Tzarigradsko Shosse, 1784 Sofia
E-mail: bernardo.lizama@meteo.bg
ABSTRACT
The natural park “Strandja” is one of the bigger protected territories in Bulgaria. The conservation of
biological variety in the Strandja region has been declared as priority. In respect to biological variety,
the park is a typical rural areas, the main land cover types are broadleaf and coniferous forest, pasture
and arable land.
The purpose of this research is to assess the hydrometeorological conditions, which are one of the
more important abiotic factors. For this aim are used historical data (1952-2000) from some hydro-
meteorological gauging stations, which are located in the park. In order to evaluate the influence of
meteorological factors on the ecosystems the warm and humid conditions during the 50 last years for
the region in concern was analyzed. The tendency of temperature increase, good noticeable rainfall
and runoff decrease was determined. The drought period is very noticeable in the end of summer
when the precipitation for August is 30 mm. On the background of high yearly temperature and long
vegetation period, the precipitation is insufficient to guarantee good moisture in the region. The
tendency to warming of the region and growth of evaporation may increase the need for irrigation.
However, these same conditions could decrease water supplies, which also may be needed by natural
ecosystems.
Keywords: “Strandja”Natural Park, Buulgaria, hydrometeorological conditions
INTRODUCTION
The natural park “Strandja” is one of the bigger protected territories in Bulgaria. It
includes the preserves: Silkosiya, Uzunbudjak, Vitanovo, Sredoka and Tisovitsa. The
conservation of biological variety in the Strandja region has been declared as priority.
The natural park “Strandja” (Figure 1) is situated in the Strandja Mountain in

SouthEastern part of Bulgaria and covers an area of 116136 hа. The borders of the
park are to the East the Black Sea and to the South Turkey border. The west border
coincides with the border of the Malko Turnovo district and the north border is the
Bosna ridge. The topography is characterized as a moderately mountainous area.
The altitude is ranging between 20 m asl and 600 m asl. The region in concern is a
very rural area. The forest types are broadleaf (92%) and coniferous (8%). The
natural park “Strandja” with its mountains, valleys and coastal places, exhibits
physical and ecological diversity. In the study area there are diverse forest
communities and numerous, meandering streams and rivers. The bigger rivers in the
1
349
park are Veleka and Rezovska rivers. The ecological diversity of the natural park is in
part a function of the large variations in topography, soils, and climate. The park
contains significant forested, wetland, freshwater and coastal ecosystems.
The purpose of this research is to assess the hydrometeorological conditions, which

are one of the more important abiotic factors.
DATA USED
The investigations have been performed on the basis of historical data (1952-2000)
for monthly air temperature and precipitation from meteorological stations and runoff
from gauging stations, which are located in the region. The data were processed with
the help of statistical methods.
Figure 1. Location of the Natural Park Strandja
According to the climatic classification of the country, the natural park “Strandja”
belongs to the Black sea climate sub-type of the continental Mediterranean climate
type. The climate is generated from west and north continental influence, Black Sea
influence from east and Mediterranean influence from south. The Standja climate is
mainly transitional mediterranean climate. Local climatic differences are due, above
all, to the proximity of the Black sea, which warms up the coastal zone in winter and
cools it especially in spring. The topography, particularly heights in the southwest
part of the region in concern, plays an important role in the distribution of the
precipitation.
On the basis of observation data for a period of 50 years the peculiarities in the
regime of the climatic elements are determined. The territory concerned is one of the
most sunny parts of Bulgaria. The considerable values of the radiation balance,
positive for all months, fix the high thermal level. The average temperatures for all
months are positive. The highest average monthly temperature in winter in Bulgaria
350
(along the southern Black Sea coast – up to 3-4oC in January) are observed here.
The period without frost continues 250 – 260 days at the sea coast and in the inner
part of the region - 205 –230 days. The characteristic features of the atmospheric
moisture outline a favorable regime in the period of vegetation along the sea coast
and a drying up in the river valleys of Veleka in the summer and in the beginning of
the autumn.
The basic climatic factors, which affect the ecosystems in the region are atmospheric
precipitation and air temperature. The average annual temperature varies between
13,1 oC in the lower part and at vecinity of seashore and 11,3 oC in the higher part.
The mean temperature in January range from 1,4 oC (inner part) to 3,2 oC (coastal
part). Low temperatures with significant minimal values caused by weak protection in
respect to the north and north-west cold spell advections occur in winter. The mean
values for July and August fluctuate from 23,0 oC (coastal part) to 20,7 oC (inner part).
The average annual precipitation is above 600 mm for the coastal region and in the
inner part above 900 mm (Figure 2). The winter precipitation (with seasonal
precipitation about 150 - 271 mm) is the highest precipitation in the South-Eastern
part of Bulgaria. During the winter the predominant precipitation is in the form of rain,
but about one third of cases the precipitation is snow.
1000
Malko Turnovo
800
Precipitation (mm)
Gramatikovo
600 Rezovo
400
200
0
er
l
er
a
Sprin
Annu
Wint
Autu
Sum
Figure 2. Seasonal and annual precipitation in several gauging stations.
The snow cover is of short duration (15 - 16 days per year). During the spring the
mean seasonal amounts of precipitation are 120 - 180 mm. In summer is sunny, dry
and very warm, the amounts of precipitation are 100 - 120 mm and from June to the
middle of September is dry. The drought period is very noticeable in the end of
summer when the precipitation for August is 30 mm. On the background of high
annual temperature and long vegetation period, the precipitation is insufficient to
guarantee good moisture in the region.
In figure 3 is shown the seasonal percentage distribution of the precipitation.
351
Autumn Winter
31% 32%
Summer
Spring
16%
21%
Figure 3. Seasonal percentage distribution of the precipitation in the park “Strandja”
In order to evaluate the influence of meteorological factors on the ecosystems, the

warm and humid conditions during the 50 last years was analyzed. On the basis of
temperature and rainfall analysis it was determined that during the last decade there
is the tendency to temperature increase (Fig. 4) and is good noticeable rainfall
decrease (Fig. 5).
The runoff regime in the catchments of the natural park Strandja is characterized by
considerably variability caused by precipitation fluctuations and others landscape
elements.
In figure 6 is shown the within-the-year distribution of the runoff in percentage for

Veleka river near to Zvezdets. In respect of the within-the-year distribution of runoff
are observed the following four periods: Period of high flows wich is typical of
inconstant runoff regime with good noticeable maximum in February. The duration is
from the beginning of January to the end of April. Period with spring decreasing of
runoff which embrace May and June. Period with low flows which are unchangeable
and small. The low flows occur from July to October. Period with autumn increase of
runoff which begins from November to the end of year. The
14,0 Fig. 4. Annual air temperature at Malko

Turnovo station.
13,0
Air Tem perature ( оС)
12,0
11,0
10,0
9,0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Years
352
1400 Fig. 5. Annual precipitation at Malko

1300 Turnovo.
1200
Precipitation (mm)
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Years
cause of high runoff in autumn and winter is to be due to the distribution of

precipitation in the studied region. The beginning of runoff spring decreasing and the
period of low flows in the studied catchment coincide with period of active vegetation
of plants. High temperatures and low precipitation conduct to drought in the region
and the ecosystems are stressed.
25
20
Runoff (%)
15
10
5
0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Months
Figure 6. Monthly distribution of the runoff in the Veleka river near Zvezdets.
As Figure 6 shows, the highest rates of runoff in the study region reach to 22 %
during the month February for Veleka river at Zvezdets and the lowest rates of runoff
(about 2 %) occurred in September. During the application of several statistical tests
was found that there are changes in the runoff of the park which are not caused by
the man's activity.
In Figure 7 is given the graphs of the runoff for the Veleka river at Zvezdets
and precipitation for the rainfall gauging station Malko Turnovo. When comparing the
annual runoff graph of Veleka River to the respective ones, it is clear that all over the
studied region there is a negative trend. These graphs reveal a decrease of
precipitation and runoff.
CONCLUSION
Analysis of long time series of river runoff and precipitation allows us to draw some
conclusions. The runoff decreases considerably all over the studied region in the last
years. Precipitation variations have always been amplified in runoff changes.
353
14 1600
Runoff at Zvezdets Precipitation at M. Turnovo
12 1400
1200
10
Precipitation (mm)
Runoff (m 3/s)
1000
8
800
6
600
4
400
2 200
0 0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Years
Figure 7. The tendency of runoff and precipitation in the park “Strandja”
It should be concluded that high temperature and low precipitation conduct to drought
in the region and appear unsuitable conditions for development of plants. The
tendency to warming of the region and growth of evaporation may increase the need
for irrigation. However, these same conditions could decrease water supplies, which
also may be needed by natural ecosystems.
REFERENCES
1. Arnell, N.W., Reynard, N.S., 1996. The effect of climate change due to global
warming on river flows in Great Britain. Journal of Hydrology, 188, 397-424
2. Band LE, Mackay DS, Creed IF, Semkin R, Jeffries D (1996) Ecosystem
processes at the watershed scale: sensitivity to potential climate change. Limnol.
Oceanogr 41(5):928–938
3. Gleick, H.P., 1986. Methods for evaluating the regional hydrologic impacts of
global climatic conditions. Journal of Hydrology, 88, 97-116
4. Lizama Rivas, B., 1998. Analysis of streamflow data in the bulgarian region with
respect to climate variability. Proc. of 2nd European Conf. on applied Climatology,
19-23 october 1998, Vienna, Austria, ISSN 1016-6254, Nr. 19.
5. Lizama-Rivas, B, Koleva-Lizama, I., 2000. Streamflow variability with respect to

climate variability in the Bulgarian region. Proceeding of 3rd European
Conference on applied Climatology, 16-20 october 2000, Pisa, Italy.
6. Loaiciga, H.A., Valdes, J.B., Vogel, R., Garvey, J., Schwarz, H., 1996. Global
warming and the hydrologic cycle. Journal of Hydrology, 174, 83-127
354
ASSESSING THE DISTRIBUTION OF HERMANN’S TORTOISE

(Testudo hermanni boettgeri MOJSISOVICS, 1888)
IN THE IRON GATES NATURAL PARK, ROMANIA1
Laurenţiu Rozylowicz, Cristian Tetelea, Viorel Popescu

University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies,
1 N. Bălcescu Ave., 70111, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: rlaurentiu@portiledefier.ro
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to evaluate the Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) habitats
distribution in the Iron Gates Natural Park. In order to reach the aim of the project, during 2001 and
2002, there were realised several field observation stages for inventorying Testudo hermanni habitats.
Following the field observation stages, there were elaborated GIS distribution maps, considering the
digital elevation model, the land use, slope and aspect maps. The results indicate that the distribution
of Testudo hermanni depends not only on vegetation formation, but also on other environment factors.
Keywords: Testudo hermanni boettgeri, distribution maps, Iron Gates Natural Park,
habitats, Romania
INTRODUCTION
Tortoises are amongst the most endangered animal species in the world, more than
a half of the Testudinidae (23 of 42 species) being threatened in different ways
(IUCN, 1996). The most important threats are the losses of habitats (Lambert, 1984;
Swingland and Klemens, 1989; Kucling, 1999) and human aggression (Kucling,
1999). The influence of habitat loss was mentioned in several reports, the studies
being realised in countries like: Greece, Spain, France, Yugoslavia and Morocco
(Hailey, 2000).
Two species of Testudinidae are common in Romania: Testudo hermanni boettgeri

Mojsisovics, 1888 and Testudo graeca ibera Gmelin, 1789. These species are met in
the South-western (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) and Eastern part of the country
(Testudo graeca ibera), the habitats being totally different. The holotype of Testudo
hermanni boettgeri Mojsisovics, 1888 comes from Orşova, a locality situated in the
Iron Gates Natural Park (it belongs to the collection of Senckenberg Museum,
Frankfurt, Nr. SMF 7836).
Testudo hermanni boettgeri is a strictly protected species, according to the

Romanian legislation. Unfortunately, there are just a few studies on this species and
the literature information very often proved to be wrong (Rozylowicz et al. 2002) and
very inaccurate. Also, there are no correct data about the area this species is
occupying in Romania, about its biology and behaviour. The threats to the species
were not taken into consideration, so, as a direct consequence, no minimum
protection measures were taken in order to prevent species’ extinction (Rozylowicz,
2003).
1
Considering these premises, in the year 2001, the University of Bucharest, Centre for
Environmental Research and Impact Studies, started up a vast research and
conservation program, financed by the European Union, LIFE NATURE - „Iron Gates
Natural Park – habitat conservation and management”.
The conservation program includes the following components: morphologic

evaluation of the populations, spatial distribution and captive breeding program. All of
the activities are developed in the Iron Gates Natural Park, a protected area that is
totally included in the Testudo hermanni distribution area (CCMESI, 2000).
Species and habitat distribution evaluation is the most vital information for realising
an efficient protection of the species (Primack et al. 2002). For the Hermann’s
tortoise, the bibliographical data (Fuhn and Vancea 1961, Bour, 1987, Hailey and
Willemsen 1988, Guyot and Devaux 1997, Hailey 2002) indicated the grasslands
and Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean vegetation formations as the most
suitable habitats. For Romania, the studies conducted between 2001 and 2002
showed that the situation is more complex: the species distribution could not be
mapped counting the vegetation formation only, because many other variables
interfered, such as: edge effect, slope, elevation, distance to settlements etc. Also,
the mapping of each area suitable for the appearance of the Hermann’s tortoise
wasn’t possible, due to the extension of the Natural Park and the short time the
animals are active (March – October for Romania, with a maximum activity period in
April - June and September - October) (Rozylowicz, 2003).
METHODS
Site description
The evaluation of the potential distribution of the species was realised within the Iron
Gates Natural Park, with an area of 128160 ha, in the South-western part of Romania
(Figure 1). This protected area, situated on the border of Romania and Serbia and
Montenegro, is characterized by the appearance of unique sub-Mediterranean
vegetation formations and the largest reservoir in Romania (Iron Gates I), (Pătroescu
and Rozylowicz 2000; Pătroescu et al. 2002).
Major vegetation types in the Iron Gates Natural Park are (CCMESI 2002): non-fixed
floating aquatic vegetation from Danube and its tributary meadows pools (Lemna
minor, Lemna trisulca, Salvinia natans, Thypha angustifolia, Juncus effusus, Lythrum
salicaria); fixed floating aquatic vegetation from 0,5 – 1,5 deep marshes
(Myriophyllum sp., Phragmites australis, Thypha sp., Hydrocharis morsus-ranae,
Polygonum amphibium, Potamogeton natans); marsh vegetation along the Danube
(Phragmites australis, Sparganium neglectum, Solanum dulcamara, Alysma sp.
Butonus umbellatus); mesic grasslands of rivers meadows with Agrostis stolonifera
and Festuca pratensis; grasslands with Poa pratensis , grasslands with Festuca
valesiaca (with different patches that contain Festuca rupicola, Bothriochloa
ischaemum, Chrysopogon gryllus, Pragnos carinata; weed, sandy and nitrous
vegetation; beech (Fagus silvatica) forests (especially on northern slopes); Quercus
petraea forests (especially on southern slopes); thermophilous forests with Quercus
pubescens, Quercus cerris or Quercus farnetto; thermophilous shrubs with Cotinus
coggygria and Fraxinus ornus; thermophilous shrubs with Syringa vulgaris; forests
with Celtis australis and Junglans regia.
Figure 1 – Iron Gates Natural Park, geographical position

According to bibliography (Vancea and Fuhn, 1961) tortoises’ habitats are distributed
only east of Plavişeviţa (Figure 2).
Spatial distribution of the habitats
During 2002, between May and September, there were described 102 individuals
from the following areas: Gura Văii quarry, Dealul Crucii southern slope, Iloviţa –
Curchia valley, Ţarovăţ-Bahna confluence, Ţarovăţ-Bucovăţ confluence, Focoanele
valley Eşelniţa, Eşelniţa valley – left coast, Mala valley – left coast, Mala - Eşelniţa
hill, Ciucarul Mic, Dubova, Danubian slope downstream Şviniţa, Danubian slope
upstream Şviniţa, Sternica Valley, Şilianschi valley, Baziaş – Danubian slope (Figure
3). The tortoises were described using an biometric observation sheet prepared after
Stubbs et al 1984, Guyot and Devaux, 1997 and Hailey, 2000. The habitats were
described using an observation sheet prepared by M. Pătroescu, 1987.
Potential distribution analysis
The results of inventorying habitats spatial distribution indicated that:
- Tortoises are met in the open areas, situated nearby forests or other wooded
land. The transition areas between grasslands and forests is used by the
tortoises as a refuge during the hot period of the day;
- The tortoises prefer habitats where the slope is often over 50, that ensure good
nest places;
- Tortoises can be met in rare forests, also;
- There is no obvious correlation between the distribution of the Testudo

hermanni habitats and water resources;
- No tortoises have been met at altitudes over 700 m;
- Tortoises are met in an area larger than the area indicated in the bibliography.
- Tortoise inventory is not possible during hot days because these retreat and
hide in shady areas.
Evaluation of the possible occurrence was made using ArcView GIS 3.1 software and
Spaţial Analyst 1.0 extention. The methodology follows the next steps:
- Transforming vector type data in raster type data. Realising a DEM (Digital
Elevation Model) by digitising altitude based on the topographic maps 1:25
000 and the slope map. Creating a layer of the land use and deriving a grid.
Cell dimension for each grid was 25x25 m. The topographic elements were
digitised by a team of the Centre for Environmental Research and Impact
Studies.
- Reclassifying each grid according to a legend suited to the specific conditions

of tortoises occurrence; these reclassifications were based on the field
observations and bibliography data. Each class was awarded a potentiality
mark, varying with the possibility of Hermann’s tortoise occurrence. The
potentiality marks varied between 1 and 5, as it follows: 1 – 0 - 10% chances
for tortoise occurrence; 2 – 10 – 30% chances of occurrence; 3 – 30 – 50%
chances of occurrence; 4 – 50 – 70% chances of occurrence; 5 – 70 – 100%
chances of occurrence. The 1 and 2 marks were awarded for very poor
possibilities of Hermann’s tortoise occurrence in the specific habitat, 3 for poor
possibilities, 4 for medium possibilities and 5 for good possibilities of
occurrence. The reclassifications for each grid were:
- elevation range map: 5 – between 35 and 500 m, 4 - between 500 and 600 m,
3 - between 600 – 700 m and 1 – up to 700 m.
- Slope map: 5 – between 3 and 150, 4 – between 15 and 300 and 0 - 30 , 3 -

between 30 - 810.
- Land use map: hayfields – 5, orchards – 4, forests – 2, other wooded land – 4,

grasslands – 5, tree plantations – 3, arable land – 2, unproductive land
(ridges, screes, rocky areas) – 2, shrubs – 5, vineyards – 4, quarries , sterile
deposits, settlements – 1.
These marks were not arbitrarily chosen; several trials were previously made, as
the mapped habitats had to be 100% over posed with the areas that with more
than 70% chances for the Hermann’s tortoise occurrence. The map of the
possibility of occurrence for Testudo hermanni habitats was realized according to
the following steps:
- Calculating of the final mark for the considered grids (using Map Calculator
command); for each cell resulted a mark between 1 and 5.
- Establishing an adequate legend, suited to the purpose of the study and

verifying the over posing of the mapped habitats with the areas with more than
70% chances for the Hermann’s tortoise occurrence.
- Realizing the map of potential occurrence for the Hermann’s tortoise habitats
in the Iron Gates Natural Park.
In order to evaluate the differences between the previous methodology and the
classic methods based on the land use only, a map of tortoise specific land use
conditions was elaborated; the considered categories were: grasslands, hayfields,
orchards, vineyards and shrubs (Figure 3). Over posing the mapped habitats with
this map, resulted that the tortoises can also be found in areas with other
categories of land use than the ones enumerated above. So, the total area where
tortoises can be found is larger. The habitats cannot be sorted according to their
potential for tortoise occurrence, because there are numerous forest clearings
were the species cannot be found and still, they are considered suitable in the
GIS analysis.
From the total land surface of the Iron Gates Natural Park (119884 ha), the
analysis of the habitats distribution according to the land use categories only
showed that 24966 ha are suited as Hermann’s tortoise habitats. The complex
GIS analysis of potential habitats showed that just on 10428 ha there are more
than 70% chances to find tortoises, on 35064 ha there are between 50 and 70%
chances, on 74126 ha there are low chances (30-50%) and on 26500 ha there
very low chances (under 30%). Habitats with under 50% chances for tortoise
occurrence might be considered as accidental occurrence habitats, due to human
factors or individuals wandering. These habitats cannot ensure an adequate
development for tortoise populations.
CONCLUSIONS
Habitats where tortoises can be found are various and are not only open
vegetation formations. The habitats are very fragmented, but the populations
density is mostly determined by the human influence, not by the habitat’s
dimensions. Degradation of habitats, collecting the individuals for pets and
killings, even if the species has a strictly protected status, led to the depopulation
of some areas, that previously had high tortoise density.
The map can be used as a basis for the next conservation programmes, that
should include reintroduction and increasing individuals’ number activities. The
map can also reveal small isolated habitats where we must interfere in order to
avoid genetic problems (inbreeding).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was realized within the project LIFE Nature LIFE00/NAT/RO/7171 “Iron
Gates Natural Park - Habitat Conservation and Management”. We would like to
thank to the people which contributed at the elaboration of the materials used in
this article or participated to the field observation stages: Professor Maria

Pătroescu, co-ordinator of the LIFE Nature LIFE00/NAT/RO/7171 project,
research assistant Mariana Dobre, PhD student Radu Necşuliu, research
assistant Daniela Dumitraşcu, Andrei Dragoş, researcher Marius Matache,
researcher Vasile Bagrinovschi.
This article is dedicated to the Centre for Environmental Research and Impact
Studies, University of Bucharest, which celebrated the 10th year of existence in
March 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Bour, R., 1987, L’identite des tortues terrestres europenes: specimen types et
localites types. Revue fr. Aquariol,. 13
2. Boyer, D.R., 1965, Ecology of the basking habit in turtles. Ecology 46,
3. Cagle, F. R., 1944, Home range, homing behaviour and migration in turtles.
Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan. (6i), 1-34.
4. Călinescu, R., 1931, Systematischer und zoogeogratischer Beitrag zur
Erforschung der Amphibien und Reptilien in Rumaenien, Acad. Rom. Mem.
Sect. Stiintitice. III-VII (7)
5. Devaux B., 1988, La tortues saubages des Maures ou tortue d’Hermann.
Seconde edition. Edition Sand de la terre, Paris
6. Fuhn, J. şi St. Vancea, 1961: Reptilia u. Amphibia. In: Fauna Rep. Pop.
Romania. Ed. Acad. R. P. R. XIV: fasc. 2
7. Guyot G., Pieau C., Renous S., 1994, Developpement embryonaire d’une
tortue terrestre, la tortue d’Hermann, Testudo hermanni Gmelin, 1789,
Annales des Sciences naturelles, Zoologie, Paris, 13e Serie, vol 15
8. Guyot G., Lescure J., 1994, Etude preliminaire du comportament alimentaire
en enclos semi-naturel chez la tortue d’Hermann (Testudo hermanni hermanni
Gmelin, 1789), Bull. Soc. Herp. Fr. 69-70
9. Guyou G., Devaux B., 1997, Variation in Shell Morphology and Color of
Hermann’s Tortoise, Testudo hermanni in Southern Europe, Chelonian
Conservation and Biology, 2(3)
10. Hailey A., 2000, Assesing body mass condition in the tortoise Testudo
hermanni, Herpetological Journal, vol 10 (2)
11. Hailey A., Willemsen R.E., 1988, Status conservation of tortoises in Greece,
Herpethological Journal, 1
12. Hailey A., Willemsen R.E., 2000, Population density and adult sex ratio of the
tortoise Testudo hermanni in Greece: evidence for intrisic population, Journal
of Zoology, vol. 251, 3
13. Hailey A., 2000, The effects of fire and mechanical habitat destruction on
survival of the tortoise Testudo hermanni in northern Greece, Biological
Conservation, 92
14. Hailey, A. & Loumbourdis, N. S., 1988,. Egg size and shape, clutch dynamics
and reproductive effort in European tortoises. Can. J. Zool. 66
15. Highfield, A.C., 1990, Keeping and Breeding tortoises in captivity. R&A
Publishing Ltd., Bristol
16. Jackson O.F., 1980, Weight and measureement data on tortoise (Testudo
graeca and Testudo hermanni) and their relationship to health., J. Small Anim.
Pract. 21
17. Kirsche W., 1998, Die Landschildröten Europas, biologie, pflege, zucht und
schutz, Mergus Melle
18. Kucling G., 1999, The Reproductive Biology of the Chelonia, Springer Verlag,
Olanda
19. Longepierre, S., Hailey, A., Grenot, C., 2001, Home range area of the tortoise
Testudo hermanni in relation to habitat complexity: implications for
conservation of biodiversity. Biodivers. Conserv. 10
20. Meek R., 1988, The comparative population ecology of Hermann tortoise,
Testudo hermanni, in Croatia and Montenegro, Yugoslavia, Herpethological
Journal, 1
21. Stubbs, D., Hailey A., Pulford E., Tyler W., 1984, Population ecology of
European tortoise: rewiew of field technique. Amphibia-Reptilia 5.
22. Willemsen, R. E., Hailey, A., 2001,. Variation in adult survival rate of the
tortoise Testudo hermanni in Greece: implications for evolution of body size. J.
Zool., Lond. 255
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFILTRATION RATE AND

CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT IN UNSATURATED ZONE1
Mustafa Tombul
Anadolu University Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Department
Eskişehir/ TÜRKİYE
E-mail: mtombul@anadolu.edu.tr,
Tel: 90-222-3213550 ext:6608 Fax:90-222-3239501
ABSTRACT
Interest in the unsaturated zone has dramatically increased in recent years because of growing
evidence and public concern that the quality of the subsurface environment is being adversely
affected by industrial, municipal and agricultural activities. Movement of water into and through the
unsaturated soils is of great importance to the assessment of contaminant transport, agricultural
management and natural resource protection. The process of water movement is very dynamic,
changing dramatically over time and space. Infiltration is defined as the initial process of water
movement into unsaturated zone through the soil surface. Knowledge of the infiltration process is
prerequisite for managing soil water flux, and thus the contaminant transport in the unsaturated
zone.
The flow from infiltration facilities occurs in the unsaturated zone and part of the infiltration takes
place as unsaturated flow. Therefore it is necessary to simulate the flow using a numerical model to
obtain the infiltration capacities, as there are no analytical solutions to the governing equations.
Also, the infiltration rates depend on the soil hydraulic properties. These can be measured from
undisturbed soil samples, but it is a time consuming and cumbersome , and such data are not
always readily available. In such cases, they have to be estimated from the other available data.
This study presents the Philip's infiltration simple infiltration model for quantifying the rate of water
movement. A great majority of the compiled models are based on widely accepted concepts of soil
physics. The model, represented by simple mathematical expressions, can be readily implemented
in a spreadsheet environment. Proper use of the model should provide a rational and scientific
basis for remedial decision-making related to soil contaminant levels.
Keywords: Unsaturated zone, infiltration rate, contaminant transport
1- INTRODUCTION
The unsaturated zone is an integral component of the hydrological cycle, directly

influencing infiltration, storm runoff, evapotranspiration, interflow, and aquifer
recharge. Understanding the infiltration, storm runoff, evapotranspiration, interflow,
and aquifer recharge. Understanding the variety of problems. Examples of such
problems are: prediction of runoff from given precipitation events for the purposes
of erosion control; sediment transport and flood control; estimation of water
availability for plant growth; estimation of water recharge to the underlying
estimation of water availability for plant growth; estimation of water recharge to the
underlying aquifer; and assessment of the potential for aquifer contamination due
to migration of water-soluble chemicals present in the unsaturated zone.
Consequently, the study of soil-water movement has interested scientists from
diverse disciplines such as soil science, hydrology, agriculture, civil engineering,
and the environmental sciences for several years.
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Water applied to the soil surface through rainfall and irrigation events
subsequently enters the soil through the process of infiltration. If the supply rate of
water to the soil surface is greater than the soil's ability to allow the water to enter,
excess water will either accumulate on the soil surface or become runoff. The
process by which water enter the soil and thus the unsaturated zone through the
soil-atmosphere interface is known as infiltration. Infiltrability is a term generally
used in the disciplines of soil physics and hydrology to define the maximum rate at
which rain or irrigation water can be absorbed by a soil under a given condition.
Indirectly, infiltrability determines how much of the water will flow over the ground
surface into streams or rivers, and how much will enter the soil, and thus assists in
providing an estimate of water available for downward percolation through
drainage, or return to the atmosphere by the process of evapotranspiration.
Understanding water movement into and through the unsaturated zone is of great
importance to both policy and engineering decision-makers for the assessment of
contaminant fate and transport, the management of agricultural lands, and natural
resource protection. The process of water movement is very dynamic, changing
dramatically over time and space. Knowledge of the infiltration process is a
prerequisite for managing soil water flux, and thus the transport of contaminants in
the vadose zone.
This study, interest in the prediction of contaminant movement in the unsaturated

zone, in most cases with simple analytical models for the estimation of water
movement. These models for quantifying the rate of soil-water movement due to
infiltration. The rate of infiltration is usually a required input parameter for simpler
screening level models which describe contaminant migration in the vadose zone.
2- PHENOMENA OF WATER INFILTRATION IN THE UNSATURATED ZONE
Understanding water movement into and through the unsaturated zone is of great
importance to both policy and engineering decision-makers for the assessment of
contaminant fate and transport, the management of agricultural lands, and natural
resource protection. The process of water movement is very dynamic, changing
dramatically over time and space. Knowledge of the infiltration process is a
prerequisite for managing soil water flux, and thus the transport of contaminants in
the vadose zone.
Soil water infiltration is controlled by the rate and duration of water application, soil
physical properties, slope, vegetation, and surface roughness. Generally,
whenever water is ponded over the soil surface, the rate of water application
exceeds the soil infiltrability. On the other hand, if water is applied slowly, the
application rate may be smaller than the soil infiltrability. In other words, water can
infiltrate into the soil as quickly as it is applied, and the supply rate determines the
infiltration rate. This type infiltration process has been termed as supply controlled
(Hillel, 1982). However, once the infiltration rate exceeds the soil infiltrability, it is
the latter which determines the actual infiltration rate, and thus the process
becomes profile controlled. Generally, soil water infiltration has a high rate in the
beginning, decreasing rapidly, and then slowly decreasing until it approaches a
constant rate. As shown in Figure 1 the infiltration rate will eventually become
steady and approach the value of the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks).
356
The initial soil water content and saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil media
are the primary factors affecting the soil water infiltration process. The wetter the
soil initially, the lower will be the initial infiltrability (due to a smaller suction
gradient), and a constant infiltration rate will be attained more quickly. In general,
the higher the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, the higher the
infiltrability.
Figure 1 . Infiltration rate will generally be high in the first stages, and will
decrease with time (Adapted from Hillel, 1982).
Naturally formed soil profiles are rarely homogeneous with depth, rather they will
contain distinct layers, or horizons with specific hydraulic and physical
characteristics. The presence of these layers in the soil profile will generally retard
water movement during infiltration. Clay layers impede flow due to their lower
saturated hydraulic conductivity; however, when these layers are near the surface
and initially very dry, the initial infiltration rate may be much higher and then drop
off rapidly. Sand layers will have a tendency to also retard the movement of the
wetting front due to larger pore size and thus a higher hydraulic gradient would be
required for flow into the layers. The surface crust will also act as a hydraulic
barrier to infiltration due to the lower hydraulic conductivity near the surface,
reducing both the initial infiltrability and the eventually attained steady infiltrability.
3- INFILTRATION MODELS
Mathematical modeling has become an important methodology in support of the

planning and decision-making process. Soil infiltration models provide an
analytical framework for obtaining an understanding of the mechanisms and
controls of the vadose zone and ground-water flow. Results from soil water
infiltration models can be used to simulate the fate and transport of contaminants
by other models. For managers of water resources, infiltration models may provide
an essential support for planning and screening of alternative policies, regulations,
and engineering designs affecting ground-water flow and contaminant transport. A
successful application of soil water infiltration models requires a combined
357
knowledge of scientific principles, mathematical methods, and site

characterization.
Infiltration models can be divided into various categories, depending on the

purpose of the model, boundary conditions, and the nature of subsurface systems.
The categories were chosen for representativeness to site-specific conditions,
which is given in the Table 1.
Table 1. Infiltration model classification.
Category Model Selected Reference
Semi-Empirical SCS model USDA-SCS, 1972
Homogeneous Philip's two-term model Philip, 1957
Nonhomogeneous Green-Ampt model for layered Flerchinger et al., 1988

systems
Ponding Green-Ampt explicit model Salvucci and Entekhabi,

1994
Non-ponding Constant Flux Green-Ampt model Swartzendruber, 1974
Wetting and Infiltration/Exfiltration model Eagleson, 1978

Drying
Most infiltration models have been developed for application in homogeneous

porous media. These models are commonly derived from mathematical solutions
based on well-defined, physically based theories of infiltration (e.g., Richards
equation). Since his mechanistic infiltration model is derived from the water flow
equation, considerable insight is given to the physical and hydraulic processes
governing infiltration. Infiltration models commonly used for homogeneous soil
profiles include the Green-Ampt infiltration model, the Philip infiltration model, the
Burger infiltration model, and the Parlange infiltration model. Descriptions of these
models are provided in documentation by Hillel (1982), Ghildal and Tripathi (1987),
and Jury et al. (1991). It was elaborated the Philip infiltration model here, because
it is the one used here as an example to derive the soil hydraulic characteristics
for sandy soil texture.
3.1 Philip's Infiltration Model (PHILIP2T)
The Philip's infiltration model (PHILIP2T) is a truncated form of the power series
solution of Philip (1957). During the initial stages of infiltration, i.e., when t is very
small, the first term of Equation 1 below dominates. In this stage the vertical
infiltration proceeds at almost the same rate as absorption or horizontal infiltration,
because the gravity component, represented by the second terms of Equation 1, is
negligible. As infiltration continues, the second term becomes progressively more
important until it dominates the infiltration process. Philips (1957) suggested the
use of the two-term model in applied hydrology when t is not too large. A scenario
358
was chosen to simulate the water infiltration into a sandy soil by using the
PHILIP2T model.
The Philip's two-term model is represented by the following equations,
1
1 −
q(t ) = × S × t 2 + A (1)
2
1
I (t ) = S × t 2 + A × t (2)
Where, q(t) is infiltration rate (cm/h),S is the sorptivity of soil (cm/h1/2), t is duration
of infiltration (h), A is constant in (cm/h) I(t) is the cumulative infiltration (cm) at any
time,
Input parameters for running the simulations are obtained from several sources.
Attempts are made to obtain realistic values for the input parameters. Table 2 lists
the input parameter values used in the simulations. The sorptivity (S) and the
constant (A) can be obtained simply by determining the slope and intercept of I/t
versus t in Equation 2, respectively.
Table 2. Input parameter values for the simulations in a sandy soil using Philip
infiltration model. (PHILIP2T)
Parameter Symbol Value Units Reference
Duration of Infiltration t 1 to 24 h Assumed
Sorptivity S 1 cm/h Philip, 1969
Constant A 7.6 (=0.363 k cm/h Jury et al., 1991

)
Saturated Hydraulic Ks 21 cm/h Carsel and Parrish,

Conductivity 1988
4- EXAMPLE APPLICATION SCENARIO
An application scenario is presented for the Philip infiltration model. This scenario
was chosen to simulate the vertical infiltration of water into a sandy soil with a
homogeneous soil profile. A hypothetical site has been contaminated with
hazardous waste materials. In order to estimate the transport of the contaminants
in the vadose zone, the infiltration rate (water flux) must be known before
performing transport modeling. Initial soil water constant at the site is
approximately uniformly distributed and constant. Soil water content at the inflow
end (at the surface) is held constant and near saturation. Other soil physical
359
properties such as saturated water content and saturated hydraulic conductivity

values are available.
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of the hypothetical site showing the conceptual

model for this scenario. This site is bounded above by the soil surface and below
by the ground-water table. The water depth is much greater than the water
penetration depth. The free water is available in excess at the surface and a
constant water content at the surface is maintained through the infiltration period.
In this scenario, the Philip's infiltration model was selected for the simulations.
Figure 2. Conceptual model for simulating water infiltration using Philip's infiltration
Model.
Surface infiltration rate(cm/h)
8.20
8.10
8.00
7.90
7.80
7.70
7.60
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Time (h)
Figure 3. Surface water infiltration rate as a function of time.
360
200
Cumulative infiltration (cm)

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (h)
Figure 4. Cumulative infiltration as a function of time.
5- RESULTS
The Philip's infiltration simple mathematical model has been presented for
quantifying the rate of soil-water movement due to infiltration. The rate of
infiltration is usually required as an input parameter by the simpler, screening level
models, which describe contaminant migration in the vadose zone.
Figure 3 shows a typical soil infiltration pattern, with an infiltration rate relatively
high at the onset of the infiltration, then decreasing, and eventually approaching a
constant rate at t> 20 h. Figure 4 illustrates a linear relationship between the
cumulative infiltration and time. By knowing the soil water infiltration rate, the
movement of contaminants in the soil could be evaluated using other transport
models.
Even though numerous techniques are available for estimating infiltration rate
(API, 1996), none offers a quick and easy way to obtain an estimate for the
purposes of preliminary analysis and decision-making. The estimation methods
presented here are easy to use, and yield scientifically-based estimates using soil-
hydraulic and climatic parameters representative of the prevailing site conditions.
6- REFERENCES
API. 1996. Review of Methods to Estimate Moisture Infiltration, Recharge, and

Contaminant Migration Rates in the Vadose Zone for Site Risk Assessment. API
Publication No. 4643. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Eagleson, P. 1978. Climate, soil, and vegetation. 3. A simplified model of soil

moisture movement in the liquid phase. Water Resour. Res., 14:722-730.
361
Flerchinger, G.N., F.J. Waltts, and G.L. Bloomsburg. 1988. Explicit solution to
Green-Ampt equation for nonuniform soils. J. Irrig. and Drain. Div., ASCE,
114:561-565.
Ghildal, B.P., and R.P. Tripathi. 1987. Soil Physics. John Wiley & Sons. New York
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to Soil Physics. Academic Press. New York.
Jury, W.A., W.R. Gardner, and W.H. Gardner. 1991. Soil Physics. John Wiley &
Sons. New York.
Philip, J.R. 1957. The theory of infiltration. Sorptivity and algebraic infiltration
equations. Soil Sci.,84:257-264.
Philip, J.R. 1969. Theory of infiltration. Advances in Hydroscience. 5:215-296.

Academic Press, NewYork, NY.
Salvucci, G.D., and D. Entekhabi. 1994. Explicit expressions for Green-Ampt

(Delta function diffusivity) infiltration rate and cumulative storage. Water Resour.
Res., 30:2661-2663.
Swartzendruber, D. 1974. Infiltration of constant-flux rainfall into soil as analyzed

by the approach of Green and Ampt. Soil Sci., 117: 272-281.
362
SOME ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF EXTERNAL COAL

TRANSPORTATION1
Prof. dr Milos Grujic1, Mr Ivica Ristovic1, grad. eng Radivoje Milanovic2

Faculty of Mining and Geology, Djusina 7, 11000 Belgarde, Serbia and Montenegro,
E- mail: mgruic@rgf.bg.ac.yu, tel/fax: +381 11 3241121
JP PEU Resavica, 35237 Resavica, Serbia and Montenegro,
tel +381 35 627524, fax: +381 35 627570
ABSTRACT
It may be stated that ore mining and ore processing have a highly detrimental environmental effect.
Mineral resources appear in all the environmental categories that should be protected. The global
demand for energy raw materials, metallic and non-metallic ore etc. is still significant, regardless of the
more or less regional depressions that occur in mining industry. Therefore, within the framework of the
mining process it is necessary to provide the best available environmental protection or to find and
implement highly developed, environmentally sound mining technologies. Transportation of mineral
resources, especially through well preserved environments, causes a number of damaging effects,
starting from air pollution, to noise and vibration. Increased requirements for the preservation of living
environment have led to an intensive search for the technologies and equipment that will least
damage the living environment, while completely fulfilling the given function. This paper deals with an
evaluation of the influence of the transportation system work on environment in transportation of raw
materials.
Keywords: coal transportation, environmental impact, Serbia and Montenegro
INTRODUCTION
The transportation of coal from mines to coal cleaning plants, coal-fired powers
stations at transfer points generates adverse environmental impacts. The intensity of
such impacts varies depending on transportation methods, environment categories
and measures taken for environmental protection.
At the present conditions this problem is becoming acute and increasingly serious.
Even without considering large opencast lignite mines, the external coal
transportation in eight analysed underground mines represents a significant source of
environmental pollution.
It should be mentioned that in comparison with output the environmental hazard of

coal transportation is above the average level currently present in most European
countries
In order to make a proper selection of transportation systems that will provide a high
level of environmental protection it is necessary to be precisely acquainted with
environmental conditions and adverse impacts.
Besides, it would be convenient to introduce the practice currently established in

developed countries, which conditions the granting of mining permits with adequate
environmental protection that should be provided. A large number of research
institutes is dedicated to tackling with this problem and design pilot plants and
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363
prototypes of new transportation means, perform measurements simulate processes,

monitor and register all the changes that are observed in the environment.
This paper aims to point out all the adverse impacts that appear in the course of coal
transportation in different environmental conditions and categories. Besides, it also
elaborates the basic principles and criteria for the selection of transportation methods
with the lowest possible degree of environmental hazard.
SOME ISSUES CONCERNING THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF EXTERNAL

COAL TRANSPORTATION IN YUGOSLAV MINES
Yugoslav underground coalmines are categorised as small mines considering both

their size and annual output. In our country the power-generation policy led to a
situation in which the low-heating lignite mined at large opencast mines represents
the main source of energy. As a result, the production of coal in underground
coalmines has been significantly reduced participating with no more than 5% in
overall coal production.
Currently in Serbia there are 8 mines in operation with 12 active pits. Five mines
have their own separation plants, while the remaining mines deliver run-of-mine ore.
The separation plants take in the output of 8 mines and their average distance from
the pits is 2410 m.
The means of transportation used to convey coal from the mine exit to the separation
plant is in most cases the same as the one applied in the mine. So, the transportation
of coal in the intimate mine area represents in fact the extension of the mine haulage
system.
Apart from this other aspects of external transportation are also very important from
the environmental point of view. That is, the transportation of coal from separation
plants to public transportation facilities: railway stations, loading ramps for trucks etc.
In such cases the transportation distances range from several hundred meters to
several to tenths of kilometres.
In Yugoslav mines the external transportation of coal, considering the conveyance

from the mine exit to the point of coal reloading into the means of public
transportation or nearby consumers is mainly carried out by trucks (58%), by aerial
ropeways (26%), while the transportation by belt conveyors and wagons take an
equal part of 8% each in overall conveyance. (This percent is determined according
to the transportation distances).
In 6 of 8 mines the coal is transported by trucks. The number and the type of trucks
vary depending on load-bearing capacity and quality. The routes of the roads cross
different environments and the coal is spilled along the route particularly when
moving in curves, thus increasing dustiness at non-asphalt roads. The dust dispersed
from the road and the coal dust spilled from the trucks depends on the intensity and
speed of air current.
The transportation of coal from the mine "Soko" through the town has a particularly
harmful effect, since this town is one of the most renowned spas and recreational
resorts in Serbia. Emission of harmful gases and spillage of fuel and lubricants along
364
the route also generate a highly detrimental environmental impact. Noise and
vibrations produced by trucks create substantial disturbance of the surrounding flora
and fauna but also disturb the human life environment.
Ropeway transportation is applied in two mines and in both cases the routs go
across well-preserved environment. Apart from disturbing the visual aspect of the
natural environment, the ropeways produce several adverse impacts. In the first
place the lubricants used for the ropes constantly leak, then the concentration of coal
dust is high since the coal fines transported are regularly exposed to wind.
The coal pours out the ropeway cages constantly. It may be considered that the
noise caused by the motion of the ropeway is within the acceptable range. Figure 1
presents the layout of the aerial ropeway route in Ibar hard coal mines.
Figure 1 The layout of the aerial ropeway route leading from the mine Usce to the
separation plant in Ibar mines
365
Wagon and conveyor belt transportation is mainly present in already degraded and
endangered environments and it must be said that little attention is paid to this
problem.
However, it should be noted that at the verge of the mining area four mining
settlements have been developed with approximately four thousand inhabitants who
are severely endangered by the noise, dust concentration and other harmful impacts
caused by such means of transportation.
The environmental impact of external transportation in conditions of underground

coal mining is generally assessed as detrimental and it is emphasized that the
environmental protection should be improved. This problem should be addressed
through two approaches:
- Improve the present haulage methods to reach permissible values and

acceptable environmental conditions.
- Introduce new, state-of-the art haulage methods with the highest possible
environmental protection properties.
The improvement of present haulage methods is the matter of numerous researches,

and it may be stated with certainty that in over 50% of mines significant results may
be achieved in the field of environmental protection. Desired effects may be obtained
by:
− Constructing roundabout routes surrounding the environment that should

be protected;
− Improving the quality of fumes;
− Preventing high dust concentration;
− Improving the technical features of transportation means;
− Training and education of personnel employed in external transport
In some mines the necessary conditions have been fulfilled to introduce new
transportation systems that satisfy the high standards for environmental protection.
This will be the matter of research in the next few years, the time by which the
deadlines set to satisfy the environmental demands will run out.
Then again, other problems that coalmines generally face, particularly the economic
viability issues, impose the reconstruction of external transportation systems in the
majority of mines.
Presently, various studies and general designs are being completed in order to
provide more permanent solution to this problem. Figure 2 presents the possible
solutions for external transportation in the Rembas Mine.
366
Figure 2 Alternative solutions for external transportation in the Rembas Mine
To select the best possible method of coal transportation, it is necessary to take into
consideration the environmental demands as one of the basic criteria. Accurate
assessment depends on correct and detailed elaboration of influential parameters
and precisely determined methods of selection.
CATEGORIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTS THE TRANSPORTATION RUNS

THROUGH
Nearby mines we can find almost all forms of environment. Existing of deposits of
raw materials and exploitation of them are possible in well preserved, almost
untouched environments as well as in the centres of cities (Katowice, Bor, Ostrava).
367
The influence of the exploitation on environment is different for the different

environments and then we have to categorize them.
As far as the transportation of raw materials is concerned, if we want to find the most
adequate methodology for the choosing the most acceptable variant, it is the most
optimal to divide environments into four basic categories:
I Specifically preserved environments
II Well preserved environments
III Partially degraded and polluted environments and
IV Urban environments
Specifically preserved environments are, first of all, national parks and natural
reservation, which are protected according to the international regulations. In this
category we can find those environments which have one or more than one of the
next important characteristics:
authenticity as far as the fundamental natural sciences is concerned,
representativeness in originality in its species,
variety of natural phenomena, plentitude of species and ecological

processes,
continuity of lairs, ecosystems, areas, and ecological processes,
landscape values in the sense of attractiveness with a specific
distribution of ecosystem, groups, species with aesthetic, cultural and historical

values,
danger for numbers of particular beings species, or groups under the minimum
of regeneration, rapid reduction of areal and a disturbance of ecosystem.
It is impossible to get some new licences for exploitation of raw materials, and the
transportation can be done only if it is prooved that it does not endanger the basic
characteristics of national park.
Well preserved environments are categories of protected reservations with one or

more next important characteristics:
authenticity of the viewpoint of basic natural sciences and applied biotechnical

disciplines,
being in danger, reduction of areal or reduction of numbers of particular beings,

disturbance of ecosystem, etc,
natural phenomenon, life groups or lair of the species with representative

characteristics in sense of regional geographical totalities,
368
attractive landscape characteristics and cultural historical values and
reservation which are very important for preserving the qualities of environment
and for climate regulation.
In addition to this protected natural reservation there are all agricultural lands, woods,
river and lake coast and the other environments which are not polluted or degraded.
Partially degraded and polluted environments could be:
surroundings of mine (cock-pit)
zone of the influence of waste dumps
zones near steam power plant, forges, smelteries, refineries etc,
surroundings of waste dumps (with mining and communal waste material, etc),
abandoned stone pits, loam pits and other mining drives, where land reclamation,
has not been done,
polluted industrial zones, etc.
In some cases zones near traffic highways, railroad station, autobasis could be
marked as a III category.
The fourth category includes all urban settlements (towns, villages, mine settlements
and others). In addition to classical urban areas there are weekend settlements,
recreation centres, surroundings of hotels.
Special problem is treating small groups of apartment houses, often built along
transportation toures, without official status of apartment settlement. In those cases
we take number of residents living in those houses, more exactly - average
population density in that area, as relevant.
Sometimes, there are not clear boundaries between some environment categories,
as it happends with the similare categorization. When it happends then, as a rule,
that area is treated as a higher category, more exactly, there are some strictier
demands in protection of environment.
BASIC QUANTIFICATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TRANSPORTATION ON RAW

MATERIALS
Representation of the relationship between a transportation system and an

environment by a subjective descriptive evaluation may lead to considerable errors in
deciding on the application of individual modes of transportation. In order to avoid it
there has been suggested a quantification of hazards for some categories of
environment. The most frequent hazards in the process of transportation of raw
materials through an environment are the next ones:
A. Intersecting of natural streams;
369
B. Land degradation;
C. Noise and vibrations;
D. Increased dustiness;
E. Tailings discharged and water streams pollution;
F. Material spillage;
G. Pollution by exhaust gases;
H. Damage hazards.
The influence of hazards for each category of environment according to the

evaluations done in the Centre for Environment at RGF is shown in Table 1. There is
a suggestion of figure values of an evaluation of the influence of transportation on
each of mentioned categories of environment.
Table 1
Hazards Environment category
I II III IV
Intesection of natural A 0.40-0.50 0.25-0.35 0.10-0.20 0.00-0.15
streams
Land degradation B 0.45-0.55 0.30-0.40 0.10-0.20 0.20-0.25
Noise and vibration C 0.30-0.50 0.25-0.40 0.20-0.30 0.60-0.70
Increased dustiness D 0.40-0.50 0.35-0.45 0.25-0.30 0.55-0.70
Fuel and lubricants E 0.30-0.40 0.25-0.35 0.15-0.20 0.30-0.40
discharge and water
pollution
Material spillage F 0.45-0.60 0.35-0.50 0.25-0.30 0.45-0.60
Pollution by exhaust gases G 0.35-0.50 0.25-0.40 0.20-0.30 0.45-0.55
Damage hazards H 0.25-0.35 0.20-0.30 0.15-0.20 0.25-0.35
On the basic of numerical values from tables and diagram we can determine weight
coefficient for each of the hazards and each of the environment category. Values of
weight coefficient are determined by next expression:
tj
ωk = ; ω k = 1 , (1)
∑t j
where:
tj is a numerical value of the evaluation of some hazards on a concrete

environment category.
In order to solve some concrete problems when choosing a mode of transportation

through an environment it is necessary to do quantification of possible influences on
some variants of transportation on the environment the transportation is to runs
through. Besides, for each numerical data, it is necessary to respect a fact that there
370
are five levels of the being in danger, more exactly, all hazards are quantified
according to possible influences on environment. Suggested solution could be one
which:
does not cause changes in the neighbourhood;
causes some small negative changes with small spreading of the imperilled
space;
causes some big negative changes with a small spreading of the imperilled
space;
causes some big negative changes with a big spreading of the imperilled space.
Taking various of protection of environment into consideration, if we want to choose

the most adequate variant of transportation, we have to apply one of multicriteral
methods of deciding.
The general problem of the multicriteral deciding can be stated in the following way, if
k1, K2, ... Kp are the criteria chosen in advance, and A is the final group of actions to
be assesed:
{ }
Max k 1 ( a ), k 2 ( a ),..., k p ( a ) a ∈ A . (2)
For each possible variant of transportation of raw materials it is necessary to find

numerical evaluation of hazards kij (ai ) bu next expression:
k ij ( a i ) = q j (1 − d ij ), (3)
where:
q - maximum value K (a ) for individual criteria;
d - corresponding values.
In Yugoslav conditions the matrix method and the PROMETHEE method were
recognize as the most acceptable methods. Their applicability has been proved at
the Faculty of Mining and Geology in Belgrade, using several environmental impact
assessments as examples.
CONCLUSION
The adverse environmental impact of external coal transportation gives rise to an

increasing concern and initiates multiple efforts in order to deal with this problem and
search for solutions that will minimize the endangerment of the environment. At this
stage, various solutions have been suggested and it is vital to select the best one,
considering, in the first place, the specific environmental demands and the properties
of the material to be transported. To be able to achieve this purpose it is necessary to
define the category of the environment in question, to determine and quantify
371
accurately the adverse impacts caused by coal transportation and to opt for the best
possible solution by applying one of the multi-criteria methods.
REFERENCES
[1] Antoniak J.: Obliczenia przensnikow tasmowych, Politechnika Slaska, p.p 774,
Gliwice, 1992.
[2] Grujić M.: Transport mineralnih sirovina kroz zivotnu sredinu, RGF, p.p 112,
Beograd,
1998.
[3] Grujić M., Kachurin N. M.: Some Problems of Eexternal Transportation of Raw
Materials in Yugoslav Mines, Gornictwo zrownowazonego rozwoju, p.p. 211-218,
Gliwice, 2000.
[4] Grujić M., Nedeljković R.: Choice of an Optimal System for External Ore Transportation,
9th International Mining Conference ”Development trends in Mechanization and Transport
Technique at the Mining of Mineral raw Materials”, str 117-120, Košice, 1997.
372
MONITORING OF THE SOILS AND TAILING PONDS IN THE REGION

OF ELACITE - MED AD, MIRKOVO VILLAGE1
E Zheleva, M. Tsolova
University of Forestry
Department of Ecology
10 Bd. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia 1756, Bulgaria
zheleva@ltu.acad.bg, mwtsolova@yahoo.fr
ABSTRACT
The object of investigations is soils in the region of the tailing ponds of the ore extraction and
concentration complex Elacite-Med AD.
Benkovski 1 (I part) tailing pond is spread over vast territories in the lowest folded parts of Sredna
Gora mountain, situated between Benkovski and Chavdar villages with altitude of 590-700 m. It wall is
leveled at 609 m altitude. At now the next part of this industry is built - Benkovski 2 (part II) tailing
pond. The reclamation activities that are carried out on the territory of Benkovski 1 tailing pond are
considered as successful. The reclaimed territories, as well as the natural forest and agricultural lands,
however, are covering with materials from the tailing pond, carried by the wind.
The soils round the tailing pond are damaged during the facility construction and the pollution of the
adjoining soils has two sources - the mere tailing ponds and the air emissions from Unionminnier-
Pirdop AD. The tailing ponds pollute the adjoining soils in two ways - via aerosols and hydraulic.
Keywords: monitoring, ore extraction, concentration, tailing pond, soil, vegetation,

heavy metals, pollution
INTRODUCTION
The problems bound to soil destruction and pollution are numerous and deep. The
stage of the pollution is determined by the great number of overpopulated regions
and people way of life. During the last decades a new sense of these problems and
willingness for their solution in global and regional scale arose.
Nowadays the biggest soil damages and pollution are due to the different industrial
sources and productions. That’s why almost all degradation processes in soils are
bound to the industry. One of the most active forms of lands destruction and pollution
is the ore extraction and concentration.
Soils are systems that change continuously and due to their complex character the
cause-result chain between their load and changes is difficult to be defined. The
human influence around the industrial facilities consists in:
• changing the mechanical structure and the physical characteristic of soils;
• changing the pH of the soil and it acidity;
• presence of mobile anions and cations removal;
• influence over the soil biota and the processes of decay and mineralization;
1
373
• changing the microelements, mobilization of the heavy metals toxicity.
The quantity and quality dimensions of just these changes have to be determined
using soil and land monitoring. The aim of the monitoring of the lands and soils
around industrial facilities is to characterize the condition and the processes of
change to predict the influence of already working facility and to show the way for
preventing the negative consequences upon soils, vegetation and farms, upon the
living creatures and upon the whole throphic system.
The aim of the current study is to make a an analysis of the ecological conditions of
the soils, that are subject to impact from the ore concentrating plant Elacite-Med AD,
and a program for their monitoring.
Due to the aim, the following tasks are set:
• analysis of the climate conditions, which are of greatest importance for the
pollution transportation over the surrounding lands;
• analysis of the basic elements of soil fertility at the beginning of the monitoring -
mechanical structure and organic matter;
• acidity and heavy metals content in the soil profiles and particularly in the surface
soil layers.
OBJECTS AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
Object of Investigation
The object of investigations is soils in the region of the tailing ponds of the ore
extraction and concentration complex Elacite-Med AD.
Benkovski 1 (I part) tailing pond is spread over vast territories in the lowest folded
parts of Sredna Gora mountain, situated between Benkovski and Chavdar villages
with altitude of 590-700 m. It wall is leveled at 609 m altitude. At now the next part of
this industry is built - Benkovski 2 (part II) tailing pond. The reclamation activities that
are carried out on the territory of Benkovski 1 tailing pond are considered as
successful. The reclaimed territories, as well as the natural forest and agricultural
lands, however, are covering with materials from the tailing pond, carried by the wind.
The soils round the tailing pond are damaged during the facility construction and the
pollution of the adjoining soils has two sources - the mere tailing ponds and the air
emissions from Unionminnier-Pirdop AD. The tailing ponds pollute the adjoining soils
in two ways - via aerosols and hydraulic.
Methods of Investigation
Samples for analysis are taken from all the points destined to permanent monitoring
and the slices and places where the samples are taken from are described in table
N1 - Morphological description of the slices and the substrates of the tailing pond.
The morphological description includes color determination according to Munsel, the
mechanical composition, structure, density, the presence of inclusions HCl reaction.
The description of the soil morphology reveals three kinds of soils and substrates -
374
agricultural soils with comparatively deeper soil profile and workable plough horizon
(P1 and P2P101); soils under meadow soil-modeling process, most often with not
complete soil profile (Р3 - Р7 - soils around the tailing ponds) and soils under forest
vegetation, usually with shallow soil profile, presence of dead forest cover or dead
forest cover with sod, with crumb-grainy humus horizon. The last are often
fragmentized (P8), reclaimed soils that are mounded over the Benkovski 1 tailing
pond. The land materials where the earlier reclamations are made with forest
vegetation form dead forest cover, which has removed the grass successions (Р6 and
Р7,Р7ІР8І,Р9І).
The basic soil indicators, such as mechanical composition, structural-aggregate

analysis, physical characteristic, acidity, sorbing capacity, basic nutrient elements,
heavy metals content, salting are investigated. The methods of approach are
standard for soil science.
After the analysis of the soil conditions in the region of the tailing pond is done, a
conception is substantiated and a program for permanent monitoring is constituted.
INVESTIGATION RESULTS
Soil fertility in the region of the tailing ponds
The data obtained from our investigations during the period June 2001 - June 2002,
as well as previous studies - ours and others - enables the following conclusions:
The impacted from Elacite - Med AD soils are as follows:
• The soils in the surroundings of Benkovski 1 and 2 tailing ponds (Chavdar and
Benkovski villages) are mainly maroon forest soils (an average leached, shallow
soils), alluvial (deluvial) meadow, brown forest. All soils are not erosive or slightly
erosive. The category of the agricultural lands, which soils are maroon forest, is
sixth to ninth. The category of the alluvial soils is fourth. The soil reaction is
slightly acid to acid. According to the data gathered in 1997 the main part of the
soils in the region are categorized as slightly polluted and just 17% are actually
not polluted. The main polluters are heavy metals - cadmium, copper, arsenic,
lead and zinc. The forest soils along the northern slope of Sredna Gora, where
the tailing ponds are situated are slightly polluted;
• The basic pollution that is emitted from the production activity of Elacite med AD
is considered as powdered and considerably little part - as aerosols. Powdered
and sand emissions are spread in the region around the tailing ponds. The
specific density of the particles is 2,34-2,63. The scope of the pollution and the
zones with varied rate of pollution depends on the density of the particles and on
the speed, the direction and the mass of the aerial flow that carries them, i.e. it
depends on the micro-climatic circumstances, which transform after their meeting
with the specific folded relief. The inversion situations that are specific during the
wet periods of the year are of great importance for the sedimentation. While
setting the monitoring system these facts have to be of major importance.
375
• The structure of the maroon forest soils in the region around the tailing pond and
the mound materials with which the tailing pond is reclaimed is mainly lumpy and
in less measure - crumb-grainy.
• The mechanical structure of the maroon soils in the region of the tailing pond and
in the mountain region of the ore-mining complex is slightly to middle sandy-clay.
• The specific density of the maroon forest soils around the tailing ponds is 2,02 to
2,62 in the A and the plough horizon and 2,19 - 2,44 in the B and BC horizons.
The maximal hygroscopic capacity of the soils around the tailing ponds is not high
too.
• The investigated soils in the region of the tailing ponds have acid humus-
accumulative horizon and with deteriorated sorbing characteristics. That is why
the soils are unstable to pollution with heavy metals and acid toxicants.
• The supply of humus in the maroon forest soils in the region of the tailing ponds is
at average to good level but only at the surface layers. The nitrogen content in the
investigated soils as a whole follow the humus trend, i.e. the surface plough
horizons and soils layers are richer with nitrogen than the deep horizons and
layers. The phosphor content varied a lot, but does not differ from the average
values for phosphor content of the country (0,115 to 0,130 % for the typical
maroon soils). In most cases it is very good to good. In particular cases the
mound material contains greater quantities of mobile phosphor. The content of
assimilated potassium in the investigated substrates shows that the soils in the
region of the tailing ponds are well supplied mostly in the A and plough horizons.
The mound materials are at average to very good supplied, as the earth covering
materials are better supplied. Data shows that the future reclamation and soil
fertility improvement have to be carried out with introduction of fertilizers or other
organic matter in accordance with the usage purposes, the vegetation
requirements and their presence in the soil substrates.
• Benkovski 1 tailing pond contains relatively little copper and other non-ferrous
metals, i.e. portion of the mobile forms are infiltrated in depth and the reaction of
the substrates, where there is no reclamation, is slightly acid to neutral. It can be
expected that after biological reclamation and liming the mobility of the heavy
metals may be limited. The adjoining soils are concentrated with heavy metals -
mainly copper and cadmium. Particularly this is expressed in the surface layers of
the natural soils (the copper content is in times greater in 0-20 cm layer than in
deeper ones). The soils and spoils of the ore-mining complex are acid and with
greater concentration of heavy metals. At the same time the concentration of
alkaline and alkaline-earth elements is in small quantities. The values of the
correlation between Ca and Mg are contrary to those in natural soils, i.e. the
quantity of Mg is much greater than Ca. The concentration of copper and
cadmium is greater than other heavy metal concentration. Their genetic origin and
the pollution rate determine the heavy metal content in the soils. On the other
hand, their content in the substrates, a subject of reclamation is determined by
their quantity in the ore materials and the technology of extraction.
376
• The organic part of the soil cover (dead forest cover and sod) accumulates more
heavy metals than the deeper soil horizons and layers during the period of
vegetation.
• The soils and soil substrates in the region of Elacite - med AD are not salted, i.e.
their salt condition (electrical conductivity) is not a limiting factor for vegetation
cultivating and growth.
• The data from the analysis shows some trends but also a great vriety.
Table N
Content of humus and basic nutrient elements in soil samples in the region of
Elacite med AD
Depth Humus N Humus/N P* K2O
% % % mg/100g
1 Аорн.(0 – 18)/18 3,19 0.335 9.52 0,218 128.33
В (18 – 38)/20 2,68 0.272 9.85 0,219 71.70
С (38 50)/12 2,68 0.173 15.49 0,241 52.42
2 Аpl. (0 – 20)/20 2,10 0.122 17.21 0,076 25.31
ІІ gr.(20 – 36)/ 16 1,03 0.065 15.85 0,078 15.67
ІІІ gr.(36 – 50)/ 14 1,54 0.045 34.22 0,062 19.88
3 Аc (0 – 18)/ 18 3,71 0.325 11.41 0,022 35.55
CD (18 – 40)/22 1,24 0.108 35.11 0,069 17.47
4 Ас(0 –19)/ 19 0,72 0.159 4.52 0,020 29.52
CD (19 – 40)/ 21 1,65 0.047 35.11 0,035 12.05
5 А (0 – 18)/ 18 3,81 0.281 13.56 0,036 31.33
ВС (18 – 34)/ 13 1,65 0.076 21.71 0,030 27.11
С (34 – 50)/ 19 0,82 0.036 27.78 0,055 22.90
6 І gr. (0 – 12)/ 12 0,72 0.044 16.36 0,048 29.90
ІІ gr. (12 – 60)/ 48 1,34 0.013 103.08 0,061 13.86
7 І gr. (0 – 12)/ 12 2,26 0.072 31.39 0,038 26.51
ІІ gr. (12 - 50)/ 38 1.24 0.064 19.38 0,040 18.08
8 А (0 – 12)/ 12 2,57 0.376 6.84 0,060 50.61
377
Depth Humus N Humus/N P* K2O
% % % mg/100g
1 Аорн.(0 – 18)/18 3,19 0.335 9.52 0,218 128.33
АСf (12 – 22)/ 10 1,75 0.137 12.78 0,046 21.09
CDf(22 – 38)/ 16 0,10 0.064 1.56 0,080 30.13
Dс (38 - 50↓)
Table N
Content of humus and basic nutrient elements in soil samples in the region
Benkovski 1 tailing pond
Slice depth cm pH pH humu N Humus/N P2O5 K2O (ass.)

s (ass.)
(H2O) (CaCl2) % mg/100 g
% mg/100 g
Р7І 0-20 6.58 5.22 0.11 0.0297 3.70 9.5 9.00
20-50 6.72 6.56 - 0.0464 9.5 16.00
Р8І 0-20 6.64 6.17 - 0.0238 10.5 14.00
20-50 8.07 7.17 - 0.0077 9.5 33.50
Р9І 0-20 8.32 7.46 - 0.0040 9.5 25.50

9
Р10І 0-20 6.20 5.47 2.13 0.0746 28.55 23.0 23.00
20-50 5.98 5.23 1.41 0.0550 0.022 25.0 19.50
378
Table N 1.4-5
Content of some heavy metals, arsenic (mg/kg) and sulfur in the soils of the region of Elacite med AD
(July - August 2001)
N Depth pH Cu Cu Zn Zn Pb Pb Ni Ni Cd Cd Cr Cr As S
profile /H2O/
LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC=25 %
1 Аpl.(0 – 18)/18 7.56 280 69,7 370 109,7 80 48,4 70 33,1 3,0 2,1 200 7,6 <0.5 0.058
В (18 – 38)/20 7.25 280 92,2 370 112,8 80 46,9 70 33,8 3,0 2,2 200 7,9 <0.5 0.032
С (38 50)/12 7.26 280 36,8 370 108,4 80 49,5 70 31,8 3,0 1,9 200 9,9 <0.5 0.025
2 Аpl. (0 – 20)/20 6.16 260 45,5 340 52,3 80 28,8 60 14,6 1,5 1,1 190 4,2 <0.5 0.014
ІІ gr.(20 – 36)/ 16 5.98 120 38,8 200 61,0 70 26,4 50 14,8 1,0 1,2 180 4,1 <0.5 0.010
ІІІ gr.(36 – 50)/ 14 6.23 260 27,2 340 68,5 80 42,4 60 29,8 1,5 1,7 190 8,8 <0.5 0.020
3 Ас (0 – 18)/ 18 5.35 60 21,8 95 69,7 70 50,8 35 26,3 0,8 1,3 170 4,5 <0.5 0.006
CD (18 – 40)/22 5,20 60 71,3 95 94,5 70 41,2 35 48,3 0,8 2,2 170 7,1 <0.5 0.014
4 Ас(0 –19)/ 19 6.40 260 20,0 340 40,4 80 20,1 60 18,7 1,5 0,9 190 4,4 <0.5 0.012
CD (19 – 40)/ 21 6.43 260 10,5 340 45,3 80 35,6 60 24,3 1,5 1,5 190 6,3 <0.5 0.008
5 А (0 – 18)/ 18 5.66 120 43,7 200 67,9 70 50,5 50 22,6 1,0 1,8 180 4,2 <0.5 0.028
ВС (18 – 34)/ 13 6.09 260 20,5 340 68,4 80 53,4 60 23,8 1,5 1,5 190 4,2 <0.5 0.010
379
N Depth pH Cu Cu Zn Zn Pb Pb Ni Ni Cd Cd Cr Cr As S
profile /H2O/
LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC=25 %
С (34 – 50)/ 19 6.58 260 86,9 340 52,6 80 53,8 60 26,5 1,5 1,3 190 5,6 <0.5 0.021
6 І gr. (0 – 12)/ 12 6.99 260 33,9 340 67,1 80 41,2 60 22,2 1,5 1,2 190 5,2 <0.5 0.007
ІІ gr. (12 – 60)/ 48 6.45 260 43,0 340 82,5 80 37,7 60 23,7 1,5 1,7 190 6,0 <0.5 0.006
7 І gr. (0 – 12)/ 12 6.56 260 29,9 340 66,7 80 34,7 60 35,5 1,5 1,6 190 10,6 <0.5 0.011
ІІ gr. (12 - 50)/ 38 6.05 260 38,7 340 69,5 80 33,5 60 33,3 1,5 1,9 190 12,4 <0.5 0.012
8 А (0 – 12)/ 12 5.21 60 410,8 95 95,3 70 95,7 35 32,9 0,8 1,9 170 6,3 <0.5 0.058
АСf (12 – 22)/ 10 5.88 120 23,6 200 67,5 70 41,5 50 30,3 1,0 1,3 180 7,8 <0.5 0.016
CDf(22 – 38)/ 16 6.11 260 42,8 340 107,0 80 36,8 60 48,0 1,5 2,1 190 8,2 <0.5 0.009
Basic concentraton (acc. >6 34 88 26 46 0,4 65 10 0,085*

Reg.N3,/PN copy 39/2002)
*according to Vinogradov, A., 1962
380
Table N1.4-5а
Content of some heavy metals and arsenic (mg/kg arid matter) in the soils of the region of Benkovski tailing pond
Ground Depth cm рН copper arsenic cadmiu lead zinc nickel chrom mercur silver gold iron manganes
m e y e
P7І 0 - 20 5.82 75 4.21 <0.10 30 110 38.00 39.00 0.13 <0.001 <0.002 18000 575
20 - 50 6.35 410 4.14 <0.10 13 48 20.00 26.00 0.24 <0.001 <0.002 12500 342
P8І 0 - 20 6.44 250 3.00 <0.10 16 70 33.00 42.00 0.14 <0.001 <0.002 17870 425
20 - 50 7.67 530 4.64 <0.10 3.50 23 12.00 21.00 0.11 <0.001 0.010 9250 361
P9І 0 - 20 8.05 668 3.78 <0.10 5.50 23 14.00 7.25 0.08 <0.001 <0.002 9000 255
P10І 0 - 20 5.45 525 7.00 0.25 29 85 25.00 25.00 0.29 <0.001 <0.002 16000 625
20 - 50 5.55 42 8.50 <0.10 26 105 27.00 26.00 0.14 <0.001 <0.002 16870 575
basic concentration >6 34 10 0,4 26 88 46 65 0,03 *0,1 *55000 *5 000
*average concentrations according to Stoyanov, C., 1999
381
Table N1.4 - 8
Content of heavy metal in mean samples of organic material and humus horizons of soils in the region of Elacite med AD
(July - August 2001)
N profile Depth pH Cu Cu Zn Zn Pb Pb Ni Ni Cd Cd Cr Cr As
/H2O/
LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC Meas. LPC =25
1 0 - 20 7.56 280 74,9 370 124.5 80 49.6 70 36,2 3,0 2,2 200 9,2 <0.5
2 sod 6.16 260 76 340 57.1 80 49.6 60 22,1 1,5 2,1 190 6,4 <0.5
0-5 90.0 43.0 24,8 2,8 8,4 <0.5
3 0–5 5.35 60 202,8 95 91.2 70 59.7 35 37,9 0,8 2,1 170 10,4 <0.5
4 0–5 6.40 260 549,0 340 75.8 80 85.2 60 16,1 1,5 2,3 190 5,2 <0.5
5 0–5 5.66 120 163,8 200 105.6 70 79.9 50 31,9 1,0 2,3 180 6,5 <0.5
6 dead forest cover 6.99 260 148,4 340 62.6 80 31.1 60 17,7 1,5 1,5 190 4,3 <0.5
(DFC)
75,6 160.9 42.2 38,5 2,1 10,8 <0.5
0–5
7 DFC 231,0 58.1 33.2 19,9 1,6 6,6 <0.5
0–5 6.56 260 211,7 340 57.1 80 67.7 60 13,4 1,5 2,2 190 5,8 <0.5
5 - 20 89,1 97.0 37.4 36,8 2,4 9,6 <0.5
8 0–5 5,21 60 272.3 95 112.8 70 73.7 35 48,6 0,8 2,1 170 9,6 <0.5
Basic concentraton (acc. >6 34 88 26 46 0,4 65 10

Reg.N3,/PN copy 39/2002)
382
RECOMMENDATION FOR MONITORING
Reasons for the monitoring points choice
The study’s aim is to determine points for monitoring, which for considerable amount
of time will give most precise information for the soils condition and the occurring
changes as a result of the production process.
The following requirements are taken in mind while determining the monitoring
points:
• The points have to be typical for the region that are characterizing. They have to
be situated in the way not to get in the shadow of the production polluters;
• It is advisable and economically grounded the monitoring points to be situated in

the way of the predominating winds. In this way the influence of the production
object should be reflected most clearly. The distance from the polluter should
allow covering the territory (where the eventual polluting matters will spread) in
the best way.
Principles for setting of points for permanent and periodical monitoring:
The ecological conditions are strongly influenced by the aerial polluters that come
from the accidental and not organized sources. They are also influenced by the
waste waters, the deferred waste products and the social-economical status of
people.
The main factor that is affecting the atmospheric pollution is the meteorological
conditions. The meteorological data received from the transient automatic stations,
although for a very short action time, show some local peculiarities of the air and
wind temperature that have determining importance for the air pollutants spread in
the region. (Cnkova-Bratoeva, A et all, 1997, 1999).
The main climatic factors that are determining the climatic peculiarities of the region
and that are of importance for the powder pollutants dispersion are the altitude and
the various relief forms, the temperature inversions, the wind direction and speed and
the air humidity.
Some of the basic climatic characteristics endure considerable changes as a result of

the morphological characteristics of the grounds’ situation (for Benkovski 1, 2 tailing
ponds). The terrain is specific with it heavy cut from the erosion folds. The varying in
their forms hills and gullies together with the varying in it form and density vegetation
create a specific topo-climate.
When the weather is bright and quiet the lower relief forms create conditions for
holding and overheating of the air and thus the maximal daily temperature increases
with 1-1,5°С. Conversely the nights, during stable anti-cyclone weather, in the
conditions of the night cooling, cold air goes down the enclosing slopes to the lower
parts of the relief and “lake” of cold air is formed in the bottoms. This stable
stratification of the atmosphere creates the temperature inversions. They are one of
383
the factors that are responsible for holding and piling of pollutants in the grounded air
layer as the dispersion of the pollutants is prevented.
The wind speed changes in the different relief forms in comparison with open and
plain lands. The stage of the speed change is assessed by using correction tables.
The high protection value of the ground near Benkovski2 tailing pond is a
prerequisite for the predomination of calms and light winds. This takes to pollutants
and powder particles holding in the region.
The tailing pond construction changes one of the most underlying climate-forming
factors - the covering surface and changes the geometry of the ground (leveling the
pond surface and decreasing the displacement with the adjoining slopes). This
automatically changes a set of climatic characteristics.
The changed physical characteristic of the covering surface that are due to it leveling
while the tailing pours (this emerges vast water area and earthworks upon the walls
of the pond) soften up the influence of the negative effect of the relief without
eliminating it completely. That is why the possibility of formation a grounded
temperature inversions and appearance of local circulation.
Due to it topographical characteristics, the ground of Benkovski II Stage tailing

pond’s condition is better in relation to the spread of the aerosol pollution. Despite
this, at definite meteorological conditions it may transform to source of powder
pollution.
At the beginning of the exploitation of the tailing pond the shape of the region is
kettle-like. There a circulation is created which in combination with the intensive
dynamical turbulence raises dust from parts of the tailing pond where it is entirely or
partially dried and it beaches are not enough stabilized. In that cases a powder
stream from the bottom via the mouth of the kettle is created and it becomes a low
source of powder pollution with average height of two to ten meters. The speed of
removal from the mouth varies about 1-3 m/s at light speed of wind. When the speed
of the wind is above 10 m/s the speed of the powder removal (Cenkova-Bratoeva, A
et all, 1999 according to Radev, R., 1999)
Therefore while defining the monitoring points, one of the most important
requirements is the determination of the wind speed and direction, i.e. the points
have to be situated along this direction.
Also an important requirement while defining the monitoring point is that they should
not be situated in hollows or gullies but in open areas and protruding relief forms.
As the soils in the region are mainly maroon soils the basic soil type upon which the
monitoring points have to be established on here should be the maroon soils and
exceptionally on alluvial (deluvial) meadow soils. The scope of the investigation is
framed by the model of the depositions of the pollutants around the object. Due to the
fact that the permanent monitoring of the soils starts in August 2001 on the
determined sample grounds full soil slices are set (for now they are 8). Then in
accordance to the program samples from the surface horizons - the plough layer,
dead forest cover or sod, or 0 to 5 cm from the A horizon of the not-disturbed soils or
384
the reclaimed layers - should be picked up. The varied relief, the changes of the
weather and the production, the technologies of support and pouring out in the tailing
ponds, as well as the requirements for greater precision may impose increase in the
number of the monitoring points.
The monitoring program contains the following requirements:
Table N
Suggestion for monitoring program of the soils and vegetation in the regions
impacted by Elacite med AD
Methods of approach Indicators Period
Modeling Microclimate and At the beginning of the

deposition region of heavy monitoring
metals
Morphology of the soil Color, texture, structure, Once in 5 years

profiles humidity, reaction to НСІ
Physical investigations Mechanical and mineral Once in 5 years

composition of A horizon
Chemical investigations Humus and basic nutrient Once in 5 years

elements
Metals – Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, Annually during the wettest

As, Ni, Fe, Al, Hg, B, Ca, and driest period of the
K, Mg vegetation period
Acidity pН in water and КСІ Annually during the wettest

and driest period of the
vegetation period
Conductivity Electrical conductivity Once in 5 years
Dead forest cover Basic nutrient elements, S, Annually

Fe, Ca, K
385
SOME ASPECTS OF SUBSTANCE DIFFUSION IN THE

ATMOSPHERE1
Boldyrev Anton student1, Klovo Alexander PhD1, Kupovykh Gennady PhD1,

Marchenko Alexander Eng.1, Suhinov Alexander Professor1,2
1
Taganrog State University of Radio Engineering) TSURE Nekrasovsky
44 GSP-17a 347928 Taganrog,
Russia, ph. 315638, antonbold@mailru.com; mag@vm.tsure.ru;
Research Educational Center for Mathematical Modeling of Ecological Systems
ABSTRACT
The actuality of the sea surface layer hydrothermodynamical researchers is determined by the
necessity of development of global model of anthropological impact atmosphere on the whole. The
presence of temperature inversion, which depends on the air-water medium partition, is the
characteristic feature of sea surface layer. Theoretical modeling of processes, which take place near
active surface, is complicated mathematical problem of the combined solution of dynamics’,
hydrostatics’ equations and heat/mass conservation laws.
Keywords: human impact, atmosphere, diffusion
The aim of this work is elaboration of methods of atmospheric diffusion computation

taking into account the features of the surface (sea surface) layer. For analysis of
meteorological processes in the sea surface layer the experimental research of
hydrothermodynamic characteristics of the Azov Sea surface layer was organized in
Taganrog Bay water area near village Primorskoe and Andreeva harbor in summer of
2000-2001 years. Gradient researches were executed at a distance of about two
kilometers from the coastline on the special raft. These researchers included
psychometrical measurements at four levels: 0.15; 0.5; 1 and 2 meters (see pic.1).
Parameters of stratification, turbulent mixing and heat flow near the sea surface
layer, the humidity characteristics were calculated. In 2001 simultaneously with the
measurements in the sea the analogue researchers took place at the distance of 100
meters from the coastline.
H,m
2 25,5 27,8 29,1
1,5
1 25,2 27,9 28,9
0,5 25,1 28,1 28,8
24,6 28,3 28,7

0 T,°С
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Pic.1. Distribution of the air temperature (T) with height

( above water 2001, above ground 2001, above water 2000).
1
386
In addition the measurements were held only during daytime every 30 minutes. In
case of the rain and strong wind (more 7 m/s) research was stopped.
For temperature measurements psychrometrical thermometers were used with limits

from -31°C to +50°C and value of division 0.2°C. Thus temperature was measured
within 0.1°C.
For calculation of humidity characteristics psychrometrical tables were used. The

characteristics of water steam resiliency e and deficiency of water steam resiliency d
(mbar) and relative humidity f (%) were also calculated. The measurements of wind
speed were taken within 0.1 m/s. Barometer was graduated with mm Hg (within 1
mm Hg).
For calculation of turbulence coefficient Orlenko method was used [3]:
0.115∆U
KTOR = ,
ϕ2
∆U is difference of wind speeds on levels 2 m and 0.5 m; ϕ -universal value of

Richardson’s number.
The data analysis displayed the presence of the stable temperature inversion
(approximately 1°C) above the sea surface layer in contrast to the earth surface layer
at the daytime. The thickness of the inversion layer (0.5-1 meter) depends on
Richardson`s number and the turbulence coefficient. In the case of the stable
stratification of the atmosphere the temperature inversion took place on all research
levels in the sea surface layer. In case of labile stratification the height of the
inversion layer didn’t exceed one meter. The turbulent mixing increasing lead to
temperature inversion descries and its scale on height.
Furthermore the magnitudes of turbulent heat flow and heat expenditure were
calculated evaporation characteristics of the sea surface layer using []:
dT de
P = −kρc p and LE = −kρb ,
dh ∆h
where k is turbulence coefficient; ρ − density of air; ср − specific air heat with constant
pressure; ∆T ∆h − vertical gradient of air temperature; − ∆e ∆h − vertical gradient of
water steam resiliency; b= 0.622L p (L− specific heat steam generation,

р−atmospheric pressure) (see pic.2 and 3).
387
H,m
2,5
-107,4 -13,9 2 13
1,5
-105,0 -19,1 1 23,7
-379,2 -57,6 0,5

55,9
0 P
-400 -300 -200 -100 0
Pic.2. Distribution of turbulent heat flow.
H,m
2,5
5,8 12,1
2 4,2
1,5
2,2
-9,9 -4,4 1
31,5
0,5
24,7
26,7
0 P
-12 -2 8 18 28
Pic.3. Distribution of expenditure of heat on vapor.
Comparative analyze of turbulent heat flow and heat expenditure for vapor profiles
show that impact of these characteristics of heat balance are considerable near sea
surface and decrease with height.
Problems of the temperature and humidity distribution for non-stationary sea surface
layer were raised and solved. The water steam was considered as an admixture.
Thus we can think that steam concentration as an admixture concentration. With this
motivation a two-dimension non-stationary model of substance diffusion is developed
for estimating the anthropological impact on the atmosphere.
Mathematical model of hydrothermodynamic condition of the sea surface layer state

is developed. The initial model consists of the equations of thermal conductivity and
steam transport in turbulent atmosphere. There are equations for non stationary
horizontally uniform surface layer without convection:
∂  ∂θ  L ∂  ∂ q 
K − K  + α( z ) = 0 ,
∂ z  ∂ z  cp ∂ z  ∂ z 
∂  ∂q 
K  + f (q ) = 0 ,
∂ z  ∂z 
where T – temperature, q – specific humidity, k – coefficient of turbulent mixing, W –

speed of convection water steam transport, α(z) – external source of heat, z –height.
388
The dependences forms of α(z) and f(q) have sufficiently complex character, which
depends on meteorological conditions. Numerical researchers showed that f(q) may
be selected in the next form: f ( z ) = C ⋅ ( q − q ∞ ) 2 , where C is certain constant.
Boundary conditions were defined as follows:
T (z = 0 ) = T 0 , T (z → ∞ ) = T 1 , q (z = 0 ) = q m (T 0 , P0 ) , q (z → ∞ ) = 0 ,
where h – sea surface layer thickness (in the order of 1 meter), qm – saturated form
of the specific humidity at prescribed valued T0 and P0 near surface.
The profiles of C and q(z) (t=0) were specified as initial condition which were taken
from solving of appropriate stationary problem.
It is important to mark that water steam was considered as an admixture. Thus

obtained solving of this scheme we may consider as a distribution of substance in
atmosphere (see pic.4).
Z,m
z, м
22
2 1
11
3
00
q,q,g/m
г/м 3
3
10
22 66 10
Pic.4. Theoretical results for humidity

(curve k = 0 ,05 m2/s W = 0 m/s;
curve - k = 0 ,15 m2/s W = 0 ,1 m/s;
curve - k = 0 ,05 m2/s W = 0 ,1 m/s).
The theoretical results are in a good agreement with experimental facts. The reason
of temperature inversion is phase vapour↔water transition near the sea surface
layer.
Furthermore on the base of this research and theory of turbulent diffusion the
admixture diffusion in the atmosphere has been simulated. The numerical modelling
is based on the solution of boundary value problem for the equation
∂C ∂C ∂  ∂C 
+U = K z +S
∂t ∂x ∂z  ∂z 
for linear source with the power Ql attached to U and Kz, which are changed with the
grow of height by equation U = U 1( z / z 1 ) m , K z = K z 1( z / z 1 ) n , with appropriate
boundary and initial conditions. For modeling finite-difference method was turned to
account with iteration on every step by the time.
389
The result of this work is two-dimension model of contaminant spreading in the

atmosphere. The subsequent step is simulation of the two-dimension nonstationary
model taking into account aerodynamically roughness of the surface and features of
the sea surface layer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present work is supported by the Civilian Research and Development

Foundation (CRDF, project REC-004).
REFERENCES
1. Matveev L.T. The course of meteorology. Physics of atmosphere. – Leningrad:

Gydrometeoizdat, 1984.
2. Klovo A.G., Kupovykh G.V.// Hydrothermodynamical processes modeling in

surface layer. Proc. Conf. “Math. model. in scientific research”, v. II, Stavropol,
2000. p. 50-54.
3. Orlenko L.R. The structure of planetary atmospheric boarder layer. Leningrad:

Gydrometeizgat, 1979.
4. Samarsky A.A., Nikolaev E.S. Methods of grid-leak equation solving. – М: Nauka,

1978.
390
DISSOLVED OXYGEN EVOLUTION IN DANUBE RIVER WATERS

(SECTOR BAZIAS – BAHNA RIVER MOUTH)
BETWEEN 1996 AND 1999s
Marius L. Matache*, Cristian I. Ioja*, Maria Pătroescu*, Constantin Patroescu1
*University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies,

Nicolae Balcescu 1, sector 1, 70 111 Bucharest, Romania,
e-mail: media@portiledefier.ro
1
University of Bucharest, Department of Chemistry, Division of Analytical Chemistry,
Sos. Panduri 60-64, sector 6, Bucharest, Romania
ABSTRACT
Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important parameters in aquatic systems, this gas being an absolute
requirement for the existence of aquatic life and also having a very important role in the large majority of
inorganic chemical reactions taking place in aquatic environments.
The present study emphasises dissolved oxygen concentration evolution on a sector of the Danube River
located on Romania territory, at the border with Yugoslavia, being the result of water quality monitoring
campaign that included the analysis of several quality indicators. The region is included in the Iron Gates
Natural Park area, fact that it emphasizes the water quality protection more important.
Samples collection took place in the first week of August, each year. The dissolved oxygen concentration
was quantified using Winkler method.
Keywords: Dissolved oxygen, Danube River, water quality, Romania, Iron Gates
Natural Park
INTRODUCTION
Dissolved oxygen role in aquatic environments is extremely complex, participating in a

wide series of chemical, biochemical and biological processes (e.g. photosynthesis, iron
and manganese ions precipitation, sulphate formation following sulphides and
polysulphides oxidation etc.) [1, 2]
Water is an oxygen poor environment, containing only 5% of the oxygen that the same
volume of air does (1 litre of air contains 285 mg oxygen, 1 litre of freshwater contains
14.6 mg oxygen at 0°C).
That is way oxygen consumption by other processes (e.g. organic or inorganic pollutants
oxidation) can cause severe missfunctionality of the aquatic environment, including
watersheds eutrophisation and species destruction. [3, 4]
The consumption velocity of oxygen by the microorganisms is directly proportional with

the concentration of organic compounds till it is equal with the speed limit of oxygen
reintroduction from atmosphere or by aquatic plants through photosynthesis. [5]
s
391
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHOD
The sampling was performed in the first week of August between 1996 and 1999. The
water samples were collected in two verticals close to the Romanian sector (at 50-100 m
close to the shore) and in the channel and also in the Cerna Gulf, using a bathometer.
The sampling sites locations are viewed in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Sampling sites location on the analysed sector.
Both verticals consisted of three collected samples that will be referred below as:
Surface – at 0.2 m from water surface, Interface – at the interface between water and
alluvial deposits, and Middle – at half of the surface–interface distance corresponding to
each vertical. Where the water did not exceeded 5 m, the intermediate sample (Middle)
was not considered. In some cases, due to weather conditions, it was impossible to
obtain the samples.
The samples were collected in Winkler bottles and analysis performed immediately. All
used reagents were of analytical purity (Merck).
After the sample was collected, 1 ml of solution KI-NaOH (15 g KI + 40 g NaOH +

distillate water to 100 ml) was added and 1 ml of solution MnCl2 (50 g MnCl2·4H2O and
distillate water to 100 ml). The dissolved oxygen oxidises Mn (II) at Mn (III). With the
addition of iodide and solution acidification, the oxidized manganese reverts back to
divalent state, releasing iodine equivalent to original dissolved oxygen content. Iodine
was titrated with sodium thiosulphate (using starch as indicator). [6]
In order to emphasize the dissolved oxygen distribution, both longitudinal and

transversal profiles were considered. The longitudinal profiles, performed for the values
392
determined at water surface and water-sediments interface include only the sampling
sites that full results exists for the entire considered period.
Considering annual variation (see figures 2-5), the highest values were registered in
1997, caused by the flooding conditions that represented a characteristic of the
sampling period in that year and that enhanced atmospheric oxygen barbotage into the
water. Along the analysed sector, highest values were registered in the Cerna Gulf,
where the rivers Cerna and Bahna, both having highly oxygenated waters, manifest their
influence, especially close to the shore, where rivers action is stronger (see figure 2).
The oxygen level is lower in the channel, where oxidisable compounds (which are
degraded by the aquatic microorganisms through oxidative processes with the dissolved
oxygen) can enter the aquatic environment more frequently (due to water
11 7.5
10 7
Concentration (ppm)
Concentration (ppm)
9 6.5
8 6
7 5.5
6 5
5 4.5
4 4
km 1071 km 1056 km 996 km 956 Cerna Cerna km 1071 km 1056 km 996 km 956 Cerna island Cerna
shore shore shore shore island middle shore shore shore shore middle
Sampling site location Sampling site location
1996 1997 1998 1999 1996 1997 1998 1999
Fig. 2. Dissolved oxygen concentration – Fig. 3 Dissolved oxygen concentration –

samples collected nearby the shore, at samples collected nearby the shore, at
surface the water-sediments interface
8 7.5
7,5
7
Concentration (ppm)
7
6.5
6,5
Concentration (ppm)
6 6
5,5 5.5
5
5
4,5
4.5
4
km 1071 km 1059 km 1056 km 996 km 956 Bahna 4
channel channel channel channel channel channel km 1071 km 1059 km 1056 km 996 km 956 Bahna
channel channel channel channel channel channel
Sampling site location
1996 1997 1998 1999 1996 1997 1998 1999
Fig. 4. Dissolved oxygen concentration – Fig. 5 Dissolved oxygen concentration –

samples collected in the channel, at samples collected in the channel, at the
surface water-sediments interface
393
traffic, that sometimes causes waste releasing or even ecological accidents – several
accidents of petroleum loaded barges being mentioned in the last ten years, especially
during the NATO embargo over Yugoslavia [7]. Stumm and Lee (1961) showed that the
ferrous-ferric ions, present in the system, have a catalytic effect on organic matter
oxidation by the oxygen [8]. The oxygen concentrations are lower in the samples
collected in the channel also because in deeper waters (as the ones in the channel)
photosynthesis is reduced due to poor light penetration.
August provides the conditions for dissolved oxygen deficit appearance (weak re-
aeration, high temperatures – average temperature of water in the surface sample
during the analysed period varied between 22.02 oC in 1997 and 27.55 oC in 1998), fact
proved by the low oxygen concentrations.
Related to dissolved oxygen variations on a vertical profile, it was impossible to identify

a clear trend (see Table 1) due to a lot of factors that are influencing locally and
temporary this analyte such as microbial activity, casual releases of nutrients
(Schweisfurth (1972) cited by Forstner and Wittman [9] indicates the fact that amount of
orthophosphates higher than 50 ppm
Table 1. Vertical distribution of dissolved oxygen concentration.

Interface Middle Surface Interface Middle Surface
Sampling site
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
1 Km 956 shore 5.12 4.85 5.03 1 6.85 5.91 6.04
9 Km 956 9
5.18 5.54 5.56 5.64 5.98 5.94
9 channel 9
6 Cerna Island 6.33 7.05 6.66 7 6.99 6.57 8.75
Cerna middle 5.85 6.33 6.49 6.56 6.81 10.1
Bahna channel 5.03 5.49 5.33 6.09 6.19 5.87
Interface Middle Surface Interface Middle Surface
Sampling site
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
1 Km 956 shore 4.4 5.21 4.95 1 4.15 4.77 5.63
9 Km 956 9
9 channel 4.32 4.27 4.87 9 4.44 4.31 5.25
8 Cerna Island 4.44 4.7 7.89 9 4.51 5.12 7.3
Cerna middle 4.47 5.57 8.76 4.62 3.83 6.25
Bahna channel 4.35 4.73 7.26 4.23 4.27 4.35
inhibit manganese oxidation), water currents causing non-homogenous mixing of water

layers with different dissolved oxygen concentration, alluvial deposit composition
(organic rich sediments, present also on the analysed sector [10], determines an
increased oxygen consumption). Anyway, the values are significantly lower than the
theoretical concentrations of dissolved oxygen in freshwater water (see Table 2) [11].
394
Table 2. Solubility of oxygen in fresh water (100% Saturation)

Dissolved
Temperature Temperature Dissolved oxygen
oxygen
(oC) (oC) (ppm)
(ppm)
16 9.9 23 8.7
17 9.7 24 8.5
18 9.5 25 8.4
19 9.3 26 8.2
20 9.2 27 8.1
21 9.0 28 7.9
22 8.8 29 7.8
Starting from literature references [12, 13], authors tried to emphasize possible
correlation between dissolved oxygen and sulphate concentrations, which will support
the idea that sulphide ions oxidation by the dissolved oxygen is a source for sulphate
appearance and also for dissolved oxygen consumption. Sulphide ions may appear
either from inorganic compounds dissolution (metallic sulphide or polysulphide) or
microbial activity.
From the four years results comparison, two of the data sets were more representative,
displayed in Figures 6 and 7.
5.3 70 5.6 46
5.2 65
Dissolved oxygen (ppml)
5.4 44
Dissolved oxygen (ppm)
5.1 60
5 42
Sulphate (ppm)
55 5.2
Sulphate (ppm)
4.9
50 40
4.8 5
45
4.7 38
40 4.8
4.6
35 36
4.5
30 4.6
4.4 34
4.3 25
4.4 32
4.2 20
km 1071 km 1059 km 996 km 956 Bahna 4.2 30
channel channel channel channel channel km 1071 km 1059 km 1056 km 1042 km 996 km 956
Sampling site location channel channel channel channel channel channel
Dissolved oxygen Sulphate Dissolved oxygen Sulphate
Fig. 6. Dissolved oxygen – sulphate Fig. 7 Dissolved oxygen – sulphate

concentration profile – samples collected concentration profile – samples collected
in the channel (Interface), 1996 in the channel (Middle), 1999
Both concentration profiles are located in the channel, where it seems that causal
perturbations of either dissolved oxygen or sulphide-sulphate concentrations are
reduced. It can also be remarked that the two correlations are less relevant close to the
Iron Gates hydroelectric powerplant, were disturbance appear due to water variations
395
involved by the turbines activities, but also due to anthropic pollution sources located in
that area (Orsova shipyard and harbour, Orsova city) and Cerna and Bahna rivers, with
more oxygenated waters.
CONCLUSIONS
Dissolved oxygen can be a very useful tool in evaluating freshwater quality, due to its
participation in most of the processes taking place in the aquatic environment. Its
presence is a condition for the existence of submerse life.
On the considered sector of Danube, oxygen showed a non-uniform distribution on

vertical profiles, probably due to permanent interaction with other compounds dissolved
in or carried out by the Danube water or contained in the alluvial sediments deposits
from the river bottom. The activities of the hydroelectric powerplant, that involves water
accumulation and fast releasing through the turbines, have a significant influence on
dissolved oxygen regime, causing atmospheric oxygen barbotage.
As for the annual distribution, the highest values were registered in the year when the
Danube River was affected by a flooding (increased flow, turbulences etc.). Cerna and
Bahna rivers more oxygenated inputs were also emphasised.
A possible correlation between dissolved oxygen and sulphate ions was suggested in
order to support the idea of sulphide oxidation as a source for sulphate ions. Although
some of the results are suggesting this fact, it is impossible to formulate a decisive
conclusion, especially due to the multitude of factors (natural and anthropic) influencing
this process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors would like to thank CCMESI team for the acceptance of publishing this data, the
help provided in the sampling process and useful discussions that helped us in our work.
REFERENCES
1
Stumm, W., Morgan, J.J., Aquatic Chemistry, 3rd ed., Willey – Intersciences, New York,
1996
2
Maki, A.W., Dickson, K.L., Cairns, J., Biotransformation and fate of chemicals in the
aquatic environment, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, 1980.
3
Higgins, I.J., Burns, R.G., The Chemistry and Microbiology of pollution, Academic
Press, New York, 1975
4
Welch, E.B., 1992, Ecological effects of wastewater – Applied limnology and pollutants
effects, Chapman & Hall, 1992
5
Trufas, V., L’oxygène dissous – indicateur de la qualité de l’eau, University of
Bucharest Annals, 1995
396
6
Patroescu, C., Ganescu, I., Analiza apelor, 1980, p. 69-70, Ed. Scrisul Romanesc,
Craiova
7
*** Annual Reports regarding environment status in Caras-Severin County, 1996 –
2001, Caras-Severin Environmental Protection Inspectorate
8
Stumm, W., Lee, G. F.: Oxygenation of ferrous iron, Ind. Eng. Chem. 53, 143-146
(1961)
9
Forstner, U., Wittman, G.T.W., Metal pollution in the aquatic environment, 2nd ed.
Berlin, Springer, 1983
10
Matache, M.L., Rozylowicz, L., Ropota, M., Patroescu-Klotz, I.V. Annual charging of
the Danube river sediments with heavy metals. Case study: Baziash-Iron Gates dam
(1996-2000), Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Environmental Contamination in
Central and Eastern Europe, Prague (2000)
11
APHA-AWA-WEF American Public Health Association-American Water Association-
Water Environment Federation (1998) Standard Methods of the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, 20th ed., Washington D.C.
12
Nicholson, R.V., Iron-sulfide oxidation mechanisms: laboratory studies. IN: J.L.
Jambor and D.W. Blowes, eds, The Environmental Geochemistry of Sulfide Mine-
Wastes, Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Handbook Volume 22,
p.163-182
13
Singer, P.C., and Stumm, W., 1970, Acidic mine drainage: the rate determining step,
Science, 167, p.1121-1123
397
INFLUENCE OF CADMIUM ON PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

AND EFFICIENCY OF CHICKENS - BROILERS1
Lisunova L.I., Tokarev V.S., Lisunova A.V.

Аgrarian University, Novosibirsk, Russia
ABSTRACT
In modern conditions a basis of activity of the person becomes the principle of ecological rationality
including development and practical use of systems, technologies and the ways providing reception of
ecologically safe production of animal industries. Heavy metals concern to number of the most dangerous
objects of an environment The sizes of their distribution and intensity of migration in an environment have
got dangerous character for normal functioning and health of people. In this connection there is a real
necessity of development of strategy of regulation of a level of heavy metals for system about «ground -
an atmosphere - water - a plant - an animal - the person», basing on the interconnected and mutually
conditioned processes of their circulation.
Cadmium concerns to metals included in "the gloomy three". Its increased contents in an organism of the
person reduces ability to resist to illnesses. It has mutagen and cancerogenic properties, negatively
operates on a heredity. It also promotes development of diseases of kidneys, and also a gastritis and an
anemia.
Keywords: ecological safe production, animal industry, heavy metals, cadmium, Russia
METHODS
With the purpose of studying influence of cadmium on physiological parameters and

efficiency of chickens - broilers experiment on feeding sulfate of cadmium to a bird was
carried out. In experience took into account efficiency, chemical, aminoacid, vitamin and
mineral structure of a meat tissue.
To chickens of skilled group in the basic diet added cadmium in concentration of its ions
of 2 mg on 1 kg of a forage. All parameters were compared with control.
Inclusion in a diet of chickens - broilers up to 2 mg of cadmium on one kg of a forage

reduces on 1,80 % the use of a forage a bird and increases by 5,19 % of an expense of
a forage on 1 kg of a gain of alive weight.
Hence, inclusion of cadmium in a diet of chickens - broilers negatively operate both on

consumption of a forage by a bird, and on the charge of forages in calculation on unit of
a gain of alive weight.
It was established, that the increase in a fodder mix of ions of cadmium in reduces a
daily average gain of alive weight of chickens - broilers with 38,32 up to 35,64 г and as
1
398
investigation is observed the tendency to decrease of alive weight of chickens at 49-

day's age in comparison with control group (tab. 1).
Table 1
Changes of alive weight and weight of bodies
and fabrics of chickens - broilers, g
Group
Parameter
Control Skilled
Alive weight: at statement on
831±15,6 864±17,2
experience
In the age of 49 days 1904±43,8 1862±61,6
Daily average gain for the period of
38,32 35,64
experience
Muscular fabric 623,0±6,7 570,0±2,9**
Bones 286,6±2,0 280,0±5,0
Liver 38,8±0,8 34,3±2,3
Heart 6,10±0,06 5,77±0,24
Kidneys 3,80±0,12 5,38±0,19**
By us it was determined, that at introduction in a diet of cadmium decrease of weight of

a muscular fabric is observed (Р < 0,01), bones, a liver, heart, but the weight of kidneys
on 41,6 % (Р < 0,01) raises.
Estimating ecological cleanliness of internal bodies and fabrics, it is marked (tab. 2), that
at feeding the mix containing cadmium, it is accompanied by increase of its
accumulation in the investigated bodies and fabrics in 2,5 - 27,2 times (Р < 0,001) in
comparison with control group. Thus the greatest increase of accumulation of metal is
observed in a liver, the least - in fleshes.
Table 2
The contents of cadmium in bodies and fabrics
Group
Organ, tissue
Control Skilled
Blood, mg / l 0,008±0,001 0,093±0,003 ***
Fleshes tissue, mg / kg 0,035±0,003 0,087±0,003 ***
Liver, mg / kg 0,020±0,001 0,543±0,014 ***
Kidneys, mg / kg 0,023±0,003 0,127±0,009 ***
Inclusion in a diet of cadmium is accompanied by the tendency of accumulation of

cadmium in blood, fleshes, a liver and kidneys. It is confirmed also with high positive
correlation communication between the contents of metal in these bodies and fabrics.
So, the factor of correlation between the contents of cadmium in a liver and fleshes
399
achieves 0,966. Concentration of metal in blood can be used as criterion of an

estimation of its accumulation in kidneys (r = 0,704), a liver (r = 0,823) and fleshes (r =
0,732) at chickens - broilers.
The quantity of water in meat of animals and birds of different fatness depends on the
contents of fat: the more fat in meat, the there is less than moisture. It is established,
that inclusion in a fodder mix of cadmium reduces the contents of fat in meat and
promotes increase of its humidity (Р < 0,001).
Fats play the important role in an organism. They represent highly concentrated form of
exchange energy and participate in the basic metabolism. The lenoleum the acid is one
of important in family of fat acids. It renders essential influence on adjournment of fat,
alongside with hormonal and other known factors.
The first external display of deficiency of irreplaceable fat acids (and a lenoleum
including is delay of growth. Reduction of alive weight of skilled birds by the end of our
experiment confirms it. At birds stability to diseases is reduced.
In our researches quantity a lenoleum of an acid at chickens of skilled group on 3,5 %

less control.
The main component of an organism of animals are fibers which contents makes 20 %
from weight of a crude fabric. Fibers or proteins, are a basis of life.
The common contents of fibers in meat in an insufficient degree characterizes its food
value as alongside with high-grade fibers which structure includes irreplaceable
aminoacids, in meat there are also defective fibers. Therefore food value of meat should
be defined on its aminoacid structure.
As a result of inclusion in a fodder mix of chickens of cadmium concentration a lisin in

meat decreases on 3,8 % (Р < 0,01) and leicin - on 2,7 % (Р < 0,05), but a treonin the
contents is increased by 20,5 % ( P < 0,001) in comparison with control group. On the
metionin, the triptofan and the oxiprolin between these groups it is not revealed
authentic distinctions. Vitamins are low-molecular organic connections of a various
chemical nature. In an organism they are present at very small amounts, but carry out
the vital functions, being regulators of a metabolism. Inclusion in a fodder mix of
chickens of cadmium has resulted in reduction of concentration of vitamin Е in meat on
0,21 mg/kg (Р > 0,05), В2 - on 0,44 (Р < 0,001), В6 - on 0,10 mg / kg (Р < 0,01) and В12 -
on 0,4 mkg / kg (Р < 0,01), the amount of vitamin В5 has increased by 0,92 mg / kg (Р<
0,001). On vitamins В1 and В3 authentic distinctions it is not revealed between skilled
group and control.
At studying mineral structure in an organism special attention give on an exchange of

calcium and phosphorus. In regulation of various physiological processes by it the big
role belongs
It is known, that cadmium replaces calcium in many connections of an alive organism.

Lack of calcium and phosphorus has especially an effect during growth of a bird, when
400
the need of an organism for these elements is considerably increased also they in
plenties (about 99 %) take the form of steady connections in bone system. In our
experiment the tendency on decrease of calcium in meat of chickens of skilled group is
traced in comparison with control.
Addition in a diet of cadmium has lowered the contents of chlorine and the kali in meat
of chickens accordingly on 8,3 and 4,1 % (Р < 0,01), concentration of iron and
manganese has increased on 1,7 (Р < 0,001) and 42,3 % (Р < 0,01).
The contents in a diet of high dozes of cadmium negatively influences quality of meat,
reduces the contents of some vitamins and mineral substances in meat.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Inclusion in a fodder mix of ions of cadmium reduces a daily average gain of chickens
- broilers and, as investigation, alive weight of a bird by the end of experiment.
Reduction of weight of a muscular fabric, bones, a liver, heart also is observed.
2. Addition in the basic diet of cadmium is accompanied by increase of its accumulation

in a muscular fabric in 2,48 time, blood - 11,62, a liver - 27,15 and kidneys - in 5,52
times in comparison with control group.
3. As a result of inclusion in a fodder mix of chickens of cadmium within the limits of 2

mg on 1 kg of a forage in a muscular fabric concentration the lisin on 3,8 % and the
leicin - on 2,7 % decreases.
4. In meat there was a reduction of the contents of vitamin Е by 0,21 mg/kg, B2 - on

0,44, B6 - on 0,10 mg / kg and B12 - on 0,4 mkg / kg in comparison with control group.
5. Addition in a diet of cadmium has lowered the contents of chlorine and the kali in a
muscular fabric of chickens accordingly on 8,3 and 4,1 %, concentration of iron and
manganese has increased on 1,7 and 42,3 %.
401
ABOUT THE NOISE LEVEL IN BRAILA1
Mihaela Picu, Ana Picu

“Dunarea de Jos” University, Galati, Romania
ABSTRACT
In this paper are presented the results of noise level measurements in 3 different areas in Braila.
These measurements were made between 1st and 24 October 2002. The samples were taken every
hour. The level of equivalent noise was calculated according to STAS 6161/3-82. The results were
compared to the admitted limits.
Keywords: noise level, Braila city, Romania, pollution
1. INTRODUCTION
Noise pollution is included between the damaging factors, which can affect living
organisms: humans, animals, and plants. Because of the direct negative effects upon
the health of humans and animals and upon terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and
also because of the indirect effects, which lead to the climate changes, the
atmosphere pollution becomes on the most important problem word wide.
We can identify different aspects regarding noise pollution: noise effect, ultrasounds
effect, electromagnetic radiations effect, electric and magnetic fields effect.
In order not to overwhelm human’s health, the registered level for noise is 100dB (pain
level).
Noise is generally produced by industrial activities, transportation and cultural

activities, but also by the common individuals. To eliminate and to keep the noise
level under admissible limits, we must diminuate it by isolation and acoustical
absorption of buildings elements, place noise sources outside cities and
simultaneous we should isolate them.
Regarding old equipment, which makes noise over the accepted limits it, is
necessary to up-date them in order to function at safe parameters [3].
2. NOISE INFLUENCE ON HUMAN ORGANISM
Some cases which depend of the receiver and also of the stimulus characteristics,
the persistent exposure can lead to the overwhelming of the functional capacity to
adapt, and it can generated pathological processes.
These include muscle tension, acceleration or deceleration of heart rate, general

constriction in the peripheral blood flow (e.g. to the skin), changes in the secretion of
saliva and gastric juice, and reflex movements of the gastrointestinal tract. There is
some evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to intense noise may have a
noticeable effect on digestion. It is now considered conceivable that some disorders
1
402
(especially cardiovascular disorders) and increase of susceptibility to disease are

caused or accelerated by exposure to high levels of noise.
Interference with rest or sleep and the consequent lack of concentration, irritability or
reduced efficiency are obvious and annoying effects of noise. These are most likely
to be significant among the older age groups. Note that it is not necessary that
people have to be woken up to suffer loss of the correct type of sleep. Unfortunately,
the effect of sleep disturbance is not readily identified or quantified.
One of the most common and undesirable effects of noise is interference with
communication. In industry the disruption of communication can result in inefficiency
and, possibly, fatal accidents. In people’s homes and during music-based leisure
audible warnings unheard. At the least, the spoken or broadcast word might be less
easily understood and warnings made incomprehensible. Speech interference is a
particularly important consideration in schools and other educational establishments
[3].
3. THEORETICAL STUDY
The sound is a form of energy. At an equilibrium pressure of one atmosphere and a

temperature of 200C, the speed of sound is about 344m/s. The sound power of a
sound source/machine depends on the power input to the source. The frequency of
sound is between 16÷20.000Hz (Table 1) [2].
Table 1 Frequency ranges of various

sounds
Sound source Frequency (Hz)

Calibration tone 250
Speech 100 to 8000
Speech intelligible 250 to 4000
range
Woodworking machine 100 to 8000
Road traffic noise 50 to 8000
The sound intensity level is defined a s:
I
L = 10lg (dB) (1)
I0
where I is the measured intensity and I0 is a reference intensity of 10-12W/m2 (which

corresponds to the lowest intensity at 1000Hz for someone with normal hearing) [1].
The level of equivalent noise (Lech) was calculated according to STAS 6161/3-82.
LM − Lm
Lech = LM - (2)
3
where Lm is the minimal registrated level and LM the maximal registrated level.
403
4. RESULTS
This work presents the results of noise level measurements in three different areas in
Braila. These measurements were made between 1st and 24 October 2002. It was
used a Sound Level Meter SL-25, with a range of 40-80dB (low range) or 80-120dB
(high range), an accuracy of ± 3% and a resolution of 2dB on a clear graduated
scale. The samples were taken every hour, between 800÷2100.
After the measurements were completed, the results were compared to the admitted
limits. The measurements results appear in Table 2.
Table 2 Noise level inside and outside buildings in three different areas in Braila
Calarasi Str. Invatatorilor Str. Industriilor Str.

Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise Noise
level level level level level level
Hour
inside outside inside outside inside outside
buildings buildings buildings buildings buildings buildings
(dB) (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB) (dB)
8 50 55 46 50 39 48
9 52 63 49 55 44 52
10 58 72 50 61 47 55
11 61 75 54 65 49 59
12 66 78 55 67 51 60
13 68 85 60 69 53 60
14 69 87 66 70 54 61
15 72 90 65 72 55 61
16 75 91 58 68 51 60
17 74 88 53 64 47 59
18 70 80 48 56 41 48
19 60 72 44 51 36 42
20 52 70 40 43 33 39
21 45 66 38 41 32 35
Lechi.calc. 62.28 76.57 51.85 59.42 45.14 52.78
404
100
90
80
L (dB) 70
60
50
40
30
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Hours
Fig. 1 Noise level dependence on time inside and outside buildings on different
streets.
Calarasi Str. ■ - inside buildings □ - outside buildings
Invatatorilor Str. ● - inside buildings o - outside buildings
Industriilor Str. ▲ - inside buildings ∆ - outside buildings
5. CONCLUSIONS
The admissible noise level outside the buildings, as a result at the new laws, is 40dB
and inside the apartments is 30dB (STAS 6156-86). The difference between the
admissible and the calculated noise level shows us that it is surpassed with 36.57dB
on Calarasi Str., 19.42dB on Invatatori Str. and 12.78dB on Industriilor Str. outside
buildings, and with 27.28dB on Calarasi Str., 16dB on Invatatori Str. and 10.14dB on
Industriilor Str. inside buildings, respectively. In conclusion, along the Calarasi Str,
were the traffic is intense, the noise pollution is severe, inside buildings, but also
outside them.
The modern habituate is characterised by a continuous deterioration of urban sound

environment. After the Public Health Institution in Bucuresti, studied of the urban
noise pollution, it reached the conclusion that the noise level follows the dynamic
growth from 50dB at the beginning of the 80’s to approximate 70dB in 1999. The
higher levels were constantly registrated in Brasov, Braila, Galati and Bucuresti,
frequently over 70dB. Physiological and neurological effects, the disturbing index and
traffic noise index (TNI) also shows parallel evolution from moderate noise values (a
decade ago) to loud and traumatizing noise values (during the last few years) [4].
The risk perception written down by the epidemiological studies confirms the
measurements results and situates the noise pollutions right next to air pollution and
the inadequate management wastes. The main identified sources of disturb are
traffic, the inadequate behaviour of neighbours, commercial and industrial areas. We
all have the legal and moral obligation to fight against noise pollution generally, by all
possible means.
405
5. REFERENCES
1. Picu, M., Defectoscopie ultrasonică, Ed. Academica, Galati, 1999
2. Picu, M., Fizica, Ed. Academica, Galati, 1999
3. *** SR ISO 1999:1996; SR ISO 3740:1997; SR ISO 6081:1996; SR ISO

8253:1997; SR ISO 9613-1:1996; SR ISO 9613-1:1996; SR EN 27029:1998; SR
EN 9779-82; STAS 6161/3-82; STAS 6156-86
4. *** Raportul acţiunii de monitorizare a poluării sonore urbane a Institutului de

Sănătate Publică din Bucureşti şi teritoriu, 2001
406
URBAN-PERIPHERY RELATIONS AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE

RURAL ECOLOGY THROUGH MARKET1
Mehmet C. Marin1, Hakan Altintas2

1
Kahrmanmaras Sutcu Imam Universitesi
IIBF- Kamu Yonetimi Bolumu
E-mail: marin@ksu.edu.tr, Phone: +90(344) 223 7666#375
2
Kahrmanmaras Sutcu Imam Universitesi
IIBF- Kamu Yonetimi Bolumu
E-mail: hakanaltintas@hotmail.com, Phone: +90(344) 223 7666#375
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the literature on urban and its periphery relations regulated through the capitalist
market. The study uses the city of Sanliurfa located in Southeastern Turkey as a case to analyze how a
rapidly growing city in a capitalist system can transform its peripheral ecology within a very short time.
Sanliurfa, which is the center of Southeastern Anatolian Project combining various irrigation, hydro
electrical power generation with ambitious economic and social development prospective, is an ideal case
in that it offers a vivid picture of a struggle that has been going on between urban and rural competition for
the same land. The research specifically concentrates on leapfrog development pattern attributable to
operation of the market economy and land speculations as well as the resulting impacts on the ecology of
the rural area surrounding the city.
This paper shows that when an urban development is led by market mechanisms without proper
regulations, it can have irreversible impacts on the ecology of the countryside and trigger many other
environmental problems in the long period.
Keywords: Sanliurfa, Southeastern Anatolian Project, rural ecology, urban development
1. INTRODUCTION
Sanliurfa, a city that has recently been integrated into a capitalist economic system and
became the center of a huge regional economic development project, has been growing
quite rapidly since 1980s. The province is situated in the Southeastern region of Turkey
and is one of the nine principal providences where a massive hydroelectric and irrigation
project has been ongoing for some time.
Once one of the most underdeveloped regions of Turkey, Southeast Anatolia has
changed due to a massive wave of investment directed to the Southeastern Anatolian
Project (SAP, or with its Turkish acronym GAP), rural-urban and inter-regional migration
induced by socio-economic changes during the last three decades.
The GAP is an integrated and multifaceted regional development effort with goals of
improvements in the agricultural production through irrigation, management of land and
water resource; introduction of advanced farming practices and cropping; and
development of agricultural mechanization [1, 2].
1
ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publisher House, Bucharest, Romania
407
The GAP, which covers Provinces of Adiyaman, Batman, Diyarbakır, Gaziantep, Kilis,
Mardin, Siirt, Sanlıurfa, and Sirnak, is a 75 193 km2 area and contains 10% of the
territory in Turkey and 6.1 million people (9.7% of the country’s total population) in 1997.
The GAP includes 13 major projects that are primarily for irrigation and hydropower
generation. When completed the project is planned to contain 22 dams and 19
hydroelectric power plants built on the Euphrates, Tigris rivers, and their tributaries [3].
The completed project will increase the total production 4.5 times the value of the
current production; provide 3.5 million citizens in the region with jobs; increase return in
the wheat production by 104%, in beraley by 69%, in cotton 388%, in tomatoes 556%, in
lentil by 24%, in vegetables by 80%. Currently, 215,080 hectares are irrigated and more
than 40% of the cotton production in Turkey comes from this region [4].
As Sanliurfa and the GAP region integrated into the capitalist economic system and
increase their productions for export to other regions and countries, more land came
under cultivation and intensive uses. Table 1 shows agricultural lands uses in production
of vegetables, fruits, vineyard, olive, tea, and others in 1999. It also shows total
cultivated areas and land that is left to follow.
Table 1. Agricultural lands that is cultivated, left to follow, used in growing vegetables,
fruits, vineyard, olive, tea, and others in 1999
Land left to
Cultivated area follow Vegetable Fruit, Vineyard, Olive, Total
(Ha) (Ha) (Ha) Tea, others. (Ha) (Ha)
Turkey 18449682 5039142 789702 2522656 26801182
SAP Total 2720129 252560 77696 396844 3447229
Adiyaman 242432 5450 4788 37330 290000
Batman 108239 6505 3637 5228 123609
Diyarbakir 649686 93806 16790 25921 786203
Gaziantep 209348 2340 4980 156595 373263
Kilis 48307 3877 12105 40998 105287
Mardin 321942 11282 9179 20928 363331
Siirt 48974 15000 1932 11262 77168
Sirnak 87214 33000 486 251 120951
Sanliurfa 1003987 81300 23799 98331 1207417
Source: http://www.gap.gov.tr/Turkish/Tarim/harran1.html
Table 2 shows 1991 crop production figures and estimates that will be realized with
completion of the GAP. Although fertility in urban areas is higher than in rural areas,
urban settlements in the region have grown faster due to rural-urban migration resulted
by mechanization of the agricultural production [1].
408
Table 2. Current and expected production in SAP and Sanliurfa Province for crops
Production
Crop Current Gap (estimate) Percent increase
Cotton 580000 685402 118

Tobacco 177529 18888 11
Sugar beet 14308375 4098895 29
Oilseeds 1807904 1327820 73
Maize 1500000 117869 8
Rice 168000 141838 84
Vegetables 12398950 3513842 28
Nuts 23000 66458 289
Fruits 1303900 660019 51
Source: Tekinel et al (1991), p. 97
The GAP has substantially transformed the economic, social, cultural, and ecological
aspect of the region. The GAP had dramatic impacts on both settlement patterns and
the agricultural production in Sanliurfa province. In one hand, combined with market
effects it accelerated integration of the province into the existing capitalist economy,
turning this peripheral region into an agricultural supplier of the whole country, through
its effects on mechanization of the production and increase in productivity per unit area.
On the other hand, the mechanization in the agricultural production led to many landless
farmers to lose their jobs. Those who lost their jobs moved to Sanliurfa, where they
hoped to find a better job. Furthermore, the project changed riverbeds of many small
creeks and large rivers, and thus, removing many human and other ecological
communities along the way. This, in return, has dramatic impacts on the city as regard
to urban growth and spatial expansion as well as its consequences on the ecological
integrity of the periphery.
2. ROLE OF SANLIURFA IN GAP
Covering a territory of 18,584 square kilometers and neighboring Syria to the south and
the provinces of Adiyaman to the north, Diyarbakir and Mardin to the east, and
Gaziantep to the west
Sanliurfa stands as the largest province in Southeast Anatolia. With a 36% of the total
cultivated area the province has the largest share and the most fertile agricultural land in
the SAP region (See Figure 1). Containing one of the chief components of the GAP the
Sanliurfa-Harran Plains have a potential irrigateable area of 1.5 million hectares (20% of
the total cultivable area in Turkey). The area has two irrigation networks and is within the
scope of the Lower Euphrates Project. The Ataturk Dam Reservoir provides irrigation
water that is delivered through the Sanliurfa tunnels. Only is one of these tunnels
currently in operation and irrigates about 82,000 hectares [2, 1, 3]. When the project is
completed, it will house 400 settlement units and affect more than 200,000 people [1].
409
Figure1. Map of the GAP region
410
Both population growth rates of the GAP region (%3.6) and Sanliurfa (% 4.6) are much
higher than the country’s average of 2.3 %. The share of the urban population has been
rising quite for a time. While in 1985 50% of the total population used to live in urban
areas, today this share exceeds 60 % [1], an indication of the extent to which rural
citizens immigrated to cities in the region. Figure 2 shows the population of Sanliurfa
province from 1927 to 2000. It is clear that the population has been growing quite for a
long time. Similarly, Table 1 presents the population growth rates both in the region
where Sanliurfa is located, the province of Sanliurfa, and the country’s average
Population of Sanliurfa Province over time
1600000
1400000
1200000
Population
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
1927 1940 1950 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000
Time
Figure 2. The population of Sanliurfa province over time

Note: Data from 1927 to 1990 are estimates and others census
Source: Provincial and regional statistics, DIE (State Institute of Statistics
respectively. The growth rates in the province between 1995-98 were over those in both
region and the nation. Furthermore, this rate (6.3%) was larger than that between 1985-
90 (4.6%) for the province and that (2.6%) in the rural areas during the same period.
According to 2000 figures from the Governor of Sanliurfa, the province with a population
growth rate of 36.6 ‰ was the second fastest growing city in the nation that usually
grows with a rate of 18.34 ‰ [8].
Table 2. Population growth rates in percent increase

Years Province Region Country
1985-1990 Total 4.6 3.6 2.1
1995-1998 Urban 6.3 5.7 4.3
1995-1998 Rural 2.6 1.1 -0.5
Source: DIE 1994 and estimates
411
The concentration of growth around economic centers resulted in high land use
densities and a large percentage of impervious surfaces.
The province currently houses more than 1.5 million people and it is expected to grow
further in the future. The province’s 51% of the total area is cultivable compared to only
42% of the average in the GAP region.
According to 1990 census, in the province there were 148,521 households with an
average household size of 6.74 persons. There are 11 district centers, 772 villages and
1,646 sub-village settlements in Sanliurfa. More than 60% of the people live in the city
[1].
3. MARKET FORCES AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE PERIPHERY
Terms such as “urban fringe”, “urban shadow”, or “exurban zone” have been used to
define an area that lies between the city and the surrounding rural areas. While these
various terms are sometimes interchangeably employed or sometimes used to define
quite distinctive areas, they tend to overlap to some degree [5].
Urban fringe is a zone of transition in the land use, social and demographic
characteristics. It lies between a continuously built-up urban and suburban area, and a
rural hinterland that is characterized by an almost complete absence of non-farm
housings, occupations and land uses. In other words, it is an area of transition, between
well-recognized urban land uses and the area devoted to agricultural production [5].
The most intensive interaction between human and environment occurs in the urban
periphery, or fringe, characterized by both urban and rural activities. Perhaps nowhere
else is the competition, and therefore, conflict among different socio-economic activities
more visible than in urban periphery, for here that the boundaries among agricultural,
industrial, commercial and residential spaces become blurred; and for in this contested
space that there is a gradual transformation of agricultural land into urban functions
[5,6].
Since the last two decades Sanliurfa province has been on a fast tract of growth
triggered by dams building, removal of settlement along river channels, huge irrigation
projects, and socioeconomic policies of the regional development. These projects led
many rural citizens to move into Sanliurfa or other smaller cities in the region, adding to
both population of the urban settlements as well as their financial and infrastructure
problems.
The pressure on cities, particularly Sanliurfa, has significantly raised housing prices and
living expenditures. It can be argued that one component of this increase in urban prices
was attributable to a new rich class of citizens whose lands the state had to purchase
during GAP works. Once the landlords of waste territories, big landlords suddenly found
themselves with huge liquidated wealth and a booming nearby city where they could
either invest their newfound wealth into expensive houses or set up new businesses.
412
Igor to satisfy their new customers, developers in Sanliurfa soon learned that the best
place to build new apartment buildings or houses was the periphery with abundant land.
First, peripheral agricultural land was much more cheaper when compared to land in the
city, because it was remote from the city and its value reflected to its present agricultural
use. Second, farmers in the periphery were willing to sell their lands for higher prices
that an agricultural use could never yield. Unfortunately, in the long run this process can
have a very dramatic impact on the agricultural sector, environment, and ecological
integrity of the area. Those effects are discussed bellow.
In a capitalist economic system, the market mechanisms are the forces that drive urban-
periphery interaction. Therefore, studying the relationships between market prices and
growth of the urban activities in the periphery is the key in understanding of human-
environment interactions at this level.
3.1. MARKET FORCES AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE LAND USES IN

SANLIURFA FRINGE
The agricultural land in the urban fringe is constantly under pressure from urban growth,
and it is slowly converted into urban uses [7]. Many studies conclude that urbanization is
taking its toll on prime agricultural lands around the World. A study of US Department of
Agriculture indicates that each year 121,000 hectares of cropland are converted to
urban uses in US [11].
Similarly, Bryant et al [5] cite a study of Canadian governmental agency, which shows
that some 70 hectares of rural land were converted to urban uses for each 1000
population increment in cities over 25,000 between 1966 and 1971.
Urban expansion in Sanliurfa Province has similarly taking place on good agricultural
land. The urban expansion on the good agricultural soils has continued for a long time
even after the province began to control the growth on those lands and channeled it to
predetermined areas.
Today despite the province ‘s attempts to manage the urban growth, it still continues to
affect peripheral agricultural fields. Market forces operate against conservation efforts of
the agricultural land in the periphery in that remote agricultural lands are much cheaper
to develop. Prices per square meter in Karakopru or Guzelsehir, where the curert growth
is taking place, range from $36 to $121 in comparison to $300 to $1000 in the CBD of
the city.
413
Figure 3. An aerial view of Sanliurfa City
Karakopru and Guzelsehir, which are located 5 km from Sanliurfa along Sanliurfa-
Diyarbakir Road, have attracted most of the new development. The reasons behind this
attraction were threefold: first, the provincial planning bodies chose this area for the
future development.
The Government Decree No. 388 in Effect of Law confers the GAP Regional
Development Administration the authority to approve urban development plans designed
for provinces in the region. The goal is to control spatial distribution of socioeconomic
activities and mitigate population pressures on cities. With this goal in mind, the GAP
Administration initiated development plans for 36 settlements between 1993 and 1997.
The Development Plan for Karakopru is one of these plans that the GAP Administration
commissioned. Karakopru with a population of 2, 719 in 1990 is envisioned to house
375, 000 people in a 1, 850 hectares by 2020 [2].
Second, this area was close to Sanliurfa-Diyarbakir Route, which provides access to the
province and other smaller settlements such as Hilvan and Akziyaret. Third, the land
414
prices and development costs were lower, since this agricultural land was remoter and
flatter. Unfortunately, the development pattern has been irregular and can best be
described as leapfrog (see figure 1).
This type of development have very negative effects on land values, development
patterns, the soil properties, and environment overall.
Leapfrog Development
City
Figure 4. A conceptual framework of leapfrog development
Attempting to minimize development costs, a developer searches for cheaper land with
access to certain urban services. Because leapfrog development leads to dispersed
settlements on a large space, it encourages speculation in the lands located between
developed areas, and thus, force developers to move further and further for
development of the cheaper lands.
Expectation that the land between two developed areas will become urban in the near
future causes land speculation and more development. This process reduces the ability
of land for agricultural use, because its non-agricultural use yields lower rents and there
is an uncertainty in farm investments. Moreover, leapfrog development results in
fragmentation of lands into smaller fields that cannot economically support farming.
Finally, it increases the number of conflicting uses, and therefore, ecological edge
effects become significant.
The urban expansion may also have direct and indirect economical effects on farming
operations (see Figure 3). The direct effect of urban expansion is the
415
Effects of urban
expansion on
agricultural operations
Direct effects Indirect effects
Regulatory Technical Speculative Market
Figure 5. Effects of urban expansion on agricultural activities
conversion of agricultural land into urban uses. The indirect effects, on the other hand,
may be divided into four categories: regulatory, technical, speculative, and market
effects. The regulatory effects are directly related to the asymmetry in political power of
rural and urban interests.
As suburbanization proceeds, rural interests lose their political power and face with
increasing regulations of cities that attempt to restrict negative externalities resulting
from agricultural activities. The second indirect effects, technical effects, can reduce
agricultural efficiency, because proximity to population centers creates problems of
vandalism and land fragmentations which occurs when the city uses the eminent domain
to condemn land for public purposes.
Another indirect effect of urbanization is the development pressures that cause

distortions in agricultural production. Development pressures raise land prices, which in
turn increase the opportunity costs of farming. This shortens the farmers planning
horizons and turns land into a financial asset insensitive to agricultural market
conditions. Furthermore, higher urban wages generates both inflationary effects on rural
wages and reduce rural manpower by attracting them to urban jobs. Effects of urban
wages on rural manpower can cause a transitional period of reorganization of farms,
which in turn has negative effects on income.
Under these conditions, farmers tend to leave their lands idle due to uncertainty
associated with urban development. This behavior of disinvestments has been termed
as ‘impermanent syndrome.’ Finally, market effects are actually positive, since proximity
to large urban populations reduces transportation costs and allows farmers to directly
market their products. Furthermore, the urban expansion affects the user costs of land
through taxes and capital gains resulting from raising land values [7, 12, 5].
416
The net effect of urban expansion is dependent on agricultural type, inputs from
regulatory differences, the degree that the agricultural use is compatible with urban
uses, and the type of urban development [7, 12, 5,13, 14]. In terms of direct effects,
reduction in the amount of farmland resulting from urban expansion can harm farming,
because it causes a decline in farm supporting businesses, and leads to economically
inefficient smaller farms in the area [15, 16, 5, 17].
Factors such as labor, fertilizers and machinery have the property of indivisibility that
limit their efficiency when they are not applied to an appropriate farm size. This
inefficiency is resulted from the fact that factors such as labor and machinery are not
continuous and that farmers do not have option of dividing labor and machinery in a
continuous fashion [13]. Moreover, local government regulations and taxes may also
add extra costs to farming activities by imposing restrictions on manure disposal, smells,
noises, dust, glare, hours of operations, and use of water, fertilizer, herbicide and
pesticides [7, 12, 5,13, 14].
According to 1990 data, 71 % of the of the economically active population in the region
worked in agriculture, 20% in services, 5% in construction works, and 4% in
manufacturing. While half the population relied on their domestic family labor, only 26%
worked on their own land and 25% as wage laborers [1].
These figures indicate that agricultural activities are the chief economic sector and
provide most of the jobs in the region. The fragmentaion of the land into smaller fields
may weaken the ability of job creation in this sector.
Because cities are historically located in nearby agricultural fields with good quality soils
to feed an extra urban population, the spatial expansion tends to occur on those good
soils. Similarly, the growth in Sanliurfa has taken place where the good agricultural lands
were located.
Altough the province and GAP Regional Administration attempted to channel this growth
to the areas with poor soil qualities, they have not been very successful. For example,
the urban expansion moved toward North and Northest of the city. These areas were
dominated with best soil qualities.
Steep mountains and hills that surround Sanliurfa can dramatically increase costs of
developments. On the other hand, flat agricultural lands can reduce these costs
significantly. Table 3 shows the distribution of soil categories in Sanliurfa Province, GAP
region, and ratio of Sanliurfa to GAP region respectively.
This categories range from soils I that is best suitable for agricultural production to group
VIII that is least suitable. The Sanliurfa Province with areas of soils classes I, II, III, and
IV dominate the GAP region in terms of good soils.
417
Table 3. Distribution of soils categories in Sanliurfa and SAP region
SOIL CATEGORIES SANLIURFA SAP'S TOTAL SANLIURFA /SAP'S TOTAL

(Ha) (%) (Ha) (%)
I 500660 53 946061 13 0.529204776
II 225905 28 817703 11 0.276267789
III 245759 34 712769 9.5 0.344794737
IV 194879 28 694263 9.2 0.280699101
V 265 21 1291 --- 0.205267235
VI 134811 15 880631 12 0.15308455
VII 571604 18 3184472 42 0.17949726
VIII 28182 9 288410 3.8 0.097715058
TOPLAM 1902065 25 7525600 100 0.25274596
Source: Gap Bolge Idaresi http://www.gap.gov.tr/Turkish/Tarim/tkaynak.html
As urban growth proceeds, the expansion is likely to remove more good quality lands
from agricultural use and turns into irreversible urban uses.
Rent
R1
R R'
R2
R3 A
d1d2 d3 d4 d4
Distance from CBD
Figure 6. Effects of city on agricultural land values and uses
418
Figure 6 shows the model of land use what Firey [18] calls ‘slums’ in ‘rurban fringe’,
where the economic rents of three land use types intersect each other in two different
locations. At d3 the intersections of bid rent curves of residential R and agricultural land
A, both uses yield the same utility R3, and thus, there are no markedly defined
boundaries that separate these two. Because the economic rent tends to increase with
subdivision of parcels into smaller units and that proximity of fringe to the city enhances
speculations, urban fringe usually ends up with many small units of idle parcels. Firey
[18] argues that these cerate a surplus of land supply that overtime graduates into lower
valued uses. Various incompatible economic activities that have the same utility in the
fringe, e.g., trailer camps, cemeteries, country estates, junkyards, general farms, part-
time farmers, etc., create these edge-effects externalities for agricultural production. For
example, farmers have to pay high taxes due to new services, sewage and water
systems; spend more money to compensate negative effects of other uses and declining
size. There is a direct positive association between rent and social utility within a
particular range of two variables. Outside the range, however, the relationship turns into
an inverse one. Initially, subdivision of land into smaller units in the fringe will increase
both economic rent and social utility, once the range is reached, however, the rent may
continue to rise, but the social utility will decline. The decline in the social utility can be
seen in different forms, i.e., high insurance, new sanitation problems, inadequate water,
sewerage problems, and negative impacts on the environment.
As transportation became more available and cheaper to the individuals, many

individuals moved away from urban centers. Development costs are lower in out-lying
areas making affordable housing attractive to the buyers. This resulted in urban sprawl
as suburban and urban concentrations leapfrogged each other, moving the place of
residence further and further away from the work place. R’ in Figure 6 shows the bid-
rent curve of residential land use after a reduction in the transportation costs. This
resulted in the expansion of the residential area d3 to d4.
Leapfrog development increases number of incompatible uses and therefore edge

effecs. The ecological term edge effect externalities refer to degradation that takes place
at the border of incompatible habitat patches. Furthermore, the edge- effect externalities
are spatially dependent, meaning that negative impacts of the conflicting habitat patches
decline with distance [19, 20].
3.2. EFFECTS OF LAND USE CHANGES ON THE PERIPHERAL ENVIRONMENT
The interactions between human activities in cities and the environment are related to
the flows of energy and resources such as air, water, food, raw materials, and land that
support cities. An urban settlement consists of houses, commercial and industrial
buildings, parks, temples, transportation and various locations where everyday human
activities are carried out. Human activities require use of polluting sources such as
motor vehicles, roads, railroads, house heating, factories, and agriculture. These create
various environmental pollutions that can broadly be classified into water, air, and soil.
The soil’s water budget and its capacity in holding moisture are determined by the size
of soil grains, soil depth, and other soil characteristics. As impervious area increases, it
419
decreases infiltration, percolation, and soil moisture storage [24]. Furthermore, increase
in impervious surface modifies drainage system, resulting in increased runoff volumes,
stormflow velocity, peak runoff rates, and flood frequency, and a decreased groundwater
recharge. Runoff increases with increases in the impervious surface resulting from
urban land uses, because precipitation cannot infiltrate into soil and rapidly accumulates
on the ground. Large floods sweep all pollutants on impervious surface and carry to the
nearest streams. The construction of new houses, roads, and other buildings in various
clusters in in the periphery of Sanliurfa has created similar problems in the area. The
increase in the urban runoff has negative effects on the nearby agricultural activities, for
it dumps urban pollutants into these fields. As the human activities expanded over a
large area, it affected more agricultural land by compressing the soils. This has
enhanced floods and reduced the ability of the soils in agricultural production.
Urbanization also makes changes to riparian and wetland portions of the ecosystem.
These, in return, modify carbon and nutrient cycle dynamics at critical locations [25]. Soil
characteristics and turf can significantly affect runoff volumes and nitrate export from
residential lawns [26].
Water pollution can be defined as the addition of any chemical, biological, or physical
agent that renders water unfit for a specified use. Thus, water pollution is defined in
terms of certain uses [10]. Municipal or urban pollutants that enter into any water body
have a specific biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is the amount of the oxygen
required to decompose received waste. When the BOD is high, it consumes most of the
oxygen other aquatic organisms need to survive. Many of these pollutants are direct
toxics for aquatic life. Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, copper, chromium, and so
on as well as pesticides affect structures of these organisms. On the other hand,
municipal and industrial wastes may result in excessive growth of undesirable
organisms, thus disturbing the balance of a stream or water body that normally have
specific composition of various organisms.
When the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in a stream increases, it causes

excessive growth of certain algae that consume much of the oxygen and generate toxic
products during decomposition. This is what scientists call as eutrophication. Urban
sewage and agricultural runoff seems to be the major source of the eutrophication [10].
Thermal pollution resulting from industrial use of the water for cooling purposes
increases stream temperature. Because the body temperature of the most aquatic
organisms is closely associated with surrounding environment and their biochemical and
physiological rate processes increases with heat, temperature increases leads to rapid
metabolic activity in these organisms.
Furthermore, the dissolution of the oxygen declines, as the temperature increases. This
adds an extra burden on aquatic life [10].
Furthermore, both industrial and residential pollutants generate settleable solids that
deposit along the streams bottoms. This sludge blankets the bottom, killing organisms
that fish depend on. Most sludge and suspended sediments also increase turbidity that
420
in turn prevents sunlight to penetrate deep into bottom of the stream. Suspended
sediments keep heat, and thus, increase temperature. Moreover, the turbidity does not
allow green plants to carry out photosynthesis at the normal rate. Finally, the industrial
and domestic sewages can drastically change the pH level of the stream. Under normal
conditions, living organisms tolerate very narrow ranges of pH changes that usually lie
between 6 and 8 [10].
Studies show that the conversion of native vegetation and land uses influence streams
through a variety of processes in different scales. For example, changes to flow regime
that affects biota both via the sheer magnitude of peak flows and a range of indirect
effects on conditions of physical channels is a function of basin processes at a large
scale. Changes in allochthonous food sources and stream shading are attributable to
land cover modifications at the riparian scale. On the other hand, local scale effects are
related to bank erosion that are influenced by streamside soil and plant cover and/or
local land use practices [27].
Research on the relationship between the benthic index of biological integrity (B-IBI), a
multimetric index based on attributes of the benthic invertebrate community, and stream
water quality suggests a close relationships.
A high B-IBI is positicvely associated with streams that have clean water. Because
composition of benthic community and their size change with various sources of
pollutants, researchers use B-IBI to determine the stream quality and the source of the
pollution. Studies also found that B-IBI tends to decline with increase in the total
impervious surface that is generally associated with urbanization (see Figure 7).
Figure 7. Relationships between B-IBI and impervious surface

Source: Morley (2000), p. 8
As the new growth continues in the area, increasing floods that carry pollutants will
adversely affect creeks and streams in the periphery. Ecological edge effects resulting
421
from incompatible agricultural and urban uses are increasingly dominating, as clustered
urban settlements are dotting larger areas.
Furthermore, because many farmers who are unfamiliar with irrigation and with very
short planning horizons attempt to maximize their yields per area in the short time,
excessive irrigation of the agricultural lands can lead to salination in many fields. As of
October 1998, 3,000 hectares were suffering from salination and there was a high water
table on 15,000 hectares of land.
This situation is a threat for land and water resources. Much of the soil salinity,
contamination of ground water, and erosion can be attributed to the failure to complete
the investments such as drainage [1]. Furthermore, Safe Sustainable Yield (SSY)
becomes an issue, when withdrawal of water is higher than recharge of an aquifer. The
SSY is the quantity of water that can be safely withdrawn from an aquifer without
causing adverse impacts such as reduced stream flows or seawater intrusion.
Effects of excessive irrigation can be very serious under dry conditions and high
temperatures. A study conducted by the state agency responsible for the GAP found
that Sanliurfa is dry in June, July, August, and September during the year. In terms of
agricultural growing seasons, while areas North to Sanliurfa remain dry for 100 days
those to the South lasts up to 150 days [21]. Combined with inaccurate techniques,
excessive irrigation, and high temperatures evaporation can further increase, leaving
behind large quantities of the salt. Farmers wash up these salts with more water that
ultimately precipitate deep into water table. When the water table rises, it burns plants
roots, killing them.
Increases in the production of the cotton in the region is likely to lead to more
environmental problems such as salination and contamination of water sources with
chemicals such as fertilizres and pesticides in the future. Figure 7 shows cultivated area
and yields from 1990 to 1998. Clearly both yield and cultivated areas have steadily risen
during this period.
Cotton production requires large quantities of water consumption. A farmer usually

irrigates his or her cotton field at least 11 times during the growing season. The increase
in the cotton production can mainly be attributed to its high market prices and low
transportation costs that are driven by oil prices in Turkey.
The GAP region, and specifically Sanliurfa, slowly turned into the center of the cotton
production. Table 4 shows the share of cultivated areas and yields of cotton production
between 1990 and 1998. While before 1995 the region was producing 25% of the total
cotton produced in Turkey, in 1996 it met 33% of the total demand, and in 1998 more
than 42%.
422
400
350
300
Cultivated Area/ Yield
250
200
150
100
50
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Cultivated Area (Ha)
Yield (Tons)
Figure 7. Cultivated area and yield in the SAP region over time
Source: State Institute of Statistics (D.İ.E.) 1996, SAP Province Statistics, 1950-1996
Table 4. SAP’s share of cultivated area and yield as percent of Turkey’s total
Year GAP’s share of cultivated area in GAP’s share of yield in Turkey
Turkey (%) (%)
1990 20.9 21
1991 21 21
1992 20.4 16
1993 26 25.1
1994 27.1 26
1995 25.5 25
1996 32.3 34
1997 36.75 36.2
1998 40.64 42
Source: State Institute of Statistics (D.İ.E.) 1996, GAP Province Statistics, 1950-1996
Considering that high temperatures and over 100 arid days characterize the region and
province during one year, cotton production and excessive irrigation may transform once
a productive region into a desert because of salination, reduction in the nutrient content,
depletion of water resources, and erosion of the soil. Already excessive irrigation in
Suruc, a town with over 30, 000 people, is causing shortages of the irrigation water. It
423
seems that excessive withdrawl of the water to grow expanding cotton fields in this area
exceeded the SSY, leading to its depletion.
4. CONCLUSION
While the GAP Regional Administration has conducted research on ecologically

balanced urban planning titled “Development of Adiyaman Eco-City Planning Approach
Project” in Province of Adiyaman, urban development in Sanliurfa does not seem to
follow this approach. Sustainable development is defined as the use of the natural
resources without forgoing needs of the future generations and disturbing the balance
between human and the nature. This concept also covers social, ecological, economic,
locational, and cultural dimensions. The GAP was initially considered to be a project for
the development of soil and water resources, but in time it turned into a multifaceted and
integrated regional development with ambitious economical, social, and environmental
goals. However, in practice the environmental dimension of the project has lagged
behind and rarely been remembered unless environmental disasters such as salination
of the land clearly show up. If the current development and policy do not change,
expansion of Sanliurfa over good agricultural lands is going to dramatically alter the
environment of the periphery.
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DATA BASE FOR THE MAIN ENVIRONMENT ELEMENTS FROM THE

HYDROAMELIORATIVE ARRANGEMENTS1
Cristian Kleps, Ph.D.

Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences
Marasti Road No. 61, 71331, Bucharest, Romania
Phone: 40.21.2229128, fax: 40.21.2229139, e-mail: asas@rnc.ro
ABSTRACT
Romania has at its disposal about 15 million ha of agricultural land, from which 7 million ha represent
the irrigation potential. According to the arrangement tips, the irrigation surface of 3,187,800 ha (from
which only about 1,000,000 ha are currently used) has the following structure: 2,688,633 ha are
arranged by sprinkler irrigation, 220,794 ha are arranged by furrow irrigation, 211,186 ha are bivalent
arranged, 65,592 ha are irrigated by flooding and 1,600 ha represented mainly orchards and vineyards
use drip irrigation. More than 80% of the area with irrigation facilities belong to private owners as a
result of applying the new law of land property.The research made until now show that the yields
obtained in irrigated conditions are mostly double in comparison with non-irrigated ones. In connection
with this, the fact that must be taken into account is that a certain balance has been established in
nature and a massive interference of an artificial factor like irrigation water can bring some disturbance
of this balance, in the case when this factor is not strictly dominated, using well adjusted technologies.
For this reason, a research program was started in 1973, in order to monitor the impact of natural and
anthropogenic factors to environment.
Keywords: environmental impact, climate, Romania, hydroameliorative

arrangements
1. INTRODUCTION
Natural resources, especially climate, water and soil, play an essential part in the
development of Romanian agriculture. Thus, from the thermic regime point of view, in
the southern part of the country the accumulated average is 4,000oC and in the
eastern Transylvania and northern Moldavia – up to 3400oC during the vegetation
period. Regarding the precipitation regime, Romania is characterized by 3 humidity
zones: (i) the humid zone, with annual rainfalls of 600-1000 mm and annual potential
evapotranspiration (ETP) of 550-700 mm; (ii) the sub-humid zone, with annual
rainfalls of 450-700 mm and annual ETP of 650-750 mm; (iii) the semi-arid zone, with
annual rainfalls of 350-550 mm and annual ETP of 700-800 mm, covering the fields
from the South, South-East and South-West of the country.
The water resources corresponding to the internal hydrographic network are modest
– 37 billion m3/year on average, Romania being situated on the 21st place in Europe
considering the water quantity per inhabitant. These resources are showing a deficit
during summer, especially in the field zones. The Danube is an important water
resource, with an annual average flow of about 170 billion m3 which, added to the
interior water sources, ensures annually about 9,800 m3/inhabitant.
The soil resources of Romanian agriculture consist in a great variety of soils, from the
most fertile to the very poor ones in nutritive elements, falling on average into the
1
427
middle productivity class. Presently, agricultural fields represent 62.07% of the total
territory of Romania, respectively 0.65 ha/inhabitant. Arable lands represent 63.1% of
the total agricultural surface, pastures 22.8%, hayfields 10.1%, vineyards and
orchards 4%.
In order to ensure constant high agricultural productions, during the period 1970-
1990 irrigation arrangements were built on about 3.1 million ha, drainage works on
3.2 million ha, soil erosion control on 2.3 million ha and protection against floods for
about 0.6 million ha. However, on about 12 million ha of agricultural fields, of which
7.5 million ha arable land (about 80% of the total arable surface), the production
capacity of soils is affected by one or more restrictions, from which the frequent
droughts, leading to fluctuations of crop production are noticed.
2. METHODS
The research regarding the functionality of these systems were developed by some
research institutes working under the coordination of the Romanian Academy of
Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, targeting the following main objectives:
(i) the study of water balance elements in irrigated soils, the watering forecast
and the impact of climatic modifications and irrigation on crops;
(ii) the monitoring of level and chemical evolution of phreatic water in

correlation with rainfalls and irrigation regimes;
(iii) the control of irrigated soils evolution from the point of view of chemical and
polluting elements;
(iv) the development of investigation tools for the monitoring of agro-

meteorological parameters evolution and the creation of databases for
mathematical models calibration.
The observations concerning the environment factors evolution in the

hydroameliorative arrangements began in most of the cases at the same time with
their putting into operation. The measurements regarding the evolution of the phreatic
level are made periodically in the network of hydrogeological drills, conceived for this
purpose since the designing of the irrigation arrangements. The results are
processed as annual average isophreates or isohypses, the surfaces with different
phreatic water depths being then partitioned.
In order to find the evolution modality of the mineral residue and its components from
the phreatic water, characteristic hydrogeological drills were chosen, samples of
which are gathered for analysis during each irrigation season. If the drills are not
uniformly distributed or are insufficient, some village wells are also included in the
measurement network. In the same way, by periodical collection of water samples,
research is done regarding the irrigation sources quality, the transporting agent role
of water for many polluting elements being well known.
The research regarding to irrigated soils have in view the evolution of their
ameliorative states, mainly the evolution of salts and some polluting elements
contents. For this purpose, in each arranged perimeter there were fixed control
428
points, considered representative for the main types of soils from the respective area,
the samples being collected periodically down to 150 cm depth.
The study of agrometeorological parameters is effected within the framework of some

experimental polygons endowed with meteorological equipment and irrigation
installations, situated in different pedoclimatical zones.
These research studies have a long duration, the results being used both in watering
prognosis and forecast and in economic efficiency calculations of arrangements, on
the basis of the water consumption - production relationship. Data resulted from
annual measurements, as well as other environment parameters and different forms
of their processing are organized in the frame of the data base computer program
entitled INFO-ENVIRONMENT. The basic functions of the program include:
introducing new data, processing the existing ones according to statistic criteria,
displaying and printing graphs and large or small scale maps. The information can be
processed at annual or multiannual level, on geographic zones or individual
hydrotechnical systems. The organization confers to the program a great flexibility in
adding new subroutines only by adding new options to the main structure, without
making other modifications.
The hydrochemical, hydrogeological and agrometeorological data obtained inside

irrigated perimeters are also used by some mathematical models of water leaking
through non-saturated media and nitrates accumulation in soil and in the phreatic
layer. The hydraulic model used to study the water leaking in soil is represented by
Richards equation, while the nitrogen accumulation model is of the type Michalis -
Menten. Combined, the two models give the evolution of the hydraulic regime and the
variation of different nitrogen compounds concentrations in soil and phreatic water [1,
2].
Further on, some research results obtained between 1995-1997 in the

hydroameliorative systems from the hydrographic basins delimited by Arges,
Dambovita and Ialomita rivers (ARDI Program) will be presented for exemplification.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. The hydrogeological evolution of irrigation arrangements from ARDI space
The irrigation systems from Arges-Dambovita-Ialomita zone are characterized by

hydrogeological conditions differentiated from the point of view of the geomorphology
and lythology of the zones. Besides specific natural conditions, the phreatic level
evolution is also influenced by the rainfalls quantity and the irrigation regime applied
locally.
The water volumes pumped into irrigation systems during the last years have
diminished, due to the rise of the water cost and the insufficient quantity of water
equipment. On the whole, it can be estimated that during the analysed period the
percentage of the water volumes pumped into irrigation systems from ARDI space
represented about 15% of the total water entered during the vegetation period of
crops (April - September).
429
An average situation of surfaces partitioning as function of different phreatic water

depths in the frame of the 600,000 ha from ARDI space arranged with irrigation
works is presented in Figure 1.
TOTAL SURFACE: 600000 ha

60.00% 2.50% 6.70%
50.00%
12.50%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00% 50.70%
10.00%
0.00%
27.60%
0-1 m 1-2 m 2-3 m 3-5 m >5m
Fig. 1. Situation of surfaces with different phreatic water depths in the irrigation
arrangements from ARDI space.
The annual modifications of the phreatic levels mainly took place in the layer down to
3 m depths, which detains about 20% of the total, the surfaces with lower levels
being less influenced by the water volumes entered into the analyzed perimeter.
Data resulted from annual measurements, as well as other environment parameters

and different forms of their processing are organized in the frame of the computer
program INFOMEDIU. The basic functions of the program include: introducing new
data, processing the existing ones according to statistic criteria, displaying and
printing graphs and large or small scale maps. The information can be processed at
annual or multiannual level, on geographic zones or individual hydrotechnical
systems.
3.2. The chemical evolution of the irrigation water sources
The main water sources of the irrigation arrangements from ARDI space are the
rivers Danube (about 75%), Arges (about 5%), Mostistea (about 10%), Dambovita
(about 3%), Sabar (about 2%) and the lakes fed by the rivers Ialomita and Colentina
(about 5%). From the analysis of the saline balance, the fact resulted that these
water sources comply with the quality requirements from the point of view of the total
salt content and of the reaction. During the analyzed period, the total mineral residue
determined at the irrigation grip points of the sources mentioned above varied most
frequently between 350 and 750 mg/l. A big part of the composing elements of
mineral residue are situated inside the admitted limits. Unsatisfactory concentrations
were registered sporadically in some nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. On the
other hand, a decreasing trend was noticed for the water oxygenation degree, the
compounds of heavy metals (especially in the Danube) and some organo-chlorinated
insecticides residues. Among the investigated sources, the most polluted with these
elements were found to be Arges (1.43 ppb HCH) and Sabar (0.98 ppb HCH).
430
The organic matter contents of the Danube frequently exceeded the admitted limit, an
example of this being presented in Figure 2. Data processing was realized, as in the
case of the phreatic water levels, on the basis of the data from the INFOMEDIU
program [3, 4].
mg/l
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Month 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9
Year 1995 Year 1996 Year 1997

Fig. 2. Dynamics of the organic matter contents in the Danube River during the
interval 1995-1997
3.3 Chemical evolution of the phreatic water
The study of phreatic water quality in the irrigation systems from ARDI space
generally shows alkaline or weak alkaline reactions and a total mineralization most
frequently between 500 and 1800 mg/l. Higher concentrations of the total mineral
residue, exceeding 2000 mg/l without being dominant, appear only inside Ialomita -
Calmatui perimeter, as a result of the existence of some zones with a high content of
salts in the parental material. Due to this fact, during the years with surplus rainfalls,
at the same time with the rise of the phreatic level, water mineralization increase also
take place on certain areas.
The nitrates contents found in the water samples gathered from the aquiferum
generally range between 2 and 14 ppm, but values of 50-80 ppm were also
regeistered in some drillings and village wells in the frame of Mostistea system.
Their high values may come both from nitrogen fertilizers inadequately applied in
coterminous zones and from underground leakings from some local agrozootechnical
units. In some cases, values exceeding the admitted limits at some bacteriologic
agents were observed in the case of some water samples gathered from village wells
situated in the irrigated perimeters from the agricultural zones near Bucharest. An
examples of this is presented in Figure 3.
3.4 Evolution of irrigated soils
The analysis performed on samples gathered from pedological control points

generally show a low mineralization of irrigated soils, the total contents of salts
ranging most frequently between 50 and 90 mg / 100 g soil. Some exceeding values
431
are seldom registered inside Ialomita - Calmatui perimeter, on soils that were
previously affected by salinization processes.
Streptococci number
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 Jilava Berceni-Vidra
2 Sinesti
System 1 System
|3 Berceni
Mostistea 4 Vidra| Buftea-Caciulati
5 Dobreni S
6 Petrachioaia 7 Branesti 8 Pasarea 9 Cozieni 10 Afumati
11 Tamasi 12 Buftea 13 Buciumeni 14 Balotesti 15 Mogosoaia
Fig. 3. Microbiological results of some water samples gathered from village wells
situated in irrigated perimeters from Ilfov Agricultural Sector. The total nitrogen
contents ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 g N / 100 g soil, while its nitric form (N-NO3) most
frequently oscillates between 10 and 40 ppm.
Inside the irrigated perimeters adjacent to Bucharest, the presence of organo-
chlorinated insecticide substances residues was noticed, their concentration in soil
often exceeding 0.2 ppm. An increasing trend of heavy metals accumulation in the
superficial soil layer was also ascertained, as a result of water transportation or
atmospheric deposits due to industrial activities from adjacent zones. From this point
of view, the most relevant is the irrigation system Berceni - Vidra - Frumusani, where
values of 43.5 ppm Cu (by comparison with concentrations of 1-20 ppm in normal
soils), 65 ppm Pb, 75 ppm Cr, 2 ppm Cd were registered (Fig. 4).
(p .p .m )
250.00
200.00 Cd
Cr
Ni
150.00
Co
Pb
100.00
Cu
50.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fig. 4 - Heavy metals contents of some soils from irrigated perimeters situated in the
Ilfov Agricultural Sector (1-Berceni A; 2-Berceni B; 3-Berceni C; 4-Buftea; 5-Cozieni;
6-Otopeni; 7-Corbeanca; 8-Moara Domneasca).
432
3.5 Evolution of agro-meteorological parameters
The irrigation systems from ARDI space are situated inside high dryness zones. By
combining data from meteorological stations from this perimeter, a multiannual
rainfalls average of about 400 mm results, only half of which occur during the crops
vegetation period. During the interval 1995 - 1997, the first year was poor in rainfalls,
the second one was situated at the multiannual average level and during the last one
exceeding rainfalls were noticed. The multiannual average temperature in this
perimeter was about 10OC, during the vegetation period 18OC, the hottest months
being July and August, with an average of 21-22OC each. The crops water
consumption during the analyzed period, obtained on the basis of the research data
from the experimental fields inside ARDI space, varied in a natural regime between
2500 m3/ha for wheat and 3800 m3/ha for corn. In the case of the irrigated regime,
the total consumption for the same crops was 3500 m3/ha and 5600 m3/ha
respectively. In Figure 5, the total water consumption and its covering sources are
presented comparatively in natural and irrigated regimes for the main 4 field crops in
the respective area.
The production obtained in experimental fields in irrigated regime at the four crops
was double by comparison with those obtained in natural conditions (Fig. 6).
This category of data was used for the realization of another computer program
(INFOPLANT), which was conceived for storing and processing balance data of
water in soil and productions obtained in experimental fields. The input data of the
program are characteristics of soil, climate, plant and irrigation regime applied in
each experimental field, including crops obtained in natural and irrigated regimes.
The processing of stored information can be done at an annual or multiannual level,
for one or more crops, one or more experimental fields, correlation of the type water
consumption - production being also obtained [5, 6, 7, 8].
m 3/h a
6000
5000
4000
M
3000 P>5 mm
R i-R f
2000
1000
0
N I N I N I N I
WEAT MAIZE SUNFLOWER SOYA
Fig. 5. Plants water consumption and its covering sources in ARDI space (N=non-
irrigated variant; I=irrigated variant).
433
kg/ha
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
N I N I N I N I
WHEAT MAIZE SUNFLOWER SOYA
Fig. 6. Productions obtained in natural and irrigated regimes in ARDI space (N=non-
irrigated variant; I=irrigated variant).
REFERENCES
1. Grumeza, N. and Kleps, C. (1989), Computing programs for forecasting

watering and ground water levels evolution. Bulletin of the Academy of
Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, No. 18, Bucharest.
2. Grumeza, N. et al, (1992), Drought effect and water consumption - yield

relationship in various pedoclimatical conditions of Romania. Proceeding of 16th
ICID European Regional Conference, Budapest, pp. 151-159.
3. Kleps, C. and Iancu, M. (1994), Information system for forecast and warning
watering,. Proceeding of 3rd Congress of the European Society for Agronomy,
Abano – Padova, pp. 378 – 379.
4. Kleps, C. (1996), A data processing system for storage and processing soil
water balance and yield data from Romanian hydroameliorative arrangements.
Proceeding of 4th Congress of the European Society for Agronomy (ESA),
Veldhoven, pp. 98 – 99.
5. Kleps, C. (1998), Data processing system for environment factors from

Romanian irrigation arrangements. Proceeding of 5th ESA Congress, Nitra, pp.
212 – 213.
6. Marinov, A. et all (1998), A simulation of nitrogen leaching in groundwater in the

frame of Romanian irrigation arrangements. Proceeding of 5th ESA Congress,
Nitra, pp. 37 – 38.
7. Kleps, C. et all, (1998), The part played by the irrigation arrangements in the
frame oh hydrographic basins integrate management. Proceeding of the
Environment-water Conference, Lisbon, pp. 148-155.
8. Kleps, C., (2002), Evapotranspiration - yield relationship in Romanian

pedoclimatical conditions. Proceeding of the 7th ESA Congress, Cordoba: 103-
104
434
Proceedings of the First International Conferences on Environmental Research and Assessment
SOIL DEGRADATION THREAT TO SLOVENIA’S LANDSCAPES1

Blaz Repe
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Department of Geography,
Askerceva 2,1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
tel: +38612411240; fax: +38614259337
e-mail: blaz.repe@ff.uni-lj.si
ABSTRACT
Due to the past trends in the development of Slovenia, especially after the Second World War, one
can certainly expect some kind of degradation of Slovenia's landscape and consequently its soils.
Soils are among less researched components of Slovene environment, which results in relatively poor
quantity and quality of available data.
Studying soil degradation has been performed using GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil
Degradation) methodology, which has not been introduced in Slovenia, in terms of researching.
Methodology is based upon recognising a degree of soil degradation of chosen land unit. Degree is
determined through combining soil degradation severity and extent of soil degradation.
Every unit had been studied in sense of soil degradation. Three main types soil degradation had been
chosen: water erosion, pollution of soils with heavy metals and loss of fertile soil through elimination
from natural environment. In order to determine degradation threats standard methods had been used,
but were modified for specific Slovene circumstances.
GLASOD methodology was successfully introduced to Slovene researching but better and quantitative
results are not yet possible to obtain because of the lack of data.
Keywords: pedogeography, GLASOD methodology, soil degradation, ecology,

Slovenia
1. INTRODUCTION
In contrast to many other environmental problems, soil degradation is a very old

phenomenon. Throughout history, man has changed the properties and nature of
soil, and his existence has depended on soil fertility. The changes man induced
sometimes benefited soil conditions and were good for crop growth. Unfortunately,
inappropriate soil management and farming practices also led quite frequently to soil
degradation.
Soil can be degraded in many ways. However, not all types of soil degradation can
be found in Slovenia, or their significance is of less importance (wind erosion,
salinization) compared to other types. An important feature of soil degradation
research in Slovenia is its emphasis on pollution recognition in highly degraded,
small, localized areas. Understandably, these areas should receive as much
attention as possible since they require quick and effective measures of remediation
(Repe 2002).
2. SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil degradation is directly related to soil quality. Both terms are clearly subjective
and anthropocentric, which indicates the clear connection between soil properties
and man’s present or future land/soil use. In terms of nature, every type of soil has its
1
435
role in the ecosystem and every soil is fertile, this being its main characteristic (Repe
2002).
The role of soil is closely linked to its functions (Council of Europe 1990):
a) Natural functions:
- production of biomass, providing nutrients, (partly renewable) source of

energy and minerals,
- filtering, storage, transformation, buffering, and neutralization of matter and

energy,
- biodiversity.
b) Social functions:
- physical media,
- source of raw materials,
- natural and cultural heritage.
Soil degradation is a result of the loss or the domination of one or more of these
functions (Blum 1988) and is an anthropogenic process that reduces the present and
future capability of soil to support life on earth (Oldeman et al. 1991).
2.1. WATER (SOIL) EROSION
Water erosion is a process that begins with particle removal from the topsoil and the
deposition of removed material some distance away. The result is a poorer, less
fertile, and more skeletal soil. Degradation continues with rill and gully formation
(removal of vegetation, impassable landscapes) and ultimately the complete removal
of topsoil and subsoil. Extremely high agrarian densities and pressure on fertile land
forces farmers to cultivate less suitable areas. Steep slopes, shallow soils, high
amounts of rainfall, and a lack of naturally protective vegetation cover have denuded
numerous fields and vineyards down to the bedrock.
Factors that influence water erosion include soil erodibility, rainfall erosivity, slope
conditions, farming and soil management practices, and vegetation cover (Troeh et
al. 1999).
2.2. SOIL POLLUTION
One of very important characteristics of soil is its chemical composition. In nature,

matter (elements, nutrients, etc.) cycles between systems (elements of the
landscape), and soil represents an important storage and filter in this process.
Soil is polluted when certain substances appear in forms that are not characteristic of
soil and the amounts of the substances exceed the soil’s buffer capacity and can not
be neutralized (Leštan et al. 1997). These substances then enter plants and
groundwater and therefore the food chain of animals and humans. Identifying
436
polluted forest and farm land is based on finding soils containing hazardous
substances that lower its self-remediative capability, damage its physical, chemical
and biological properties, hinder and obstruct plant growth, pollute groundwater and
plants, and permanently endanger soil fertility (Ur. l. RS 6/90).
Among the substances that appear in Slovenia’s soils, metals are the most
problematic. In the natural environment they are found in very small concentrations
and are also called “trace elements.” Trace elements with a density over 5 kg/dm 3
receive special attention and are called “heavy metals.” Some of the metals found in
soils are necessary for plant growth (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, etc.), but according to present
knowledge, others are unnecessary (Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Cr, Se, etc.) (Alloway 1990).
The heavy metals most studied include cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, and mercury.
According to Šajn (1999), these elements show anthropogenic origins in Slovenia’s
soils.
Specific values determine when soils are considered polluted. The criteria for the
evaluation of the degree of pollution have been derived from standard values that
were established in The Netherlands. The lower A (threshold, trigger) value applies
to soils that are in a multifunctional and unpolluted state. Soils with contaminant
levels below the A-value are considered “clean.” Soils with values between the A and
B (warning) values are not “clean” in the absolute sense but do not require further
action. If the B value is exceeded, more research is necessary, and depending on the
type of soil and the circumstances, some remediation measures may be necessary. If
the investigations reveal that the C (intervention, action) value has been exceeded,
the soil in question may require clean-up measures, depending on site-specific
circumstances (Moen & Brugman 1987).
Table 1: Threshold, warning and intervention values of heavy metals in Slovenia’s

soils
intervention (C)
threshold (A) value warning (B) value
heavy metal value
(mg/kg of dry soil) (mg/kg of dry soil)
(mg/kg of dry soil)
cadmium 1 2 12
Copper 60 100 300
Lead 85 100 530
Zinc 200 300 720
mercury 0.8 2 10
source: Uradni list RS, No. 68/96, pp. 5773–5774
2.3. REMOVAL OF SOIL FROM THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
In addition to physical and chemical degradation, the expansion of human activities

onto farmland or areas with natural vegetation represents a major threat to the soils.
According to Carter and Dale (1974), the priceless value of fertile soil was known to
all ancient civilizations. These authors assert that soil degradation was among the
main reasons for the decline and even the extinction of these civilizations.
Specific land or space use removes soils from the natural environment. Soil as a
fertile physical body is rarely used, but some types of land use can seriously affect
437
soils. Herein lies the reason why this process of degradation is also known as
irreversible land/soil use (Repe 2002).
Irreversible soil use is frequently the consequence of urbanization and of land use
linked to urbanization: housing, industry, infrastructure, recreation, etc. Some human
encroachments such as covering areas with asphalt or concrete and dam and water
reservoir construction can completely halt all natural processes in soil. Many times
during major surface excavations, the entire soil layer may be removed and
transferred to a different location to be brought back when the work is concluded.
Although no harm is intended, restoring the exact previous state and the full
functioning of the affected soil is impossible. Abandoned industrial areas with highly
degraded soils or an absence of fertile soils remain as a sad warning of past human
activities (Koželj 1998).
600
500
400
300
200
100
100
%
Bilbao
Dresden
Dublin
Iraklion
hagen
Lyon
Milan
München
Oporto
Palermo
Tallin
Bratislava
Grenoble
Nikosia
Prague
Venice
Vienna
Brusseles
Copen-
Padua-
Helsinki
Ruhrgebiet
Setubal
percentage of natural land lost to urbanisation from the '50s to the '90s
percentage of agricultural land lost to urbanisation from the '50s to the '90s
urban sprawl: percentual increase in artificial area from the '50s to the '90s
increase of sealed area in the period 1950s-1990s as percentage of the artificial area in the 1950s source: G.A.C.G.C, 1994
Figure 1: Loss of natural and farmland due to urbanization in selected European

cities
3. THE GLASOD METHODOLOGY
Slovenia belongs to the Central Europe region where some of the most intensive
industrialization and degradation of landscape occurred in the past. Particularly after
World War II, Slovenia too took the path dictated by world and domestic economic
trends. The result of this “progress” is multilayered. Some of the results were
definitely positive and necessary for Slovenia’s development. On the other hand, we
had to face highly industrialized and degraded landscapes. According to the research
(Stegnar et al. 1993; Souvent 1994; Štrbenk, Šalej 1994; Lobnik et al. 1994; Zupan et
al. 1996; 7. Leštan et al. 1997; Šajn et al. 1998, Špes 1998; Svetina et al. 1997,
1998, 1999, 2000), degraded soils can be found in these areas, and many authors
describe situations for which there is no remedy.
As in the rest of the world, soil degradation research in Slovenia was previously
limited to individual landscapes, regions, sites, etc., but this is no longer the case.
Since 1991, an estimate and a map of soil degradation have been available for the
entire world (Oldeman 1991). From this work we also gained the generally
438
recognized GLASOD (Global Assessment of Soil Degradation) methodology that

enables better and more extensive soil degradation research.
Although soil degradation is an old, widespread, and serious problem, very little was
known about its geographical distribution. The need for this type of research was
brought up by UNEP (United Nations Environment Program) in 1987. A year later
UNEP initiated the GLASOD project, which produced its first result in 1991: the
1:1,500,000-scale World Map of the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation
(Oldeman 1991). The map itself does not contain quantitative data but does provide
information about the level and distribution of soil degradation on the global level.
Table 2: Global assessment of soil degradation by regions and land use
agricultural land permanent forests and all used land

pastures woodlands
land use
total degrade % total degrade % total degrade % total degrad %
d d d ed
region [million hectares] [million hectares] [million hectares] [million hectares]
Africa 187 121 65 793 243 31 683 130 19 1,663 494 30
Asia 536 206 38 978 197 20 1,273 344 27 2,787 747 27
South 142 64 45 478 68 14 896 112 13 1,516 244 16
America
Central 38 28 74 94 10 11 66 25 38 198 63 32
America
North 236 63 26 274 29 11 621 4 1 1,131 96 9
America
Europe 287 72 25 156 54 35 353 92 26 796 218 27
Oceania 9 8 16 439 84 19 156 12 8 644 104 17
World 1,475 562 38 3,212 685 21 4,048 719 18 8,735 1,966 23
source: Oldeman 1991
Table 3: Causative factors for soil degradation by regions
deforesta over (bio) industrial

region overgrazing farming
tion exploitation activity
(million hectares)
Africa 67 63 243 121 +
Asia 298 46 197 204 1
South 100 12 68 64 -
America
Central 14 11 9 28 +
America
North 4 - 29 63 +
America
Europe 84 1 50 64 21
Oceania 12 - 83 8 +
World 579 133 679 552 23
source: Oldeman 1991
Determining homogenous units (soil, relief, climate, vegetation, land use) was the
first step toward creating the map. The next step was the recognition of types of
degradation, the level of degradation, and its distribution.
439
Degradation types 4. Physical degradation
1. Water erosion − Compaction
2. Wind erosion − Waterlogging
3. Chemical degradation − Shrinking of organic soils
− Pollution 5. No degradation
− Salinization
Degrees of soil degradation
1. Light: There has been only a small decline in agricultural productivity. Biotic
functions are largely intact. Soils can be fully restored with changes in
ongoing land use practices.
2. Moderate: Still permits continuing agricultural use of an area, but with greatly
reduced productivity. Biotic functions are only partly destroyed.
Restoration is possible with major changes in land use practices.
3. Strong: Agricultural use under local land use management is no longer

possible and most biotic functions have been destroyed. Restoration is
possible, but at a high cost.
4. Extreme: The area has become unsuitable for agriculture and is beyond
restoration. Biotic functions are completely destroyed.
Relative distribution of degradation type within the unit:
1. Infrequent: up to 5% of the unit is affected,
2. Common: 6%–10% of the unit is affected,
3. Frequent: 11%–25% of the unit is affected,
4. Very frequent: 26%–50% of the unit is affected,
5. Dominant: more than 50% of the unit is affected.
Level of degradation threat to a landscape unit
The level of degradation threat to a landscape unit is calculated as a combination of

the degree and relative distribution of the degradation and is divided into five classes:
1. -/no threat,
2. light threat,
3. moderate threat,
440
4. strong threat, and
5. extreme threat.
PERCENTAGE OF CARTOGRAPHIC
UNIT AFFECTED
0 5 10 25 50 100
source: Oldeman, 1991
LITTLE moderate
DEGRADATION
light
DEGREE OF
MEDIUM
LARGE strong
VERY LARGE extreme
LEVEL OF THREAT
LIGHT somewhat reduced agricultural productivity
MODERATE greatly reduced agricultural productivity
STRONG unreclaimable at the farm level
EXTREME unreclaimable and impossible to restore
Figure 2: Assessing the level of degradation threat to a landscape unit
As the diagram (Figure 2) clearly shows, this approach produces high values of
threat at a high degree of degradation spread over small areas or low degrees that
affect vast areas. Using this approach, the threat is deliberately stretched over an
entire unit, which often results in the threat being assessed either too small or too
large.
We attempted to apply the GLASOD methodology to Slovene soils and modified the
methodology accordingly. Only three types of degradation were taken into
consideration: water erosion, pollution with heavy metals, and the removal of soil
from the natural environment. This selection was based on the assumption that
certain types of degradation are almost non-existent in Slovenia (salinization), the
effects of some are minimal (wind erosion), and for others there is no available data
(compaction). Along with heavy metals, other substances (pesticides) also pollute
Slovenia’s soils, but these were not included in the research due to the minimal
availability or complete absence of data.
4. SOIL DEGRADATION THREAT TO SLOVENIA’S LANDSCAPES
4.1. RESEARCH AREA
The number and the size of the units where the GLASOD methodology was tested
depended on the available data. A sufficient quantity of qualitative data is only
available for polluted soils and is limited to urban and industrial areas. A great deal of
data is lacking for rural, mountainous, and forest areas and for other types of
degradation. These reasons dictated the use of the relatively large units of Gams’s
regionalization scheme (Gams et al. 1995).
441
50
49
48
11
3
9 47
12 10 cartography: Blaž Repe
2 8 46 Department of geography,
1 13 44 Faculty of Arts
Ljubljana, 2001
4 45
14
15 1: Julijske Alpe 26: Pivka
2: Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe 27: Notransko podolje
43 3: Karavanke 28: Krimsko višavje
22 16 7 4: Beneško-slovenske in tolminsko hribovje 29: Bloško-Potočanska planota
5 6 5: Cerkljansko-Idrijsko hribovje 30: Velikolaščanska pokrajina
6: Škofjeloško-Idrijsko hribovje 31: Ribniško-Kočevska dolina
21 7: Posavsko hribovje 32: Ribniško-Kočevsko gorovje
17 8: Zgornja Savinjska dolina 33: Dolina gornje Kolpe in Čabranke
42 9: Velenjska kotlina 34: Gorjanci
37 41 10: Vitanjske Karavanke 35: Suha krajina
11: Pohorsko Podravje 36: Dobro polje
40 12: Dežela in Blejski kot 37: Dolenjsko podolje s
20 24 28 13: Dobrave Turjaško pokrajino
36 35 14: Kranjsko-Sorško polje 38: Novomeška pokrajina
27 30 34 15: Bistriška ravan
16: Ljubljansko polje
39: Bela krajina
40: Vzhodna Krška kotlina
29 38 17: Ljubljansko barje

18: Koprsko Primorje
41: Krško in Bizeljsko hribovje
42: Mirnska dolina in Senovsko podolje
26 31 19: Brkini z dolino Notranjske reke 43: Kozjansko hribovje
23 20: Vipavska dolina in Goriško polje 44: Celjska kotlina
21: Goriška Brda 45: Voglajnsko-Soteljska Slovenija
25 22: Spodnja Soška dolina 46: Haloze in Dravinske gorice
19 32 23: Kras 47: Dravsko-Ptujsko polje
24: Nanos, Hrušica, Trnovski gozd 48: Slovenske gorice
in Banščice 49: Pomurska ravnina
39 25: Javorniki in Snežnik 50: Goričko
18
33
source: Gams, Kladnik, Orožen Adamič, KLS 1995
Figure 3: Research Area
4.2. WATER EROSION THREAT TO SLOVENIA’S LANDSCAPES
Water erosion data in Slovenia is minimal. Among the authors, the overall figures are
very similar, but they include all eroded material and not just soil. In Slovenia, 43% of
all surfaces (8,800 km 2) are exposed to erosion. Of this, some 237,000 hectares
need reclamation. Five million cubic meters of material is washed away annually
(Rainer 1950; Rainer, Pintar 1972; Kmecl 1990), that is, 1,300 hectares of fertile soil
twenty centimeters thick (Kmecl 1990). Of these five million cubic centimeters, the
Sava River carries most (56.3%), followed by the Soča River (20%) and the Mura
and Drava rivers together (17.4%). The majority of the material remains on the site of
deposition (Kolbezen 1998).
DEGREE OF EROSION
no
very weak
weak
moderate
strong
cartography: Blaž Repe
Department of geography,
Faculty of Arts
source: Horvat, 1987 Ljubljana, 2001
Figure 4: Water erosion threat to Slovenia
442
The assessment of the water erosion threat was based on four parameters or factors:
soil erodibility, rainfall erosivity, incline and length of hillslopes, and land
use/vegetation cover.
50
49
48
11
3
9 47
12 10
2 8 46
1 13 44
4 45
14
15
43 Water erosion threat
22 16 7 of Slovene
5 6
21 landscapes:
17
42 -
37 41
40 light
20 24 28 moderate
36 35
27 34 strong
30
38 extreme
29 31
23 26
25
39 Department of geography,
18 Faculty of Arts
33 Ljubljana, 2001
Figure 5: Water erosion threat to Slovenia’s landscapes
With these four parameters and the requirements of the GLASOD methodology, the
water erosion threat to Slovenia’s landscapes was calculated. Figure 5 shows the
strong link between erosion and relief. The highest values were obtained for
landscapes with steep inclinations and high relief energy (Julian Alps, Kamniške-
Savinjske Alps). The Karavanke Mountains were an exception and with Dežela and
Blejski kot, the Beneško-slovensko and Tolmin hills, the lower Soča Valley, and
Goriška Brda rank one class lower. Areas of moderate threat cover nearly all the
prealpine hills excluding the intervening valleys and basins and Pohorsko Podravje.
The same level was also found in the Vipava Valley, Goriške polje, the Bloško-
Potočanska plateau, the area of Velike Lašče, and the upper Kolpa and Čabranka
valleys. The rest of Slovenia shows light threat.
Due to its relief, Slovenia is distinguished by high inclinations and relief energy and
ranks Slovenia very high relative to the potential water erosion risk. The large
percentage of protective forest is also proof of this (Anko 1985). Any removal of the
natural vegetation in hilly or mountainous areas can bring disastrous consequences.
In the past, water erosion was very common as farmers cultivated inappropriate and
steep areas. Today these areas again are under natural vegetation as the
abandoning of cultivated lands and reforestation are very noticeable processes. The
very high percentage of forest also reflects concern for soil protection. Very small
parcels, changing ownership over short distances, and the fragmentation of farmland
allow green belts between fields that effectively lower the risk of erosion.
443
Despite the favourable results and the low water erosion risk, it is very important
point out the fact that water erosion is a very significant process. Using a very similar
methodology, the studies by Topole (1990, 1995, 1999) proved the existence of
water erosion in the Mirna Valley but on very large scale.
Given the scale, method, and quality of data used, it is impossible to detect local
erosion sites, not to mention micro locations (individual fields) where water erosion is
a serious problem.
4.3. HEAVY METAL POLLUTION THREAT TO SLOVENIA’S LANDSCAPES
According to the distribution of heavy metals in Slovenia’s soil, the country can be
divided into two distinct parts. The greater part includes areas with small settlements
and the absence of large heavy industry, which results in a smaller concentration of
heavy metals that changes gradually and depends on the geological conditions of the
bedrock. The smaller part includes urban and industrial areas with high density of
population, industry, and traffic. Here we can expect high concentrations of
anthropogenic elements that change significantly within a short distance (Mattigod &
Page 1983).
The available data for heavy metals was processed using the GLASOD
methodology. The results showed little pollution with heavy metals on national level.
Regional differences are noticeable and occur as consequence of the metal industry
that was one of the main factors in landscape development in the past.
Higher concentrations were found in the Slovene Alps (Jesenice ironworks),

Pohorsko Podravje (Koroška: Ravne ironworks and the Mežica lead mine and
smelter), the Velenje basin (Šoštanj thermal power plant), the Ljubljana basin, the
Koper coast areas (industry in general and traffic), and of course the Celje basin with
Celje zinc factory and ironworks in Štore. Higher quantities of heavy metals were also
found near Idrija (mercury mine and smelter).
50
49
48
11
3
9 47
12 10
2 8 46
1 13 44
Heavy metal
4 45 pollution threat
14
15 of Slovene
22 7
43 landscapes:
6 16
5 -
21 17
42
light
37 41 moderate
40 strong
20 24 28
36 35 extreme
27 34
30
29 38
26 31
23
25
19 32
cartography: Blaž Repe
39 Department of geography,
18 Faculty of Arts
33 Ljubljana, 2001
Figure 6: Heavy metal pollution threat to Slovenia’s landscapes
444
The methodology used was unable to recognize the strong pollution threat to
Slovenia’s landscapes, with the exception of the Celje basin. Along with the
methodology itself, the reason for may also be found in the location of urban and
industrial areas, which lie in the valleys and basins of the Alpine and Prealpine
regions. Very bad wind conditions and strong temperature inversions in winter
prevent pollution from spreading to surrounding areas, and only light threat could be
determined for regions with heavily or even extremely polluted spots. The Mežica
basin and the Zasavje region should be particularly pointed out, where air pollution
was determined and examined in detail; however, due to the limitation of the pollution
and the unpolluted surroundings, the region does not stand out.
The unique characteristics of Slovenia’s relief and the concentration of people and
industry in valleys and basins have positive and negative effects. While soils in the
countryside are relatively unpolluted, the soil conditions in cities are much more
worrisome and deserve full attention.
4.4. THREAT TO SLOVENIA’S LANDSCAPES BY THE REMOVAL OF SOIL

FROM THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Strong conflicts of interest occur on Slovene territory. Housing, industry, and traffic
share the same affinity for the plains located at the bottom of Alpine, Prealpine, and
Dinaric karst basins and valleys. These, however, are also the areas with the
deepest soils of the highest quality, and generally speaking, the arable lands that lie
here are universally suitable for farming of any kind. Gentle slopes (under 5°) allow
the use of modern mechanization, and it is no surprise that the largest areas of first
category fields and drinkable groundwater can be found here.
Unfortunately, these are also the areas of the highest population density,
concentration of housing, transportation, and other infrastructure, and where the
most intensive urbanization and industrialization have occurred.
50
49
48
11
3
9 47
12 10
2 8 46
1 13 44
4 45
14
15
Elimination of soils from
43
22
6 16 7 natural environment threat
5
21
of Slovene
17 landscapes:
42
37 41 -
40
20 24 28 light
36 35 moderate
27 34
30 strong
29 38
26 31 extreme
23
25
39 Faculty of Arts
18 Ljubljana, 2001
33
Figure 7: The threat of the removal of soil from the natural environment to Slovenia’s
landscape
445
Every human activity requires space for its existence and development.
Unfortunately, the most suitable sites can be found in areas where the loss of fertile
land is the largest. To make matters even worse, as previously mentioned, the same
areas are among the most polluted in Slovenia.
The fertile soils on Slovenia’s flatlands are of strategic importance and harmonizing
all the interests will be one of Slovenia’s primary and most difficult tasks.
4.5 THE GLASOD METHODOLOGY – CONCLUSION
The GLASOD methodology was developed for the needs of studying soil degradation
and its distribution (Oldeman et al. 1991), and was only recently used to attempt
something similar in Slovenia (Repe 2002). To a certain extent, the results gained
are both surprising and expected. The light soil degradation threat to Slovenia’s
landscapes is the result of the methodological approach and an actual reflection of
Slovene soil conditions, which are dictated by the landscape characteristics of
Slovenia and of the regions selected for study.
50
49
48
11
3
9 47
12 10
2 8 46
1 13 44
4 45 Soil degradation
14
15
43
threat of Slovene
22 7
5 6 16 landscapes:
21 s
17
42 t
37 41 brez r
degradacije w
40 o e
20 24 28
36 35 n a
27 34 g k
30
29 38
26 31 water erosion
23
25 heavy metal pollution
19 32
39 elimination
18
33 cartography: Blaž Repe
Faculty of Arts
source: Gams, Kladnik, Orožen Adamič, KLS 1995 Ljubljana, 2001
Figure 8: Soil degradation threat to Slovenia’s landscapes
In studying soil degradation using the GLASOD methodology, we confronted many

difficulties, which the results also reflect. The method per se proved again to be very
useful and successful and its frequent and widespread use around the world speaks
for itself. However, a high quality and a large quantity of data are required to make
the results of the method valid, and Slovenia lacks such data. The consequence of
this is reflected in our results, which are certainly relevant but are not sufficiently
concrete or quantitatively defined.
446
At this point, the GLASOD method can be an indispensable tool to study soil
degradation but only on very small units that can be studied in detail and where all
the necessary data collected. For the time being, the complex and integral research
of soil degradation with concrete results at the level of Slovenia remains impossible.
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450
CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN HEALTH IN THE REPUBLIC OF

MACEDONIA-VULNERABILITY REPORT1
V. Kendrovski*, D. Gjorgjev*, B. Aleksoski*, P. Ristevski**

*Republic Institute for Health Protection, “50 Divizija” No.6, 1000 Skopje,
Republic of Macedonia, Fax: ++ 389 02 223 354, Tel: ++ 389 02 125 044,
E-mail: kendro@mt.net.mk
** State Hydrometeorology Institute
ABSTRACT
Global climate change over the coming decades could have various effects on the health of human
populations within the European region. Because of the nature and scale of the exposures involved,
such effects generally would apply to entire populations or communities rather than to small groups or
individuals. All climate and weather variables have some influence on human health. Abrupt changes
in weather, such as those associated with the passage of a weather front, have been implicated in
such things as feelings of discomfort with symptoms such as headaches. There is some evidence that
weather changes may be related to the onset of some diseases, such as common colds. Wind in
combination with temperature and humidity can affect human thermoregulation by heat waves. In the
summer of 2000, a severe heat wave hit the Republic of Macedonia, and nearly 120 people per day
arose some heat-related health problems, only in Skopje. According to the scenarios for increasing of
average year temperature and expecting decreasing of precipitation in the future period (to 2100) as
well as the following projection (to 2020) of exceeding the population and drinking water needs we can
expecting increasing of direct and indirect impact of the climate change to the human health among
the population. In the following period is expecting the continuing increasing of life expectancy and
increasing of the participation of the population aged 65 and over among the total population which is
vulnerable segment to the whether variables (cold and warm). The trend of all non-communicable
diseases is permanent increasing.
Keywords: climate change, scenario, direct and indirect impact, vulnerability.
AIMS AND BACKGROUND
Global climate change over the coming decades could have various effects on the
health of human populations within the European region. (1) An increased frequency
or severity of heat waves would cause an increase in heat-related mortality and
illness. In contrast, less-severe cold weather would reduce the documented seasonal
excess of deaths in winter (2). Changes in seasonal and daily temperatures and
humidity are likely to affect the concentration of airborne materials that impinge on
respiratory health. The production of photochemical smog proceeds more rapidly at
higher temperatures. The concentrations and onset and duration of season of
allergenic pollens and spores are related to cumulative temperatures and rainfall,
though in a complex manner. An additional important element for assessing the
impact of climate change will be the quality of socio-economic and demographic
predictions of vulnerable population. (3) Certain subgroups of a population may be
more susceptible than others to health effects from environmental exposures, usually
because of physical or behavioural characteristics that typify the group.(4) Age is
often a determining factor. The organs and immune systems of very young children
1 ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania
451
may not be fully operational and are therefore less effective in fighting external
insults. The elderly also have a reduced capacity to cope due to system failures and
onset of the advanced stage of diseases. Gender differences are often apparent in
the incidence of certain diseases because of physiological differences between the
sexes or behavioural attributes.
Other variables typically considered in epidemiological studies include occupation,

place of residence, education, and income. The effect may be either directly on the
human body or indirectly through effects on disease-causing organisms or their
vectors.(5) By Central and Eastern European (CEE) standards, Macedonia has a
young population and relatively high fertility rate, resulting in positive population
growth. During the 1960-90 period, the population enjoyed steadily improving health
status, with rapidly declining infant and maternal mortality. The infant mortality rate
dropped from 112 per 1,000 live births in 1961 to just 28 in 1991, and 11,9/1000 in
2001, with life expectancy rising from 61 to 72 years. Climate change could affect
human health through increases in heat-stress morbidity and mortality, tropical
vector-borne diseases, urban air pollution problems, and decreases in cold-related
illnesses.
During the last period the structure of the death in the Republic of Macedonia in the
total mortality rate has been significantly changed. The cardiovascular and malignant
diseases have noticed significant increase in mortality. In the Republic of Macedonia
mortality from circulatory system diseases had been among the causes of death
during the last 25 years. Mortality from ischaemic heart diseases has increased both
in males and females. In the period 1980-2000 has been noticed that the
salmonellosis has an increasing trend, particularly in the last decade. In this period
has been registered a relatively constant morbidity from 5-10/100.000, except in
1985 and 1987 with Mb of 14 and 19/100.000. (6)
EXPERIMENTAL
The design of the study is analogue and predictive one. The first approach defined
the assessment of the mortality impact of a heat wave for the period 2000-2002 as
well as heat-related morbidity through epidemiological retrospective study for 2000,
for Skopje. The data has been collected from State Statistical Institute, Emergency
Health Service, Republic Institute for Health protection and from Hydro-
Meteorological Institute. The individual scenarios for the Republic of Macedonia used
for the analyze are: HadCM2-scenario, UKTR-scenario, UKHI-EQ-scenario
recommended by British Meteorological Service and SIRO1-EQ-scenario, CISIRO2-
EQ-scenario recommended by Australian Scientific and Research Institute and CCC-
EQ-scenario recommended by Canadian Climatic Center.
According those scenarios has been made a sum prediction for main climatic
elements (ambient temperature, and precipitations for this weather period in 21
century as follows: 2010, 2025, 2050, 2075 and 2100, respectively. This predictions
where based for the conditions according to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change emission scenario IS92a -with 1500 GtC accumulated emission of CO2
(IPCC1995) and emission scenario IS92c- with 770 GtC accumulated emission of
CO2 (IPCC 1995). By prospective epidemiological method the mortality and morbidity
health data has been collected from the Year Books from Republic Institute for
Health protection for the period 1980-2000.
452
The body normally loses heat by radiation, convection, and evaporation of water from
its surfaces. Ambient temperature, air movement, and humidity are important in
determining the efficiency of heat loss in this manner. Air movement affects
convection, and both air movement and humidity affect evaporation. Extreme
temperatures endanger human health. People with chronic diseases, especially the
elderly, are very susceptible to aggravation of the disease state from both
excessively cold and excessively hot weather. Temperatures in warmer temperate
zones are ideal for the survival and propagation of causative agents for some
bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases. Temperature also affects human health by
affecting agriculture, fisheries, and water resources. The effects of high temperatures
on human health are modified by the amount of moisture in the air (humidity). The
degree to which thermoregulatory mechanisms must operate to keep body
temperatures normal varies with humidity. Human comfort is also affected by
humidity. Certain levels of humidity are ideally suited to the survival and reproduction
of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, and their vectors. Causes of population
vulnerability to ill-health in the face of environmental stress also include the level of
dependency (such as reliance on others for information, resources and expertise)
and geographical isolation. The attainment of good public health depends on a
responsive social order. Dependency causes vulnerability because support is not
always provided when needed. Deprived communities, lacking wealth, social
institutions, environmental security and robust health, are likely to be at greatest risk
of adverse health effects from climate and other environmental changes. By
stretching limited social resources across a broader range of health and other
problems, climate change may affect the implementation of public health and
nutrition programmes.
The total resident population in the Republic of Macedonia is about 2.050.000

inhabitants.The sex distribution of the population shows that males ale slightly
predominant with masculinity index 1.021 with tendency of equalize. The average
density has increasing trend with 64 inhabitants per km2 in 1971 and 79 inhabitants
per km2 in 1999.During the last thirty years the number of the young population is in
permanent decrease, i.e. the age group from 0-14, while the number of elderly
people over 65 years of age is permanent increase. During the last decades the
natural growth in the Republic of Macedonia decreased from 13.6% in 1981 to 8 in
1998. The average age of the population is 32.7 years for males and 33.9 for
females. Some vital events (Table 1) are following:
Table 1. Some vital events for the Republic of Macedonia
Indicators 1991 2001

New born/ per1000 inhabitants 17.1 13.3
Deaths/ per1000 inhabitants 7.3 8.3
Natural increase 9.8 5
Life expectancy
Average 72.3 72.7
Males 70.1 70.5
Females 74.4 74.8
Infant mortality rate per 1000 live
births 28.2 11.9
453
In the structure of causes of death among the population in the Republic of

Macedonia the circulatory diseases has been dominated with 51%, malignant
neoplasms with 14.8%, injuries with 4.7% and respiratory diseases with 4.6%. All
diseases and health condition mentioned above, expect the respiratory one are
shown tendency of increasing. Among the municipalities (at the local level), the
structure of causes of death has the same distribution.
Each year, high temperatures put people at risk. People suffer heat-related illness
when the body's temperature control system is overloaded. The body normally cools
itself by sweating. But under some conditions, sweating just isn't enough. In such
cases, a person's body temperature rises rapidly.
Very high body temperatures may damage the brain or other vital organs. Several
factors affect the body's ability to cool itself during extremely hot weather. When the
humidity is high, sweat will not evaporate as quickly, preventing the body from
releasing heat quickly. Other conditions that can limit the ability to regulate
temperature include old age, obesity, fever, dehydration, heart disease, poor
circulation, sunburn, and drug and alcohol use
The Heat Index in July and August 2000, in Skopje shows same distribution as
occurrence in Emergency Health Services in total number and for days with high
Heat Index with heat-related health problems (particular at July 6 and 9, 2000 which
was statistical significant to other summer months-August and September).
The most common diseases were: cerebrovascular diseases (15%); hypertension

(13%); angina pectoris (10%), heat related illness and infarct myocardial (4%).
Climate change could affect human health through increases in heat-stress morbidity
and mortality, urban air pollution problems, and decreases in cold-related illnesses.
During the last period the structure of the death in the Republic of Macedonia in the
total mortality rate has been significantly changed. The cardiovascular and malignant
diseases have noticed significant increase in mortality. In the Republic of Macedonia
mortality from circulatory system diseases had been first among the causes of death
during the last 25 years.
Mortality from ischaemic heart diseases has increased both in males and females. In
the period 1980-2000 in the Republic of Macedonia has existed a general trend of
registered cases of Alimentary toxic infections (ATI) and relatively high morbidity rate
(in the rank 80-85/100.000); except 1989 and 1990 where was registered the higher
morbidity of 120 and 123/100.000.
According to the predictive scenarios for the country the average temperature will
increasing as it shows of the Figure 1.
454
Figure 1. Changes of the year temperature for 21 century
Also, The sums of precipitation for summer period will decrease. (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The changes of precipitation sum for summer period in 21 century.
Precipitation may increase humidity with consequent effects on humans. In cold

weather, it may add to chilling of the human body, thus making the human more
susceptible to disease, or it may aggravate chronic diseases. Depending on the
amount and timing, it may modify the ecological habitat of parasites, their hosts, and
insect vectors such that their growth and survival are affected. If there is too little or
too much precipitation or the timing is wrong, there may be crop damage. This may
lead to food shortages or an increase in the cost of food, thus resulting in under- or
malnutrition.
According to the scenarios for increasing of average year temperature and expecting
decreasing of precipitation in the future period (to 2100) as well as the following
projection of exceeding the population and drinking water needs (Table 2 a,b) we can
expecting increasing of direct and indirect impact of the climate change to the human
health among the population.
455
Table 2a*: Estimation of increasing of the population of the Republic of Macedonia
Population 2005 2015 2025

1Urban (60%) 1 251 373 1 322 513 1 385 731
2. Rural (40%) 838 336 880 657 918 266
Total 2 089 709 2 203 170 2 303 997
Table 2b: Predicting of water needs of the population (103 m3/year )
description Present 2005 2015 2025

1. Publuc services 156 043 167 361 175 668 183 189
2. Individual water
39 905 45 899 56 252 67 033
supply
Total 195 948 213 260 231 920 250 022

Source: Ministry for Environment and urban planning of R.Macedonia (2000)
The primary objective of adaptation is to reduce disease burdens, injuries,

disabilities, suffering and deaths. Many impacts of climate change - including health
impacts - can be reduced or avoided by various adaptations.
CONCLUSION
In the following period is expecting the continuing increasing of life expectancy and
increasing of the participation of the population aged 65 and over among the total
population which is vulnerable segment to the whether variables (cold and warm).
The trend of all non-communicable diseases is permanent increasing. The morbidity
rate from alimentary toxic infections as well as salmonellosis has continuous values
with potential increasing. Therefore we need strategies of the public health sector or
need intersectoral adaptation and cross-sectoral adaptation measures. Most primary
preventive measures are only achievable through intersectoral and cross-sectoral
collaboration. Trends in inequality, resource consumption and depletion,
environmental degradation, population growth and ill-health are closely inter-related
and will strongly interact with potential climate change impacts. Capacity building is
an essential step in preparing sustainable adaptation and mitigation strategies. It
includes education, awareness raising and the creation of legal frameworks,
institutions and an environment that enables people to take well-informed decisions
for the long-term benefit of their society. Women, youth, nongovernmental
organizations, professional and non-professional associations, need to be brought
into capacity building strategies, as they are essential in building a sustainable future.
Little research has been undertaken on population vulnerability in relation to climate

change and health. The IPCC Special Report on Methodological and Technological
Issues for Technology Transfer describes four types of population vulnerability to
456
health impacts: social, economic, technological and demographic. These categories

are directly related to the driving forces of global change. The most elementary form
of adaptation is to launch or improve health monitoring and surveillance systems
(summarizes the mechanisms for a comprehensive monitoring scheme for the types
of potential health impact of climate change).
Capacity building is an essential step in preparing sustainable adaptation and

mitigation strategies. It includes education, awareness raising and the creation of
legal frameworks, institutions and an environment that enables people to take well-
informed decisions for the long-term benefit of their society. Women, youth,
nongovernmental organizations, professional and nonprofessional associations, need
to be brought into capacity building strategies, as they are essential in building a
sustainable future. The key determinants of health – as well as the solutions – lie
primarily outside the direct control of the health sector. They are rooted in areas such
as sanitation and water supply, education, agriculture, trade, tourism, transport,
development and housing. Unless these aspects are considered, it will be difficult to
make improvements in population health. Primary and secondary adaptive
measures, intersectoral and cross-sectoral adaptation strategies are needed to
reduce the potential health impacts arisen from climate change. However, it is very
difficult to disentangle most of these measures from the general strategies of public
health.
REFERENCES:
1. KOVATS RS, MENNE B, MCMICHAEL AJ, BERTOLLINI R, SOSKOLNE C.

Climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion: Early effect on our health
in Europe. WHO Regional Publications. European Series No.88, Copenhagen,
2000a.
2. KALKSTEIN LS, SMOYER KE .The impacts of climate change on human

health: some international implications. Experientia, 1993; 49(11): 69-979.
3. WHO/WMO/UNEP. Climate change and human health: an assessment

prepared by a Task Group on behalf of the World Health Organization, the
World Meteorological Organization, and the United Nations Environment
Programme. McMichael AJ, Haines A, Slooff R, and Kovats S, eds. Geneva,
WHO, 1996. (WHO/EHG/96.7).
4. WHO. Potential health effects of climatic change. Report of a WHO Task

Group. pub. WHO, Geneva, 1990. WHO/PEP90.10: p. 58.
5. WHO. Climate Change and Human Health (edited by AC Mc Michael, A

Haines, R Sloof and S Kovacs) Document WHO/EHG/96.7; WHO, 1996.
6. KENDROVSKI V, STIKOVA E, KOCUBOVSKI M, KOLEVSKA L. The impact

of summer heat waves. VII National congress of Hygiene, 2-4 NOV 2000,
Sofia, Bulgaria, 2000; s. 23-4
457
THE ZONGULDAK CLEAN AIR PROJECT:

A LOCAL RESPONSE TO INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL
IN TURKEY1
Hakan ALTINTAS, Mehmet C. MARIN

Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, TURKEY
Cell Phone:+905353030973, Fax: +903442211429
e-Mail: hakanaltintas@hotmail.com; memedm@juno.com
ABSTRACT
Zonguldak, a city with a in north western Turkey on the Black Sea, the capital of Zonguldak province. The
discovery of anthracite, or hard coal reserves in the 19th century changed Zonguldak from a small village
to a fast-growing coal city with a busy port. The state-owned coal mines are the major means of support
for Zonguldak's inhabitants. Coal-burning heavy industries in and around Zonguldak also contribute to the
economy. The city has highly developed highway and railroad connections to the rest of the country to
facilitate transport of coal. As a result of its industrial sector, suffers one of the world’s highest levels of air
pollution.
This paper focuses on the efforts of Zonguldak’s local authorities to reduce the city’s levels of air pollution.
In addition, it highlights the local authorities’ potentials and limitations as a regulatory authority addressing
the most serious environmental problems affecting the population within their jurisdiction. Ten per cent of
the hard coal mines in the world lack sulphur dioxide emission controls. Most of these hard coal mines
with low or no sulphur capture are located in South America, Africa and Asia, excluding Japan. Whilst
technology exists that reduces sulphur dioxide emissions by up to 99.9 per cent, its implementation
depends on the political and economic context. It is in this light that Zonguldak’s environmental
management committee is trying to influence the process towards a sustainable industry. The Zonguldak’s
Clean Air project launched Turkey’s first continuous and automatic public air quality monitoring network.
As an environmental management tool, the air quality network aims to generate an air quality database to
be used as a basis for environmental action plans to improve the local air quality.
Keywords: clean air project, Zonguldak, Turkey, urban environmental management
I. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT CONTEXT IN TURKEY
The concept that cities have a vital role in social and economic development in all
countries is increasingly gaining acceptance. Urbanization, if accompanied by
appropriate management and the necessary governmental structures, can be a process
that helps create more diversified and dynamic economies [1]. Only when essential
infrastructure and services are provided and environmental problems are addressed can
urbanization result in improved well-being. However, rapid growth of cities can be
threatened by environmental deterioration. Ignoring environmental problems can lead to
a continuous accumulation of costs and problems and might discourage future
investments. Therefore, cities need to find better ways of balancing the pressures of
urban growth, taking into consideration the restrictions and limits imposed by the
environment. This can be achieved through a process of comprehensive urban
environmental management, with special emphasis on the interrelations between the
1
458
urban actors in the public and private sectors. Successful urban environmental
management requires clear governmental structures that use various mechanisms,
including regulatory (prohibitions, laws and regulations), economic (taxes, charges,
tariffs, subsidies and environmental licences) and communications mechanisms
(environmental education and citizens’ participation) [2]. Additional technical
mechanisms of urban management, such as information-gathering and processing
(environmental monitoring, environmental reviews, environmental impact studies, risk
analysis, environmental reports) and planning instruments, including a land use plan,
are necessary [3]. In Turkey, both the government and the private sector have operated
without an adequate consideration of the environmental repercussions of their actions,
which poses a present and future risk for the population. The risks are particularly
serious in urban areas. The environmental problems faced by Turkey’s cities differ in
size and characteristics, depending on the scale, the type of day-to-day activities and
the type of urban growth. Turkey’s legal framework assigns authority for environmental
issues to the sectors involved. In practice, decisions taken within these sectors might
reflect their interests and could fail to take into account other sectors with which they
share resources. There are also overlapping functions and responsibilities among the
national, regional and local government institutions. With regard to policy, the tradition of
each sector working in isolation makes task-sharing and consultation difficult. The
absence of effective decentralization means that decision-making and resources are
concentrated with the central government. Inadequate coordination among the various
governmental institutions, without clear action plans, leads to duplicated efforts and an
inefficient use of resources. Local governments have limited functions and authority to
improve environmental management and most are ineffective in promoting and
supporting individual and community initiatives related to environmental protection and
conservation [4]. When these limitations are combined with the shortage of economic
resources and the economic interests of enterprises that fail to consider environmental
factors in their operations and development, serious environmental problems are the
inevitable result.
Devolution has been one of the key words on the Turkish public agenda over the last
few years. Although not without contention, Assemblies and Executives have been
established. At the same time, the localisation of government authority and responsibility
has been highlighted with the election of a mayor of Zonguldak, a move aimed at
providing the city with more effective management. Turkey has recognised the need for
a system of local administration that can better cope with over urbanisation and the
concurrent planning problems that have resulted from extensive migration to its major
metropolises such as Istanbul, Ankara and Adana. In recognition of their common
problems. The move towards devolution goes beyond Turkey, and it is mainly driven by
economics. Central governments world-wide are no longer very willing to provide
resources for the cities for their survival. For example, in Zonguldak, the mining industry
was losing money and was sustained by subsidies. For the last two decades, the central
government has no longer been willing to provide these subsidies. This has pushed the
local government into looking for new means of survival. As a result of globalisation,
survival has meant that cities all over the world have been put in the position of
competing with each other for investments [5]. One role that local governments in
Turkey have taken on is that of coalition builders, bringing together economic and
459
political interests to promote their cities and attract outside capital. This model, in which
local administrations “act as a sort of cement”. For former industrial cities such as
Manchester and Birmingham, the process usually involves rehabilitating the city centres
and upgrading services to make them more attractive to investors. British cities are at an
advantage over Turkish cities in this respect, because they have more resources under
their control. In Turkey, the local municipalities are unable, for example, to offer tax
breaks to investors, because taxation is largely under the control of the central
government. Moreover, much of the growth in Turkey is going on at the outskirts of the
major municipalities, which are beyond their jurisdiction, making planning for growth
extremely difficult. Although the populations of Turkey's cities have skyrocketed in the
past decade, the current Municipal Law has undergone little change since it was
adopted in 1930. At the moment, a draft law, which will give more power to local
governments in terms of financial resources and responsibilities, is awaiting review in
parliament. The problem with the proposed draft that it addresses only one aspect of
local government reform. When they create reform, they give more responsibilities and
more money to the cities, but they don't touch on the hard issues such as public
participation and public involvement in decision-making and implementation of projects
at the local level. People don't have a say over their own lives in the city. This should be
the main issue for local government restructuring. Widening public participation is an
issue that Turkey is struggling.
In the case of Zonguldak, one of the criticisms when they were redeveloping the city
centre was that it was an outcome of a coalition between local government and the
business elite. People were complaining that they were not really consulted. Now they
are trying to set up new structures to attract people to these kinds of processes.
Developing alternative mechanisms of public participation such as citizen's assemblies,
boards, referendums and other consultancy mechanisms on the one hand and devolving
power from the national to the municipal levels on the other are two sides of the same
reform effort. On the one side you have to strengthen local government, on the other
you have to make it more accountable and participatory. Without giving responsibilities
to local governments, providing more participation is pointless. You have to have
something at stake. The main question is still how to get the people involved in these
processes. If we solve this problem one day, we will solve all the problems of local
government. In the case of Zonguldak, as described here, the same political and legal
context is evident, except for one great difference. Zonguldak’s local authorities, through
a participatory approach, have succeeded in taking a leading role in the environmental
protection of its jurisdiction and its community. The existing participatory platforms in the
city have given their support and open commitment to participate in the process. The
City Council, established in conjunction with the launching of the project, held its first
meeting on 30 September 1998. The Local Agenda 21 Secretary General has been
designated and preparations continue for the staffing and operation of the Secretariat.
The municipality has allocated office space for use by the Secretariat [6].
II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON ZONGULDAK
Zonguldak is a coastal city located in the Western Black Sea Region. The Black Sea
Region covers approximately 18 percent of the land in Turkey, with a surface area of
460
141,000 km2. The Black Sea Region, which gets its name and characteristics from the
adjacent sea, extends from the border of Georgia in the east to the eastern edge of the
Adapazari Plain in the west. All of the provinces of Artvin, Rize, Trabzon, Gumushane,
Bayburt, Giresun, Ordu, Sinop, Samsun, Amasya, Kastamonu, Zonguldak, Bartin, Bolu,
and almost all of Tokat, are in the Black Sea Region. The major center of coal
production in Anatolia, Zonguldak has developed rapidly after coal had been found here.
Zonguldak is characterized by “black diamond”, the name which signifies the importance
attached to the high quality coal produced in the area [7]. Many underground coalmines
mainly run by the government. Most of the mines have been running inefficiently partly
due to difficult geological conditions and some of the mines (or part of the operations)
have been recently privatised. Although the economy of both towns largely depends on
mining and associated industries. In fact, the local economy has heavily relied on coal
mining and industry for decades. At present, the decline in the industry has already
started to impose its adverse repercussions upon the local economy. Although more
than half of the population live in the countryside, the main economic sources are mining
and industry.
Figure 1: Position in Zonguldak
Zonguldak has very beautiful beaches in Kopuz and Uzunkum, where you may choose
one of the tea gardens or restaurants to the perfect scene around. Eregli, 60 kms west
of Zonguldak, is located on a hill where a Byzantine castle stands. Eregli has a
mythological significance and it is said that near here at Kavakderesi Hercules caught
461
the three-headed dog Cerberus and returned it to Hades, the god of underworld.
Cerberus stayed the cave called “Cehennemagzi” (Entrance to Hell) which is located
near Kavakderesi outside Eregli [8]. It has fine beaches and is a haven for ships. The
delicious strawberries of Eregli which are among the best in the world. Safranbolu, 127
kms southeast of Zonguldak, is like a museum of traditional Turkish architecture. The
castle on the hill is a perfect spot for an overall view of the pretty town. The town is
renowned, with its traditional houses which are really praiseworthy, especially the Cinci
Han and Hamam, Izzet Pasha Mosque and Library, Koprulu Mosque all from the 17th
century. You may sit at the cafes which have a special atmosphere and watch the
perfect scene in front of you. Safranbolu is also famous for its extra quality “Turkish
Delight” (Lokum). Devrek is a green, scenic town, 50 kms southeast. The wooden
walking sticks (baston) that are made here are very popular. Zonguldak is considered a
moderatesized city in terms of population. Its principal economic sectors are mining,
fishing and port activities. Fishing activities, which are the most dynamic, include five
operating fish meal and oil plants, processing. Turkey’s proven hard coal reserves of
428 million tons are limited mainly to the Zonguldak area [9]. By 1980, Zonguldak was
an isolated, polluted “state town” with serious water shortages. In 1983, a partial solution
was found to the water shortage problem, by drawing water from a nearby basin.
Zonguldak has doubled its water supply since 1999. In 1984, the municipality
implemented its development master plan and proposed converting Zonguldak into a
“city to live in”.
In 1993, the urban development master plan was updated to reflect Zonguldak’s new
development conditions. During the 1980s, management committees emerged as a
mechanism to address issues such as transportation, including its routes and tariffs,
water and electricity supplies and solid waste management; and they participated in the
decision-making process together with the municipality authorities. Projects such as the
construction of the sea pier, the paving of roads and paths and the development of
green areas, as well as improvements to housing and residential areas, were carried
out. In 1997, one of the most important steps toward consultation was taken with the
approval, by consensus, of the environmental rehabilitation plan. A multi-sector technical
commission was established to assess the environmental damage resulting from mining,
industrial and domestic activities, with representatives from the central government, the
municipality of Zonguldak, the fishing industry and the coal company. The commission
prepared, and approved, a rehabilitation plan, including an installation to capture 30 per
cent of sulphur dioxide emissions. After the implementation of the rehabilitation plan, the
question of the city’s poor air quality was still unresolved. In order to tackle this problem,
the Local Agenda 21 process was launched in July 1998. The existing participatory
platforms in the city gave their support and their open commitment to participate in the
process. The City Council, established in conjunction with the launching of the project,
held a series of meeting to adopt its Statutes, and to establish working groups. Relevant
activities are ongoing at present [10]. Zonguldak City Council consists of the following
members:
• Central and local public institutions
• University
462
• Professional chambers
• NGOs
• Trade unions
• Local representatives of political parties
• Mayors and Assembly Members of the municipalities in the Zonguldak Province
• Neighbourhood heads
• Members of the Provincial Assembly

Table 1: Key Features of Zonguldak
Position Turkey is at the north eastern on the Black Sea

coast end of the Mediterranean Sea in southeast
Europe and southwest Asia.
Area 9,038 sq km (Province Area)

General Information Well forested and mountainous, the centre of
Turkish heavy industry, containing the nation's
largest iron and steel complexes at Karabuk and
Eregli and the largest coalfields near Zonguldak
city.
History The Hittites, Miletians, Phrygians and according to

Homer, the Amazons all colonized parts of the
coast. The Alexander the Great, too, in his world
conquest, brought the region under his sovereignty.
Eventually it was incorporated into the Roman and
Byzantine Empires. The 15th century saw the
greater part of the area come under the Ottoman
rule of Sultan Mehmet II. In 1829, coal was
discovered in the area later mined by English,
French and Russian companies. It was occupied by
France in 1919, but liberated by Turks in 1920.
Mining The city's development and rapid rise in population
were associated with the growth of this coal industry
after the mid-19th century. Mining was extensively
developed by the government after 1940 and about
80 percent of the city's labour force is engaged in
work related to coal.
Points of interest Lush vegetation and bountiful crops grow in the
lower elevations and valleys Along the long
coastline, mile after mile of beautiful uncrowned
beaches offer sun, swimming and relaxation. In the
spring time, delicate white flower blossoms carpet
especially the rolling meadows in the hills. The
humid climate and fertile soil encourage the
cultivation of a variety of produce, including tea,
tobacco, corn and hazelnuts.
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Climate Rainy and humid in all seasons

Population 653.739 (2000) [11]
Current population of the City 250.282
Current population of the country 65599206
Population of the country in 1998 64479000
Population of the country in 2050 100664000
Population Growth 1.62%
Unemployment 6.3%
Female/Male Ratio (females per 100 males, 2000): 98
Nationality Turk (s)
Language Turkish (official)
Religion Muslim 99.8% (mostly Sunni), other 0.2% (Christian
and Jews)
Currency Turkish lira
The Governor, Parliamentarians of Zonguldak and the representatives of local and

national press are ex-official members of the City Council. In November 2000 meeting,
the Mayor of Zonguldak has withdrawn from his previous position as the ex-officio
Chairperson of the Council, assuming instead the title of “Honorary Chairperson” in
order to provide the Council with a greater autonomy, and to play a "facilitating" role
instead of a dominating role. The functioning of the Zonguldak City Council is delineated
in the City Council Statutes endorsed by the Council members (latest revision made in
November 2000). The City Council, with the support of the Municipality, regularly holds
special sessions to integrate action plan proposals of working groups into the overall
action plan for the city. The establishment and functioning of the Working Groups are
delineated in the City Council Statutes. Currently, the following Commissions (Working
Groups) are operational within the framework of the Zonguldak Local Agenda 21 City
Council: Health, Training, Combating Drugs, Environment and Human Settlements,
Protection of Wildlife, Disabled, Elderly, Reconstruction, Transport and Traffic,
Protection of the Families of Dead & Wounded Soldiers, Tourism and Culture, Sports,
Children, Youth, Pres, Women, Assessment of the Performance of Zonguldak's
Parliamentarians. Municipality of Zonguldak established the Environmental Management
Committee (EMC), with representatives from the public and the private sectors. The
EMC’s mission was to plan, execute, supervise, consult and assess programmes and
projects related to environmental protection, basic sanitation, food hygiene and natural
resource management in order to improve quality of life and promote sustainable
development.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF COAL-RELATED ACTIVITIES
The industrial revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with proper
legislation and management represents the beginning of changes in the delicate
balance of nature. The rapid growth of industry led initially to the early stages of
environmental pollution. The scale of the problem intensified with the mass movement of
people from rural areas to the developing industrial cities. At this time, the detrimental
effects of industrial expansion were not widespread. It has only been over the past few
decades or so that the major alterations in the atmosphere and the upsets in the
ecosystem of the earth have become fully appreciated. In this context, coal is one of the
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many vital commodities that contributes on a large scale to environmental pollution,

resulting in a danger to public health, harm to flora and fauna, diminished air clarity, and
damage to the aesthetics of nature and man-made structures [12]. Coal is one of the
principal fuels for electricity generation around the world, but it is also the main
contributor to acid rain and the greenhouse effect with its associated global warming.
The effects of airborne particulates and gaseous pollutants evolving from coal have
prompted public awareness and international action. The risks attached to the coal fuel
cycle could be minimised by the introduction of new coal-using technologies and by
imposing stringent regulations on the coal industry. These need to be enforced even at
the expense of economy, anti political and social pressures, since there is at present no
firm single substitute for coal fuel in the generation of energy [13].
Figure 2: Coal Production in Zonguldak
Atmospheric Air
Atmospheric air, together with the earth, forms an integrated environmental system that
is vital to terrestrial life and to the natural ecosystem. It effectively filters out harmful
short-wave solar radiation and has a capacity for cleansing itself by dilution and
dispersion of gaseous and particulate pollutants generated by natural and industrial
sources. Throughout history the composition of the atmosphere has been progressively
and radically changed and modified. These changes could ultimately affect the plant and
animal biosphere [14]. The constituents of the atmosphere are generally referred to as
air. Air itself is a mechanical mixture of gases, each of which retains its individual
characteristics. The term pure air is difficult to specify chemically since it has never
existed on earth. Thus, the concept of pure air can only be defined from an academic
standpoint in order to establish a criterion for comparison. Together with the gases and
water vapour, there exist in the atmosphere suspended solid and liquid substances.
These particulates or aerosols and their associated forms include dust, smoke, soot,
fumes, mist, vapour, spores, bacteria, and other microscopic particles. The atmosphere
can normally cope with aerosols introduced into it by natural means, and even when the
particulate matter has increased considerably, the natural cleansing mechanism has
effectively reacted to the changes [15]. However, this mechanism fails in the case of
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excessive man-made industrial particulate emissions. These air contaminants together

with gaseous pollutants contribute to serious global variations in the atmosphere that
may have dire environmental consequences.
Environmental Impact of Coal and Ameliorative Measures
Coal production and use have diverse impacts on the surrounding earth and
atmosphere, generating various pollutants from such stages of the coal fuel-cycle as (i)
coal production, (ii) coal preparation, (iii) coal transportation and storage, and (iv) coal
utilisation. Irrespective of how it is extracted in mines and used in industry, coal
produces three distinct types of pollutants: gaseous, liquid and solid substances, which
generally demand quite different preventive or ameliorative measures [16]. In this
context, other impacts like noise, subsidence, waste disposal and such may be
classified as pollutants. Numerous methods have been devised to keep environmental
standards at threshold limits and thus minimise pollution damage while at the same time
improving worker productivity, coal quality and accident prevention schemes.
Coal Production
Historically, coal mining has always been regarded as a dangerous occupation. Mine
atmospheres are hazardous in terms of the health and safety of miners. Although
technological advancements and strict legislation have led to improvement in the
environmental and safety aspects in mines, certain pollutants are still produced at
significant levels from coal excavation, both in surface and underground mines [17].
Dust: Production of airborne dust particles is a major problem in underground mines

where dust explosions with or without firedamp explosions and occupational health are
the main concern. Particle size and duration of exposure determine how far dust and
droplets penetrate the respiratory tract. Inhaled fine dust remains in the alveoli, but all
types of larger particles are removed by the filtering capacity of the respiratory system
Particulates having a diameter less than 10µ particularly in the respiratory range of 0.25
to 7µ may give rise to such respiratory diseases as chronic bronchitis and coal miners’
pneumoconiosis [18]. Should coal dust contain silica dust, progressive nodular fibrosis,
commonly termed silicosis, becomes a real threat to health. Moreover, dust clouds
formed in working sites capable of reducing visibility will have adverse effects on the
morale of miners. This may accelerate accident frequency. Dust is a by-product of
blasting and earth moving operations in open-pit mines. The small particles are
dispersed into the surrounding atmosphere creating haze, reduced visibility,
discoloration and deterioration of buildings in the vicinity and contamination of soil and
water. The degree of risk is relative to the physical size of particulate matter, the
humidity of air, and the velocity and direction of prevailing winds. Generally, fine
particles are easily assimilated into the air and thus their impact on general public health
is minimal [19]. Dust is not solely a localised problem since fine particles can be
transported to contaminate areas far from their source. It is vital, therefore, that all
means should be taken to prevent dust becoming airborne. To achieve this, a proper
system of mining and adequate dust control methods are imperative. On the surface,
water spraying, site selection and screening from winds are advantageous, while in
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underground working sites suppression by water, dilution and dispersion by ventilation

and removal by filtration or electrostatic precipitation are advisable. Regular medical
screening of all miners employed in potentially dangerous work places is an effective
control against diseases, and compensation for illnesses contracted during a miner's
working life should be forthcoming. From an economical standpoint, all working
atmospheres should be retained dust-free complying with the air quality standards
formulated by industrial hygienists.
Mine Waste Disposal: The enormous volumes of waste material, which are the by-
product of both underground and surface excavation operations, are considered today to
be one of the main pollution problems. Disposal of these solid wastes is the most
controversial aspect of coal mining. The primary environmental damages of operational
waste heaps are visual intrusion, noise and dust from moving vehicles, groundwater
contamination, leaching of toxic and acid pollutants, erosion and loss of usable land.
Reclamation to some degree restores the land, but reduction of soil fertility, the spoiling
of landscape and diminished ecological variety is slow to recover. Old tips, inherited
from past practices of dumping mine waste, are a danger to local drainage systems and
may have toxic effects on human health. In the Appalachian coal region of the United
States there are about 3000 to 5000 spoil heaps totalling 3 Gt refuse, while in the United
Kingdom an estimated 2.5 Gt of spoil covering 11000 hectares is in existence [20]. Due
to exposure to the elements throughout the years, many waste tips are in poor condition
and are structurally unstable. This accelerates their detrimental effects on the
surroundings and increases the pollution potential. Beach dumping from coal collieries
and preparation plants in the Zonguldak coalfields in Turkey has despoiled a 6-mile
stretch of the Black Sea coastline and has been the subject of outrage from residents for
many years. Waste material from deep mines derives from the sinking of shafts,
roadways and ventilation tunnels, collapsing of roofs and extraction of the coal seam.
This is then hauled to the surface and dumped locally. Previously, when coal was dug
by hand, much of the waste was stored underground in voids. However, the
implementation of modern mechanical techniques, particularly with the introduction of
coal cutting machines on the coalfaces, has dramatically increased the proportion of
surface dirt material. Chemical instability in waste substances is due to their exposure to
atmospheric gases and moisture. The oxidation of pyrites produces acid compounds
and these together with other toxic materials may be leached into the local water supply
creating a situation that is harmful to both human and aquatic life. Simultaneously, heat
produced from such chemical reactions leads to spontaneous combustion of coal
particles in the waste tips. Study of this phenomenon in hundreds of dump heaps in the
United States pas shown the release of sulphur dioxide, fine particulates, carbon
monoxide, nitrous oxides and hydrocarbons together with minute quantities of hydrogen
sulphide, ammonia and polycyclic organic matter into the local atmosphere. These serve
to increase contamination of watercourses. Controlled tipping, site selection and
compaction of waste can substantially reduce the potential hazards from spontaneous
combustion in the spoil heaps [21]. Environmental pollution from mine waste disposal
can be minimised by the implementation of certain practices. At the planning stage good
design and management are imperative in the development of progressive restoration
techniques. Backfill underground is one alternative. This reduces the amount of waste
brought to the surface, but it may create additional dust problems underground. Marine
467
dumping from barges is another possibility. However, protection of marine life must be
ensured before this method is applied. A potential commercial use of mine waste is in
the construction industry as fill for highways and buildings and as a stabiliser for cement.
Surface mining has a greater detrimental impact on the surroundings than underground
operations. The forecasted increase in coal production over the next decades from
open-pit mines will ultimately increase the pollution problems. With the application of
strip mining, the overburden is removed in huge quantities; up to 25 times the amount of
coal produced has to be removed as overburden. Enormous machines such as shovels,
draglines, bucket-drain and bucket- wheel excavators alter the terrain, destroying the
original vegetation and possibly contaminating surface- and groundwater. Surface
mining is, however, not considered as a major contributor to air pollution [22].
Once the mine is worked out and abandoned, the bare terrain gives rise to public
indignation against this mode of mining. This has led to legislation in many countries
whereby mined out areas are to be converted into productive agricultural land or
restored to their former natural beauty. Potential recovery work is comprised of topsoil
and sub-soil replacement, compaction, regrading, revegetation of the land, and chemical
treatment and management of contaminated water resources. Recultivation
necessitates the enrichment of soil for seeding and planting.
Several growing seasons will be required to determine that the land will maintain its
agricultural productivity. In Germany, land reclamation of brown coal open-strip mines
pas been particularly successful. Here the total area of mining activities is around 200
km2 with one half productive and the other half being reclaimed and restored [23].
Generally, land restoration reduces the potential for land destruction and pollution
hazards. However, the economic viability of planning and design management of
regrading and revegetation may remain questionable.
Mine Water Drainage: Another significant source of coal mining pollution derives from
mine drainage in both currently active and abandoned worked-out mines. Large
quantities of fresh water are used underground for dust suppression, coal washing and
cooling of equipment, particularly drilling machines. Additionally, during the extraction of
coal, water enters the working sites from water bearing strata or aquifers. This water
picks up coal, shale and clay particles from mine roadways, and it also becomes
contaminated with the soluble oxidation products of iron pyrites such as ferrous, ferric
and aluminium sulphates and sulphuric acid. Disposal of excess water is an integral and
essential phase of mining operations. Previously it was practical and economical to
discharge mine drainage water into rivers, estuaries, lakes and the sea [24].
This practice later became a serious cause of concern since several pollutants distinctly
resulted in the reduction of the oxygen content of water, so having a devastating effect
on all aquatic life. With modern mining practices for controlling water flow, sumps and
pools are provided where drainage water accumulates and where suspended coal,
shale and clay particles can ultimately be removed. Sedimentation, with or without the
use of flocculents, is applied to process water in lagoons.
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Occasionally, if geological conditions are favourable, an adequate thickness of strata is

left as a wall pillar between the aquifer and mine workings to prevent water flow into
mines. A variety of chemical processes are available for the removal of iron compounds
and pollutants in saline waters. There are also potential environmental and health
problems from acid mine waters. After the coal is mined out, the workings of an
abandoned mine become flooded over the years. The longer the water remains in the
mine, the greater is the leaching of sulphide minerals into it. When the water discharges
itself to the surface and comes into contact with air, these compounds oxidise to
sulphuric acid, a deadly poison. Remedies are mainly aimed at restricting water flows
seeping through the porous structure, boreholes and fractures in the water bearing
strata. This can be brought about by sealing of boreholes, grouting of fracture zones,
restricting free oxygen into the mine, caving-ins to fill the voids and diverting
groundwater courses [25].
Run-offs on the surface and seepage from the toe of the waste tips tend to influence
water quality. Atmospheric oxidation of iron pyrites in coal and associated rocks and
rapid dissolution of the resultant sulphur oxides and iron sulphates in percolating waters
produce very acidic effluents. The extent and toxicity of the waste streams depend on
coal characteristics, local rainfall patterns, topography and site drainage features.
Leaching of such waste could lead to an unacceptable level of contamination of surface
and groundwater. Fortunately, leaching can be minimised by the application of
controlled tipping, site selection, compaction and ensuring an impermeable base for the
tips.
Subsidence: Subsidence is a costly economic impact of underground mining. It

generates horizontal and vertical displacement of the surface, which generally causes
structural damage to buildings, roads, pipelines, and railroads. lt has an adverse affect
on groundwater and drainage flows [26]. The factors contributing to the ground
movement and ultimate surface damage are thickness, dip and depth of the coal seam,
angle of draw, the nature and thickness of the overburden, and the amount of support
left in the coal. All countries mining coal underground have experienced the
consequences of subsidence to a certain extent. In the early days of coal mining it
received little attention, and as a result, large areas situated above mines exhibit severe
surface destruction. Moreover, seepage of methane through the cracks into the houses
has resulted in accumulation and gas explosions causing excessive damage to property.
It is believed that subsidence in the coalfields of the Donetz Coal Basin is widespread
and damaging. Similarly it is also a major problem in the United States causing
damages in the order of $30 million per year.
Today, mining companies are more conscious of the problem since wide scale repair
and/or replacement of surface structures could be disastrous for the economy of a
mining company. Moreover, legislation demands payment of compensation to property
owners for damage caused by subsidence. A reduced likelihood of subsidence will occur
if the dimensions of the working areas are limited and permanent support practices are
applied in the coal. Surface destruction may be scaled down by backfilling the
abandoned workings with stowing material or solid mine waste. However, such
preventive methods to reduce ground movement are only one aspect of the problem
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since it must be achieved without excess loss of coal in the pillars and with minimum
interference to normal mining operations [27].
Noise, Vibration and Visibility: Noise from underground mining operations does not have
a significant environmental impact, being no more than is likely to arise from any
industrial plant. However, residential communities in the locality of open-pit mines often
find the quality of life diminished due to the effects of noise from mining operations,
vibration from blasting, and continuous heavy traffic. Furthermore, clouds of dust may
reduce visibility and increase haze promoting severe distress and annoyance. These
adverse conditions can be improved to a certain degree by careful planning and design
of operations: limiting excavation to one section of the mining area at any one time,
sitting of boundaries and screening banks, erection of barriers, and use of low-noise
machinery fitted with effective exhaust silencers. The implementation of environmentally
friendly techniques will serve to establish better public relations between the mining
companies and the local population [28].
IV. AIR POLLUTION IN ZONGULDAK
Figure 3: City of Zonguldak
Turkey has both hard coal and lignite deposits. The hard coal is mostly located in the
western part of the country, in the Zonguldak Basin, which has more than 700 million
metric tons of workable reserves, about 80% of which can be coked [29]. Lignite
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deposits are widespread and plentiful; reserves are estimated at more than 8 billion
metric tons (7th largest in the world), most of which is economically mineable, though
only about 7% has a heat content of more than 3,000 kilocalories per kilogram. Since
1960, due to the city’s nearby coal mines, Zonguldak’s air quality has been poor. The
Turkish Hard Coal Institute operates five underground mines in Turkey, and is the only
hard coal production entity in the country [30].
An historical summary of coal production and consumption in Turkey is shown in Table

2.
Table 2: Coal Production and Consumption in Turkey, 1990-2000

(in millions of tons)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Production 52.58 50.98 56.93 53.62 59.93 60.71 62.13 66.06 74.28 73.90 74.19
Anthracite 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Bituminous 3.33 3.20 3.35 3.17 3.13 2.48 2.69 2.77 2.40 2.23 2.54
Lignite 48.26 47.78 53.57 50.45 56.81 58.23 59.44 63.29 71.88 71.67 71.66
Consumption 60.29 63.70 66.20 60.57 65.57 67.34 73.28 80.10 86.27 83.69 90.82
Source: DOE/EIA
The Zonguldak hard coal mainly processes coal concentrate (containing 33 per cent
sulphur) from the Eregli mine. During the smelting process, the sulphur and copper
concentrate components oxidize to form sulphur dioxide. Sulphur dioxide has been
emitted into the atmosphere with no controls for 35 years. In 1995 and 1998, two
sulphuric acid plants were installed, which now convert 30 per cent of the sulphur
dioxide into sulphuric acid. Together, these plants produce 300,000 tonnes of sulphuric
acid per year, which is used in the mining process and sold to third parties. Currently,
the hard coal mines emits 424,000 metric tonnes of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere
per year. In 1997, a WHO mission expressed concern about the health risks to
Zonguldak’s population from respiratory diseases, asthma, chronic bronchitis and
additional total mortality; there was special concern for children. In addition to sulphur
dioxide emissions, the hard coal mines emits suspended particulate matter, which
contains heavy metals, into the atmosphere.
According to the WHO, the particulate matter emissions do not affect public health to the
same degree as sulphur dioxide. An inventory has been made of the possible impacts of
the hard coal mines’ emissions but, as can been seen, there is a lack of data that would
allow a quantification of the impacts of the hard coal mines’ emissions [31]. In April
2000, peak levels for sulphur dioxide of 10,000 µg/m3 were registered in Zonguldak, 20
times the WHO 10-minute guideline of 500 µg/m3 we learn that the levels of sulphur
dioxide increase during the night and reach their peak in the morning. Due to its
geography, the valley of Eregli shows peak levels during the night and, in the afternoon,
the sulphur dioxide level is close to zero. The population of Zonguldak is aware of the
problems resulting from air pollution [32]. According to a survey conducted by the local
NGO Labour in 2000, more than 90 per cent of Zonguldaks were aware that air pollution
existed and recognized the impacts of pollution: on the respiratory system (81 per cent),
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the skin (52 per cent), headaches (24 per cent), the eyes (23 per cent) and vomiting (11
per cent).
Although the population is aware of the health impacts of sulphur dioxide, 56 per cent
take no precautions. Among the population that does take precautions, 8 per cent
remain indoors until the smog has dispersed, 11 per cent cover their nose and mouth
with a handkerchief, 8 per cent close their doors and windows and 4 per cent remain
indoors, cover their noses and close their homes up completely. This survey suggests
that the majority of the population does not take adequate precautions despite an
awareness of the negative health impacts of exposure to sulphur dioxide [33].
A. Environmental Stakeholders
The Ministry of Environment was established in 1991 with the aim of developing and
protecting the environment. The Ministry of Environment is responsible for the
coordination of all national and international activities pertaining to the environment. The
activities of the Ministry cover subjects such as appropriate land use, protection of
natural resources, plant and animal species, prevention of pollution and raising public
awareness. The other activities are environmental policy and strategy development,
coordination of environmental activities on local, national and international levels,
issuing environmental licenses, data collection, etc. The Ministry employs around 800
staff, of which 500 are working in provincial branches. Provincial branches have been
recently extended to 81 provinces [34]. The Reference Laboratory based in Ankara is a
very well equipped establishment, but it has not achieved the expected efficiency and it
is still under the process of accreditation.
The main environmental divisions of the Ministry are (the structure of the Ministry is
Directorate General of Prevention and Control
• Environmental Pollution
• Air Management Department
• Water and Soil Management Department
• Waste Management Department
• Chemical Department
• Measurement and Observation Department
• Directorate General of Environmental Protection
• Plant Protection and Erosion Department
• Animal Protection Department
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• Environmental Standards and Strategies Department
• Receptor Areas Protection Department
• Sensitive Eco-Systems Protection Department
Directorate General of Environmental Impact
• Assessment and Planning
• Environmental Planning Department
• Infrastructure Investment Department
• Industrial Investments, Environmental Impact Assessment Department
• EIA Observation and Control Department
• Environmental Inventory Department
The Ministry of Forestry and its department, the General Directorate of National Parks,
Game and Wildlife (GDNP), are responsible for projects related to water pollution in
forests, conservation of wildlife, and the protection and management of 32 national
parks, 31 natural reserves, 11 natural parks and other protected areas. These do not
include 13 specially protected areas managed by the Authority for the Protection of
Special Areas. The Ministry of Health and its department, the Environmental Health
Services, are responsible for monitoring, reducing and preventing environmental
pollution that affects human health. The Ministry is responsible for drinking and bath
water quality and air quality monitoring. Refik Saydam Hygiene Centre, affiliated with the
Ministry of Health, Works with laboratory based studies to prevent the adverse
impacts of the environment to health. The Ministry of Industry and Commerce is the
responsible authority for industrial matters and for the development of industrial policy
including those policies concerning the environment. The Turkish Accreditation Council
is authorised to accredit national and foreign organisations to conduct laboratory
services, certification and inspection. Under-secretariat for Maritime Affairs deals with
the aquaculture field concentrating especially on sea traffic arrangements regarding the
protection of natural harbours and small bays, tourist facilities, other coves in the vicinity
and effects to the environment [34].
B. Local-level Governmental Institutions
Provincial Branches of the Ministry of Environment represent the Ministry at the local
level. The main functions of the provincial branches are: to take measures in order to
prevent and minimise pollution caused by land based polluters and to inspect any
activity that might threaten the ecology and cause sea pollution; to control facilities
approved by local authorities and their waste collection, refining and discharge systems
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according to the standards set by the Environmental Law and related regulations; to
observe and control every activity within the local area that affects the environment and
to start necessary processes to stop these activities and to inform the Ministry about the
requests of the institutions; and to carry out administrative tasks of the Ministry.
Environmental protection foundations are established in every city where provincial
branches of the Ministry of Environment are available. They are established by the
Ministry and headed by governors. They work much like local environmental funds.
Their revenues are from paid services such as industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust
emissions and noise level measurements. Local environmental projects are financed
through the financial sources of these funds. Municipalities are responsible for making
general layout plans and to build large parks and green areas, specifying spots for the
collection of household and industrial wastes and establishing facilities for their disposal,
and conducting services such as water, sewerage, natural gas and public transportation
[35].
C. Legal Framework
In 1998 The Ministry of Environment established national regulations to control the

metallurgical industry’s atmospheric emissions. Under these regulations, a maximum 12
per cent sulphur dioxide is allowed in atmospheric emissions from metallurgical facilities
such as the Zonguldak hard coal mine. The ministry has also set emission standards for
particulate matter; lead and arsenic (see Table 3). The government has given the
facilities ten years to meet these standards and the industry is required to submit an
Environmental Management Adaptation Programme (in Turkey known as TEMA) for that
purpose. Mining companies are meant to obtain licenses to operate new facilities and to
continue operating existing ones, in order to meet the emission standards set by
regulations [36]. For metallurgical facilities, companies are required to provide the
ministry with an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for new facilities or a TEMA for
existing ones.
Table 3: Maximum Emission Standards
Sulphur dioxide Depends on sulphur inflow; for Zonguldak hard

coal mines 12% of sulphur dioxide mass
Particulate matter 100 mg/m3
Lead 25 mg/m3
Arsenic 25 mg/m3
Turkish regulations also require the mining company to implement a meteorological,

emission and air quality monitoring programme. The monitoring programme has to
comply with the Ministry of Environment’s air quality and emission-monitoring protocol.
Implementation of the regulations by the Zonguldak hard coal mines has implemented a
monitoring programme, with 11 monitoring stations. The aim of the monitoring network is
to protect the population of Zonguldak hard coal mines from adverse health effects
caused by the company’s activities [37]. In 1995, the company (TTK) also launched an
intermittent control programme in order to reduce the hard coal operations when sulphur
dioxide concentrations reach significantly high levels in populated areas. The
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implementation of this programme is supported by a dispersion model developed by the

company.
The hard coal company presents quarterly results for the monitoring programme to the
with the Ministry of Environment [38]. The reports contain 24-hour averages from a
monitoring station in the centre of Zonguldak and present a sulphur material balance in
which sulphur dioxide emissions are calculated. Table 3 shows that the reports do not
mention all the parameters requested by the ministry. Between January and November
1999, the sulphur dioxide standard for 24 hours was exceeded six times and went as
high as four times the standard (572 µg/m3). In order to comply with emission standards,
the hard coal mines are to be modernized at an estimated cost of US$ 625 million. The
modernization has to be completed by 2006 and will control 93 per cent of the sulphur
dioxide emissions. During the implementation of the TEMA, the hard coal company will
be allowed to emit in excess of the maximum levels if the company can prove that the
national air quality standards are not exceeded (see Table 4 for transitional air quality
standards set by the Ministry of Environment).
Table 4: Maximum Permissible Air Quality Standarts Adopted by the Ministry of Environment
Parameter Average Daily Arithmetic Average Annual Average Annual

Concentration µg/m3 Arithmetic Concentration Geometric Concentration
(PPM) µg/m3 (PPM) µg/m3 (PPM)
Sulphur 572 (0.2)* 172 (0.06) -
dioxide**
Particulate 350* - 150
matter
Lead - 0,5 -
Arsenic 6 - -
*Should not be exceeded more than once a year
**WHO guidelines: 24 hours 125 µg/m3, annual 50 µg/m3
Should be further considered:
Monthly lead concentration: 1.5 µg/m3
30 minutes arsenic concentration: 30 µg/m3 (Should not be exceed more than once a year)
V. THE ZONGULDAK CLEAN AIR PROJECT
A. Air pollution sources in Zonguldak
Holdgate’s Simplified Environmental pollution model illustrates Zonguldak’s

environmental conditions regarding air quality [39]. Where Zonguldak is concerned, the
main source of contamination is the hard coal mines. The principal contaminant is
sulphur dioxide and its transport medium is air. Sulphur dioxide undergoes chemical
conversion, the most important being the conversion of sulphur dioxide into airborne
sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is deposited in the soil and water or is taken in by a
receptor. The atmospheric emission of sulphur dioxide and its conversion into sulphuric
acid has led to the spread of environmental problems and is one of the main causes of
acid deposition, which is more commonly known as acid rain [40].The ecological impacts
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from sulphur dioxide emissions can be felt hundreds of kilometres from the sources of
emission. Torrential rain causes floods in Turkey's Black Sea region. Anatolia news
agency reported that “ Floods triggered by torrential rains inundated hundreds of
dwellings and business places in Samsun, Karabuk, Bartin and Zonguldak provinces in
Black Sea Region on Sunday, 5 2000 [41]. The primary receptor of the sulphur dioxide
from Zonguldak’s hard coal mines is the city’s population and agricultural and urban
centres situated valley of Eregli. Sulphur dioxide enters the body through the respiratory
system, moves into the bloodstream and is finally excreted. Inhaled sulphur dioxide can
cause respiratory illnesses such as inflammation of the alveoli and bronchial constriction
(a reduction in the size of respiratory passages as occurs with asthma), and can cause
chronic bronchitis and asthma as a result of changes in the pulmonary mechanisms [42].
Vegetation is another receptor. Zonguldak’s hyper-arid coast limits this receptor to the
Eregli Valley. The natural vegetation has almost totally disappeared from the region. The
cell membrane is not an effective barrier to the transport of sulphur dioxide. More acute
physical effects on vegetation and crops result from cell ruptures caused by hydration in
plant leaves, producing withering in the most affected part of the plant, potentially
reducing photosynthesis and, in the end, killing the plant. Farmers have received
compensation from the hard coal company for crop damage in the Zonguldak. As
discussed above, the hard coal company does not have a monitoring programme in this
area.
B. Setting it up
The local authorities’ weak position within strategic planning has been taken into
account in establishing an adequate urban environmental management scheme. In
Zonguldak, limited access to relevant information on atmospheric contamination by the
municipal authorities and the population has been identified as a principal obstacle to
addressing the problem. To overcome this, the Environmental Management Committee
(EMC) decided to draw up and implement the Zonguldak Clean Air project, reflecting the
authorities’ decision to take an active role in addressing air pollution.
The objectives of the project are:

• to quantify the magnitude of the air pollution through scientific research, with the
establishment of an air quality monitoring network,
• an epidemiological study and a bio monitoring study;
• the implementation of a contingency plan which will prevent some of
• the adverse health effects on the local population;
• to initiate a dialogue in order to improve the regional air quality.
The main participants in the Zonguldak Clean Air project are the provincial municipality
of Zonguldak, the Ministry of Health (including the Directorate-General for Environmental
476
Health and the General Epidemiology Office), the Ministry of Social Security and Labour,
the Zonguldak Karaelmas University, NGO.
C. Phase I of the Zonguldak Clean Air Project
Project implementation began in 1997 with the establishment of a preliminary monitoring

system using Palmes Tubes, a passive sampling method that is relatively low-cost and
easily implemented. Palmes Tubes were set up in five different locations in the city and
were replaced every two weeks for a period of one year. Placing Palmes Tubes in
different locations indicates the dispersion of sulphur dioxide in different areas of the
city. The indicative monitoring system also included a monitor to measure total
suspended particulates, for which a high-volume sampler was used. The results of the
indicative monitoring programme showed the need for a permanent monitoring
programme. A meteorological report was prepared, providing meteorological features for
the region and the atmospheric dispersion dynamics of sulphur dioxide.
D. Phase II of the Zonguldak Clean Air Project
The sulphur dioxide monitors and meteorological equipment feed the monitoring data
into a computer, which transfers the data to a central computer by modem each day or
instantly if levels exceed WHO guidelines. The filter for the high-volume sampler which
measures total suspended particulate matter will be analyzed by the Ministry of Health’s
Directorate-General for Environmental Health’s laboratories. The monitoring network will
operate permanently in order to enable the local authorities to assess the impacts of the
measures taken by industry to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions. Contingency plan. As
mentioned above, more than 90 per cent of the population is aware of the effects of air
pollution although only 20 per cent take adequate precautions such as closing windows
and remaining indoors during episodes of high air pollution levels [43]. Furthermore, 90
per cent of the population says that it is interested in knowing what the air quality in the
city is. Bearing this in mind, the EMC has implemented an awareness campaign to be
combined with the introduction of a contingency plan.
The population that is sensitive to exposure to sulphur dioxide form the target groups for
the awareness campaign. These are children, elderly people, people with respiratory
diseases or asthma, pregnant woman and those engaged in sports. It has been the
strategy of the EMC to approach those groups, as they are more likely to change their
behaviour in order to protect their health [44]. Intermediary groups such as medical staff,
teachers, local media and the social care programme “Glass of Milk” have all been
involved in order to reach the target group effectively. The aim of the contingency plan is
to reduce the health impacts from exposure to sulphur dioxide, whose levels, in
Zonguldak, rise at particular times of the day. For most of the time, the air quality is
good, especially in the afternoon when sulphur dioxide levels are often close to zero.
But, on average, on one day a week, high levels of sulphur dioxide are reached, with
peaks between eight and ten in the morning. With the implementation of the contingency
plan, the health impacts can be reduced significantly if the population takes
precautionary measures during these episodes. This is of particular interest to the
vulnerable groups identified and an information strategy has been developed to inform
477
the population about the episodes. The municipality has real-time access to sulphur
dioxide levels from two monitors which register the city’s air quality. The EMC, with
support from the WHO, has developed precautionary guidelines
for the population, relating to different levels of sulphur dioxide. When air quality reaches
these levels, various means are used to inform the population. These include coloured
balloons above schools, radio announcements and a siren when the emergency level is
reached. For the implementation of the contingency plan, the municipality of Zonguldak
has elaborated a municipal ordinance, with the participation of relevant sectors such as
the media, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Environment
and the Ministry of Education [45].
E. Phase III of the Zonguldak Clean Air Project
During phase III, the operation of the monitoring network and the implementation of the
contingency plan will continue, as discussed in connection with phase II.
Epidemiological research. This is required in order to assess the public health impacts of
air pollution in the region. The objective of the research is to evaluate the relationship
between the respiratory health of Zonguldak’s population and air pollution. The results
will be used to develop policies to protect the population’s health. The epidemiological
research will focus on children. This group was selected for three reasons. First, they do
not have occupational exposure
and they normally do not smoke, thus the impact of air pollution is more easily detected.
Second, they are likely to be more sensitive to air pollution than other groups. Third,
they can easily be accessed through the school system. A proposal for epidemiological
research has been formulated. A database will be generated that registers medical
consultations for acute respiratory infections in children aged 0-12 years old. The
database will register on a daily basis and will be correlated with sulphur dioxide levels.
A protocol for the implementation of this database has to be developed and the medical
staff need to be trained in order to implement it. The results can be processed locally.
For an evaluation of the results, external expertise will be required. The advantage of
this methodology is that the data-base can be incorporated into the daily practice of the
health care centres. The EMC is aware of the need for national or international support
for the implementation of this study so that the results will be accepted by all parties. For
this reason, the Ministry of Health and the WHO have been asked to support the
implementation of this proposal.
Shortened hospitalization. The EMC has also investigated possibilities for improving the
treatment of children affected by the city’s air quality. In Turkey, the Ministry of Health
has set up a successful treatment which they call “shortened hospitalization”, for
children with acute respiratory infections [46]. Shortened hospitalization takes a
maximum of two hours and children receive adequate medicine and massage to
overcome any acute bronchial obstruction crisis. If the treatment is unsuccessful, the
child is kept in hospital for further treatment. Children with severe respiratory problems
478
are directly hospitalized. Paediatricians specializing in pneumonia, trained

physiotherapists and rooms equipped with oxygen and medicines are provided. During
the treatment, parents receive information on how to prevent respiratory infections in
their children.
The results of this programme in Turkey have been very positive. Hospitalization of
children with acute respiratory infections has been reduced from 50 per cent to 5 per
cent and pneumonia and mortality rates have also been reduced. The programme is
cost effective as treatment expenses have been reduced by up to 70 per cent. The
Zonguldak -based Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Social Security and Labour have
shown interest in implementing this programme in Zonguldak.
F. Bio-monitoring
Bio-monitoring research will assess the impacts of atmospheric pollution on crop losses
and food quality in agricultural areas of the region. Bio monitoring is an internationally
accepted method for assessing crop losses in the agricultural sector arising from
atmospheric contamination. There
are two main objectives: to measure the impact of atmospheric contamination on crops;
and to make the Turkish authorities aware of the impacts of atmospheric contamination
on output losses in the agricultural sector. The following will be studied in connection
with the first objective:
• impact area;
• spatial variation;
• estimated crop losses;
• formulation of appropriate measures.
Bio-monitoring will focus on the agricultural areas of Zonguldak. A proposal for the
implementation of bio-monitoring has been elaborated and has gained the interest of the
Zonguldak Karaelmas University.
VI. DIALOGUE WITH THE IMPLEMENTATION of the ZONGULDAK’s CLEAN AIR

PROJECT
The EMC will take an active role in addressing the city’s air quality. Through dialogue,
the municipality will try to reach agreement with the hard coal company on the
modernization of its hard coal mines and on compensation for the affected population. In
addition, the municipality will be able to assess the implementation of the TEMA. On the
one hand, the hard coal company has invited the EMC to visit the company’s monitoring
and intermittent control programme. On the other, the company has shown no interest in
implementing the modernization of the hard coal mines before 2006, or in compensation
for the negative health impacts. Since 1999, when the state owned mining company was
taken over by a private group, little progress has been made in reaching any agreement.
479
The municipality has also involved the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Health, the
Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Environment in the progress of the project. The
opinions of the Ministry of Energy and the Ministry of Environment has been asked on
the implementation of the company’s monitoring programme and on the results of the
reported data.
The Ministry of Health has not taken a clear position on the issue yet but it is going to be
covenant with the municipality of Zonguldak for the implementation of the monitoring
programme. A decision concerning the involvement of the Ministry of Education, which
is important for the implementation of the contingency plan, has been delayed as a
result of the country’s political turbulence in the last year. Finally in this proposal,
Zonguldak where an air quality management plan is to be formulated. Planned and
executed activities under the Zonguldak Clean Air project are partly projected in the
proposed plans, which means that the project will be supported by central government,
with the advantage that local authorities gained a leading role and built expertise for the
implementation of the national regulations.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
One word to keep in mind is “process”. We speak constantly of the process of urban
environmental management, as urban planning and management is an interactive,
dynamic and flexible process rather than a static plan or final document. Urban
environmental planning and management is a process that needs to be renewed,
enriched, adjusted and continued.
The local urban management process developed in Zonguldak creates efficient

mechanisms to promote public and private awareness, with citizen participation, and has
been implemented by Zonguldak’s local government leaders since 1980. They took
responsibility for managing the development of their jurisdiction within the existing legal
framework. One of the key issues was to develop planning instruments (1984 master
plan) to give the city a framework for action and to facilitate the process of constructing a
vision for Zonguldak’s future.
The implementation of the Zonguldak Clean Air project provides a point of departure
from which to observe the continuation and improvement of Zonguldak’s urban
environmental management within the framework of interactive and cooperative
dynamics between the various actors involved. The project facilitates access to
environmental information. Access to the results of public monitoring is often difficult in
Turkey (and also in Asia and Africa) and is one of the main objectives of the Zonguldak
Clean Air project.
The involvement of members of the Environmental Management Committee guarantees

the transparency of the monitoring results. These results are published annually and the
local press is informed weekly. The incorporation of air quality monitoring as a
management instrument, to supplement the concept of urban environmental
management, is illustrated in Figure 4 [48].
480
Figure 4: The Monitoring Triangle in the Framework of Urban Environmental Management
The air quality monitoring triangle of the Zonguldak Clean Air project shows the steps
involved in reaching the objectives. Its incorporation into the urban environmental
management process shows how air quality monitoring helps build and enhance local
capacity with a view to the final goal of sustainability. In reviewing each individual step in
Figure 4, we note that, where Zonguldak is concerned, air quality monitoring will be
consistent with the implementation of urban environmental management. When the
vision for the future is decided, air quality monitoring will be supplemented with an
appropriate system of environmental indicators to reflect the current state of Zonguldak’s
environment. This will help mobilize available resources to develop a process of citizens’
participation and consultation, with a view to analyzing the adverse impacts on health
and ecosystems. Dissemination of the findings from the monitoring will show the health
impacts of pollution and will promote local capacity to identify the goals and objectives of
environmental policy in light of Zonguldak’s specific circumstances.
Monitoring serves to assess the success of environmental policies, projects and

programmes, in order to develop a process in which all the key actors feel a sense of
ownership and commitment (including local government, NGOs, communities,
competent authorities, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Environment and the
Directorate-General for Environmental Health). With this multisectoral perspective, the
air quality monitoring system can be used to help the local authorities establish their
environmental management policy and implement an environmental action programme.
The successful execution of the Zonguldak Clean Air project helps to strengthen local
capacity, which is vital in helping all actors involved to understand the limits and the
distribution of the costs and benefits among the different groups involved. This will
ensure that the actions, as determined by the actors, are not only an ideal strategy on
paper but also a strategy of consensus that they can implement themselves through the
formulation of urban environmental management policy.
481
In conclusion, we should note that urban environmental management cannot promise

easy solutions to all urban problems. As urban environmental management is a newly
proposed comprehensive process, we are now beginning to gain a more detailed
understanding of how urban processes function, and are seeking solutions. Cities
cannot wait any longer. And urban problems are complex, with no easy solutions.
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484
THE NEW RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY AND ITS PRINCIPLES1
Crina TURTOI, Simona TOMA

gis@insse.ro
ABSTRACT
Globalisation of world trade, consumer-led quality requirements, EU enlargement: these are the new
realities and challenges facing European agriculture today. The future of the agricultural sector is
closely linked to a balanced development of rural areas. Agricultural and rural policies have an
important role to play in the cohesion of EU territorial, economic and social policy. This is why the
Agenda 200 reforms follow the development seen in recent years: alongside the market measures and
the elements of a competitive European agriculture, the varied needs of the rural world must also be
recognised, together with the expectations of today's society and environmental requirements. The
new rural development policy, now the "second pillar" of Common Agricultural Policy, meets these
needs. The principles are as follows: the multifunctionality of agriculture, a multisectoral and integrated
approach, flexible aids for rural development and transparency in drawing up and managing
programmes, based on simplified and more accessible legislation.
1
485
CONTAMINATION OF FOOD AND AGRO PRODUCTS IN THE

REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA1
B. Aleksoski, V.Kendrovski
Republic Institute for Health Protection, “50 Divizija” No.6, 1000 skopje,
Republic of Macedonia, Fax: ++ 389 02 223 354,
Tel: ++ 389 02 147 050, E-mail: blagoja_al@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The authority laboratories in the Republic of Macedonia were examined in 2001 about 36.000
samples for chemical contamination (mainly against imported products). Among heavy
metals, lead and cadmium were examined; the number of false findings was only 0,15%.
Average concentrations of lead in products of plant origin are about 10 times lower than
maximum permitted concentration (MPC), while in animal products, average concentrations in
meat are 14%, in milk 34% and milk products 38% of MPC; compared to the findings obtained
by WHO-FAO, findings obtained in our examinations are within the average ranges for
individual products in Europe. The estimated daily intake of cadmium through food (in drinking
water the contents of cadmium is less than 1µg /l), with adult population, is 9 µg. The
organochloric insecticides in food do not pose health risk for the population in the Republic of
Macedonia. About 27.000 samples in 2001 are tested against microbiological safety. With
domestic production, defects in tested samples were found in 2.2 % cases of industrial origin,
7.6 % from small enterprises, and 8-10% in distribution.
Keywords: food contamination, daily intake, microbiological safety, Republic

of Macedonia, pesticides.
INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that each year around 130 million Europeans are affected by
episodes of foodborne diseases. (7)
Diarrhea, a major cause of death and growth retardation in young children, is

the most common symptom of food-borne illness. (1) While biological hazards
are of great concern because contaminated foods can cause widespread
illness outbreaks, chemical hazards may also cause food-borne illnesses,
although generally affecting fewer people. Chemical hazards can originate
from this general sources (3):
1. Agriculture chemicals: pesticides, herbicides, animal drugs, fertilizers, etc.
2. Plant chemicals: cleaners, sanitizers, oils, lubricants, paints, pesticides,

etc.
3. Naturally-occurring toxicants: products of plant, animal, or microbial

metabolisms such as aflatoxins, etc.
4. Food chemicals: preservatives, acids, food additives, sulfating agents,

processing aids, etc.
1 ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania
486
5. Environmental contaminants: lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic,

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Sources of contamination of food, both chemical (pesticides, heavy metals

and other contaminants) and biological, can be found at any stage of the food
chain. Food can be contaminated during the various stages of primary
agricultural production, storage, transport, and processing, packaging and
final preparation. (2)
Republic of Macedonia has 662.000 ha as a cultivated agricultural land with

well-organized agricultural production. Beside the great number of industrial
exports with deficit, Macedonia is well known as producer of mainly
agricultural products. (5)
The existing legislation in Republic of Macedonia in the area of food is not

updated and properly coordinated, i.e. food control system is based on the
classical approach and generally, it is consisted of inspection and control of
the final products after which follows sanctioning of detected
inappropriateness (acting backward).
In food samples taken during 1991-2000 from domestic market and

production as well as from import, the parameters that are analyzed according
to the Act for Food and Object of Common Use (Official Journal of the
Republic of Macedonia 51/84) and a number of buy-laws. In the authorized
laboratories in the Republic of Macedonia the food samples are examined for
the hygienic quality, food sanitary quality, microbiological and chemical
parameters by standard methods: heavy metals by atomic absorption
spectrometry with flame; pesticides by gas chromatography method.
The data from analyzes are published in the Yearbooks by Republic Institute
for Health Protection in Skopje and they are collected prospectively.(6)
RESULTS
Microbiological contamination of food here and in the world is recognized

health hazard. It can be of plant or animal origin, in primary production (ill or
infected animals, contaminated plant products consumed as fresh), during the
processing, storage and distribution of food. Biological hazards, which are
mainly bacterial, can cause either foodborne infections or intoxications. (4)
The Republic Institute for Health Protection maintains a national surveillance
system to monitor incidents of food poisoning from enteric pathogens. A
person ingesting a number of pathogenic microorganisms sufficient to cause
infection as a result of their multiplication, e.g. salmonelosis, causes a
foodborne infection. A foodborne intoxication is caused by the ingestion of
already formed toxins produced by some bacteria when they multiply in food,
e.g. staphylococcal enterotoxin (1) The Table 1 shows the distribution by the
years of the number of the reported cases of victims from microbiological
food-borne disease and number of registered outbreaks in the Republic of
Macedonia. The Table 2 presents the percent of improper samples compared
487
from the total number of the examined samples by years in the period 1991-
1999.
Table.1 Distribution of reported victims from microbiological food-borne

diseases and outbreaks for the period 1991-1999 in Republic of
Macedonia
Microbiological food borne 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
disease:
Total number of victims 1574 1319 1253 1365 1578 1456 237 305 126
Total number of outbreaks 4 3 3 8 4 4 9 7 5
Table 2.Microbiological distribution of improper samples by food groups

in %
Food groups 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Milk 8,58 10,5 4,5 6 5,7 6,2 7,8 9,05 4,17
Milk products 3,38 4,8 4,3 16,4 2,4 6,6 18,5 8,5 9,9
Meat 31,8 23,9 9,1 9,8 8,8 6,2 7,8 13,7 3,75
Meat products 8,25 5,6 6,3 13 2,4 3,5 7,6 5,98 3,01
Fruit products 3,3 2,5 2,9 1,4 4,8 5,6 2,3 1,6 0
Vegetable products 1,7 4 8,1 2,1 8,6 2,5 7,8 0,2 2,5
Nonalcoholic drinks 1,1 2,5 2,3 16,5 2,4 1,1 2,3 1,54 2,7
During the period of 10 years, from 1991-1999, the food items were included
into systematic control from about 6.500 samples in 1991 to about 36.000 in
1999. Chemical analyses of contaminants were carried out mainly in imported
products. The Table 3 shows the number of samples, distributed by
contaminants for the period 1991-1999 and the percent of improper samples
compared from the total number of the examined samples.
Table 3 Food products analyzed for contaminants and percent of

improper samples (Distribution by years from 1991-1999)
Contaminants 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Pesticides-TN 1946 2990 4650 12334 10402 9871 10199 9218 9329
% of IS 0,51 0,2 0,84 0 0,02 0,01 0 0,01 0,05
Heavy metals-
TN 2958 379 5484 12882 13713 14544 14503 13756 13499
% of IS 0,067 1,1 0,51 0,04 0,36 0,15 0,07 0 0,08
Additives-TN 575 1363 3145 3119 3594 7537 8507 2655 3944
% of IS 0 0,51 5,56 0,25 3,3 1,8 2,3 6,9 4,3
Mycotoxins-TN 344 1084 2084 1434 1823 1669 2245 1733 1477
% of IS 0 0 0 1,28 0,77 0 0 0,01 0
Antibiotics-TN 827 1241 1505 3955 4880 6923 4109 3065 597
% of IS 0,96 0,08 0,13 0,07 0 0 0 0 2,6
Hormones-TN 350 534 777 718 578 113 577 686 678
488
% of IS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
In food products, with regard to pesticides, only organochloric and

organophosphoric insecticides are monitored; carbonic insecticides and
herbicides have been tested in limited number of rice samples taken in the
area of Kocani. In totally tested 10.000 samples/year with reference to the
presence of insecticides, concentrations above maximum permitted
concentration (MPC) were found in 0,01%. Among organochloric insecticides,
the presence of lindane and hexachlorocyclohexanes isomers (HCH) was
detected. Tested rice samples from the area of Kocani showed 10-100 times
lower concentrations than the MPC for lindane, and 2 to 20 times lower
concentrations of HCH. An area under threat can be regarded the one around
OHIS, in the region of the village of Lisice, where in 10% of the tested
samples concentrations of HCH for twice higher than the MPC were detected.
Among annually tested 10-12.000 samples, in none was detected presence of
organ phosphoric pesticides. In tested herbicides, results showed presence of
propanil with an average concentration of 0,01 mg/kg and molinate of 0,1
mg/kg, which is significantly lower than the MPC, while carbaril was not
detected at all.
Detected concentrations of lindane compared with the MPC in plant products

are very low, ranging between 0,2 and 2,6%; in milk, those concentrations are
17%, in milk products 24%, in meat 7% and meat products 4,8% of the MPC
compared to the findings obtained by WHO-FAO, findings obtained in our
examinations are within the average ranges for individual products in Europe.
Contamination with HCH compared with the MPC in milk is for 5 times lower,
in milk products for 6 times, in meat and meat products for 20 times, in fruit for
10 times, and in vegetables for 3 times. (5)
Annually, 4.000 samples of additives undergo testing, out of which only 1530
samples are of domestic products. With imported products, 2% of tested
products are prohibited for sell, due to the presence of prohibited additives, or
presence of higher than permitted quantities of certain additives. In the case
of domestic producers, additives related problems usually arise with small
enterprises, due to the non-professional treatment; the most frequently found
violations are in refreshing beverages, meat products, artificial sweeteners in
confectionery products and in ice-creams in particular, because of presence
of higher than permitted quantities of certain additives .
CONCLUSION
The high number of private farmers and small production enterprises in

Republic of Macedonia, as well as enormous number of small trade and
cattery firms make the legal control very difficult. Due to the impreciseness of
laws, a lot of those entities do not possess appropriate premises, equipment,
staff, professional skills and standard hygienic conditions. The sell on
traditional markets is carried out in extremely poor hygienic conditions. In
capture activity, the most risk posing are the so called fast food shops; the
most frequent violations by many trade and cattery shops are connected with
the use of groceries of susceptible, unchecked origin, inadequate thermal
treatment, non-observance of prescribed low temperatures for food storage,
insufficient level of training of the employees in those shops.
489
There is a decreasing trend for unfit for human consumption samples for
microbiological parameters in all food groups, and for the chemical
parameters only for additives, it is notified the increasing trend for the period
1991-1999.
ACTIONS
Establishment of a modern pattern of a system for food control, by means of

adopting laws and other legal acts, approximated with international
recommendations, regulations and standards From 1999 when is it
established the Food Agency (in Ministry of Health) should clearly delegated
responsibilities between relevant ministries; establishment of an inter-sectoral
service for fast and effective control over health safety of the food -
inspectorate on food, with full interdisciplinary staffing; completion of
equipment in diagnostic laboratories and additional training of existing and
employment of new staff, on the basis of defined sectional competencies by
Priorities and Action Plan.
REFERENCES
1. Baird-Parker A. Food–borne Illness: Food-borne Salmonellosis.The Lancet

1990; 336:1231-1235
2. Conacher H, Mes J. Assessment of Human Exposure to Chemical

Contaminants in Food. Food Additives and Contaminants 1993; 10(1):5-15
3. European Environment Agency. Environment in the European Union at the

turn of the century. Environmental assessment report 1999; 2:111-131
4. Farber J, Hughes A. General Guidelines for the Safe Handling of Foods.

Diary, Food and Environmental Sanitation 1995; 15(2):70-78
5. National Health Environment Action Plan of Republic of Macedonia.

Ministry for Health. Skopje. 1999
6. Republic Institute for Health Protection. Program for preventive health

protection. Yearbook, Skopje 1993-2000
7. WHO. The impact of Food and Nutrition on Public Health. Regional

Committee for Europe, Fiftieth session, Copenhagen, 11-14 September
2000
490
REGULATIONS IN MANAGEMENT OF THE RISK FROM

CHEMICAL ACCIDENTS IN SERBIA1
DEJAN FILIPOVIC, Ph.D, DANIJELA OBRADOVIC

Faculty of Geography, Studentski trg 3/III, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
According to the data at the disposal of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, since the 1992 there
were 20-25 smaller chemical accidents on the territory of Yugoslavia per year, the majority of which
did not surpass the boundaries of industrial complexes. After the sanctions, when the production has
been gradually attaining its previous level, a creation of a unique legal system to manage risks from
chemical accidents appeared necessary.
The Assembly of the Republic of Serbia and the Ministry of Environmental Protection initiated the task
of devising the appropriate legal regulations. A Law on Environmental Protection was passed along
with a number of regulations defining, inter alia, a system of management of risk from dangerous
chemicals, including the risk of chemical accident. This includes the obligation to elaborate plans of
protection and management thereof in which the authors participated. The paper presents the
experiences.
Keywords: chemical accident, Serbia, risks, environmental management
INTRODUCTION
After an intensive development of technology and especially development of

chemical industry, huge problems were created concerning the danger of using
chemicals. Productive technological systems by using certain raw materials become
potentially dangerous to the environment and humans. The greater the number of
chemicals dangerous to humans and the environment gets the greater the probability
of various incidents is.
By analysing a great number of chemical accidents, it was concluded that no one

could be completely protected against an accident, irrespective of the field concerned
(production, distribution or application of chemicals). Causes of the greatest number
of these accidents were poor quality technological solutions, inadequate process,
transport or application management (in one word, technical and technological
faults), irresponsible behaviour of the peoples in charge, as well as inadequate
location of the industrial facility.
The production and consumption of danger materials constantly grows. We have a

large number of facilities in which during the daily activities the danger materials are
produced, implemented, transported, storagged and kept, so there is a constant
potential danger of their uncontrolled arriving into the environment. Concerning
location, the dangerous materials are mainly connected with cities, industrial centers
and roads.
1. ANALYSIS OF YUGOSLAV REGULATIONS
All participants in chemical accidents risk management are obliged to make plans of
protection against chemical accidents, as well as protection management and all that
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491
has been regulated and defined by several rules and regulations. However these
regulations deal mostly with prevention measures and protection processes during
transport and distribution of dangerous materials and poisons, while production,
disposal and other applications of dangerous chemicals are left out. Chemical
accidents risk management in Serbia is regulated in more details and more
comprehensively with the Law on Environment Protection.
Passing the Law on Environment Protection in Serbia in 1991 brought a unique

solution of the problem of managing dangerous and harmful materials on the territory
of the Republic. The environmental policies in the Serbia, including their objectives
and programs, were considered as the main factors in the environmental
management. In the Serbia, thus the Ministry of the environmental protection was
given the major responsibility for the implementation of adopted environmental policy.
The Law of Environmental Protection is the corner - stone of environmental
protection system.
This law covers the protection of main areas of the natural and man made
environment (especialy risks). In the recent changes of regulations the environmental
management system got strong instrument for the control of environmental impacts
and nature degradation when the Regulations on the environmental assessment of
major projects which are likely to have a significant impact upon the environment was
adopted.
In that sense, the Ministry provides expert work concerning registration of dangerous
materials; toxicological research and exploration; development of rescue methods
when accidents occur; education and co-ordination of toxicological services, etc.
Furthermore, the Ministry, i.e. its environmental inspection department decides on
the estimation study of chemical accidents, with prevention measures, contingency
and response to the accident, as well as sanitation measures being part of the study.
Legal basis of environmental management in Serbia is represented by multitude of

rules and regulations, that have been constantly updated according to the branches,
resources and responsibilities of certain state institutions. According to laws and their
responsibilities, the Government and the Minister pass the following legal measures
in order to insure obeying the Law on Environmental Protection: programmes and
acts (the Government) and regulations and orders (the Minister).
Federal Standardisation Institute of Yugoslavia has accepted the observation

practices of ISO technical committees, as well as translation of ISO standards and
their application as JUS ISO standards. Therefore three environmental protection
committees have been formed: for air, water and soil quality as well as the fourth one
for ecological management, planned to pass standards of the JUS ISO 14000 series.
Inspectorate supervision. Inspectorate supervision represents a subcategory of the

management supervision. The Law on Environment Protection regulates the question
of inspectorate supervision of the environment in 5 fields, of which one is the
application of protection measures against industrial accidents and waste and
dangerous materials. Inspectors in charge have broad authority and after the
inspection, companies are due to act according to certain laws and documented
technical findings. The supervision process is regulated by the Law on Contentious
492
Administrative Matter, regulations of the environmental protection, as well as by the

Law on State Institutions.
Passing the afore laws and regulations, the norms and legal basis were established
and a unique methodological approach determined for setting a system of
management of risk from chemical accidents.
A good information basis on potential hazardous points (the Map of hazard) must
render complete and correct data on: quantities and type of dangerous and harmful
materials used, manufactured or stored on a certain territory, as well as data on the
basis of which a scope of consequences of potential chemical accidents may be
assessed. By identifying hazardous plants one can mark all locations at a local level
which in case of uncontrolled discharge of chemical compounds, fire or explosion
may create damage to environment, people and property.
2. THE RULES AND THE COMMISSION FOR CHEMICAL ACCIDENTS
In 1994 the most important legal act was passed which directly determines
management of risks from chemical accidents and this is the Book of Regulations on
Methodology for Assessment of Danger from Chemical Accidents and from
Environmental Pollution, Preparations and Measures for Elimination of
Consequences. Further to the above mentioned Book of Regulations the problems of
risk management have been subject of two other documents, discussed in this paper.
These Rules prescribe the methodology for:
• Danger estimate, i.e. chemical accident risk estimate;
• The environment pollution danger;
• Measures for relieving the consequences of the chemical accident, as well

as;
• Evidence on sorts and quantities of dangerous materials produced,

applied, transported, distributed, stored and disposed.
The danger estimate comprises identifying possible accident danger, defining the
mechanism of its occurrence and development and envisaging all possible
consequences.
Preparations for a possible accident comprise protection measures during the spatial
planning, designing, construction, work process, disposal and storage of dangerous
materials, control of using and maintenance of dangerous installations, as well as
other measures undertaken during dangerous activities in order to prevent or lessen
the probability of an accident and its subsequent consequences.
Elimination of accident consequences consists of number of measures and

processes for the observations of the post accident situation, recuperation of the
degraded environment and elimination of the repeated accident danger.
493
Evidence on sorts and quantities of dangerous materials produced, applied,

transported, distributed, stored and disposed is kept on fill-in forms printed together
with the Rules and being its integral part.
Risk management. Chemical accidents risk management is a very complex and

specific activity requiring a multidisciplinary and multisectoral approach in
establishing an organization that would provide: prevention, organizing of prompt
response to chemical accident and optimal repair and revival of the affected region.
Accident risk managing methodology consists of three phases:
1. Analysis of an accident danger;
2. Measures of prevention, intervention and response
3. Sanitation measures.
Analysis of an accident danger is the most important phase and it is executed in

three steps and they are identification of the danger, consequence analysis and risk
estimate. In the first step, i.e. identification of the danger, all indispensable data on
dangerous activities and materials are collected. The second step, i.e. consequence
analysis, is executed in order to envisage the level of possible consequences of the
accident and the volume of damage. The consequence analysis comprises
preparation, representation of possible development, effect modelling and
vulnerability analysis. The third step, i.e. risk estimate is the process that is used to
determine the risk according to the accident probability estimate and its
consequences to life, human health and the environment.
Furthermore the Rules regulate the way the evidence on sorts and quantities of
dangerous materials produced, applied, transported, distributed, stored and disposed
is kept. The evidence is supplied to the Ministry in form of the fill-in forms printed with
the Rules. A list of dangerous materials is supplied with the Rules and each company
is to do its danger estimate for materials from the list if they are kept in quantities
larger than prescribed.
In March 1997 the Government of the Republic of Serbia decided to establish a

Committee for Major Chemical Accidents tasked with organizing and implementation
of measures in this domain.
The aim of the Coordinating team is:
1. To suggest the organisation of prevention and other measures of

protection against a chemical accident
2. Co-ordinates and suggests means for direct involvement as a response to

the accident and to co-ordinate activities for the sanitation of the consequences of
the accident
3. Co-ordinates the work of all subjects taking part in protection plan

designing, develops the system of their operating activities
4. According to the information obtained it estimates the accident volume, its

development and the risk level to the environment
494
5. Suggests indispensable material and technical means and equipment and
6. Realises a direct co-operation with the ministry concerned, expert

institutions and organisations in order to provide the intervention in time.
3. OTHER REGULATIONS
Besides these Rules, in 1992 the Regulations of the Analysis of Effects to the
Environment Imposed by Objects and Activities have been passed (Environmental
Impact Assessment). They prescribe that the risk estimate is undertaken
simultaneously with the analysis for every newly constructed object on the territory of
the Republic. The analysis of effects represents the substantial element of the
urbanisation and technical documentation for the construction.
These Rules have established obligations for the investors to quantify the negative
effect of the object to the environment during its construction or reconstruction and to
envisage and apply prevention or relief measures to the environment in case of an
accident.
The Regulations on the Environmental Impact Assessment is also brief, containing

18 articles and one annex, which cover the following aspects : a) the types of
projects to be subject to the environmental impast assessment; b) the main stages in
preparation of the environmental impact assessment; and c) content of the
environmental impact assessment. The categories of projects which are listed in
annex include 12 groups of the objects and works for which the environmental impact
assessment is mandatory, with 65 types of projects in total.
The next Regulations of the Handling Procedures with Dangerous Waste Materials,
passed in 1995, regulate the mode of handling certain kinds of waste having qualities
of dangerous materials and the way the evidence on sorts and quantities of
dangerous materials produced, applied, transported, distributed, stored and disposed
is kept. In the final part of these Rules, there is a definition of categories of the
dangerous waste that is controlled according to the type, contents and dangerous
characteristics. Furthermore, conditions under which transport of dangerous
materials and all activities concerning it, have been regulated by the Dangerous
Materials Transport Law passed by the Federal Government in 1990.
Apart from passing regulations concerning industrial accidents, the Ministry has
undertaken following activities dealing with the introduction of the system of risk
management:
1. The “Map of hazard” comprising basic data on the companies which are
potential accident site has been designed;
2. A review of the most significant accidents in Serbia in the last 10 years

has been compiled;
3. A constant supervision has been established by the Inspectorate of the

Republic in potential accident’s industries
4. In co-operation with the Clinic for Toxicology activities have been

undertaken to form a dangerous materials database.
495
4. INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC REGULATIONS IN THIS AREA
The paper reviews the standards of international law with direct or indirect
implications for environmental protection in our region, and the rights, obligations and
responsibilities of the state in that respect.
In the 1978-1991 period, the Yugoslavia ratified international agreements in the area
of environment, and certain laws on their ratification designated certain authorities as
responsible for coordination of implementation of the respective obligations in the
Yugoslavia, resulting in their better implementation than in the preceding years.
The international obligations arising from these agreements have not, until now, been
fully incorporated in domestic laws. There is a range of deficiencies such as:
insufficient coordination and organization concerning participation in international
cooperation, insufficient implementation, inadequate monitoring of implementation of
commitments, non-existence of specific programs or measures for their
implementation.
The break-up of the Yugoslavia in 1992 resulted in further deceleration and

interruption of implementation of international agreements in the area of environment,
as a result of the political situation and shortage of funds. Thus, because of the UN
sanctions imposed against our country in 1992, cooperation and fulfillment of our
country’s obligations pursuant to international agreements in the area of environment
have been almost completely stopped. In the last three years situation is the better
and Yugoslavia is contining implementation of international agreements in the area of
environment.
Bearing in mind that negative effects on humans and the environment can be cause
by industrial accidents in bordering countries, it is specially advised to establish
international co-operation in this area. The Convention of Transboundary Effects of
Industry Accidents has been passed in the United Nations Organisation, regulating
international obligations concerning developing activities (construction of dangerous
facilities), as well as prevention, readiness and co-operation during the accident
response, mitigating the consequences and sanitation. Yugoslavia has neither signed
nor ratified this Convention but it’s readiness to accept it has been envisaged.
Moreover, the Convention of Environmental Impact Assesment in Transboudary
Condition has not been signed yet but the methodology and general directions of
these conventions have been built in the existing rules and regulations. Yugoslavia
has signed and ratified the Convention of Transboundary Air Pollution and fulfils its
obligations deriving from this Convention.
5. CONCLUSION
With legal regulations, together with supplementary acts, establishing inspectorate

supervision and defining penal paragraphs, Serbia has all preconditions to protect
itself comprehensively against wider range industrial accidents, i.e. it has a
developed methodology of risk management in case of the accident. The
methodology of accident risk management comprising accident danger analysis and
prevention measures is completely in accordance with the requirements of the Laws,
Rules and international Conventions.
496
After passing the Rules, the Republic of Serbia has become one of the few countries
that have legally regulated the industrial accident protection, creating formal and legal
conditions for harmful and dangerous materials risk management.
REFERENCES
1. “Book of Regulations on Methodology for Assessment of Danger from

Chemical Accidents and from Environmental Pollution, Preparations and Measures
for Elimination of Consequences”, Ministry of the Environmental Protection, Belgrade,
1994
2. “Spatial Planning, Regional Development and Environmental Protection”,

monography, Institute for Architecture and Urban Planning of Serbia, Belgrade,1995
3. Filipovic D. : “Informational Support to Risk Assessment at a Local Level”,

proceedings from Fifth International Symposium and Exhibition on Environmental
Contamination in Central and Eastern Europe, Prague, 2000
4. Stankovic B., Stanojevic Lj., Berberovic D. : “Management of the Risks

from Industrial Accidents”, Institute for environmental quality, Nis, 1996
5. Filipovic D. : “Spatial Models for Environmental Monitoring in Urban Area”,

Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, 1996.
497
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AS THE BASIS FOR MANAGEMENT

OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN SERBIA1
DEJAN DJORDJEVIC, Ph.D.; DEJAN FILIPOVIC, Ph.D.;

STEVAN STANKOVIC, Ph.D.
Faculty of Geography, Studentski trg 3/III, Belgrade, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT
For sustainable development of tourism very important fact is that Serbia has five national parks, many
nature parks and monuments. A large number of nature areas is registered or nominated for
attainment of an international status. Tourist values of Serbia can get full importance for present and
future development of tourism only if they are authentic, well preserved and adequately valuated. Also,
Serbia has many cultural heritage of special and great importance which are protection by the world
convention.
Keywords: Environmental Planning, Tourism, Sustainable development, Tourist

zones, Protection, Serbia
INTRODUCTION
Tourism of Serbia based on natural and anthropology values has had a long tradition.
Social actions of environmental protection, including both kinds of tourist values,
were also recorded a long time ago. Natural tourist values are represented by
hydrological, biogeographical and geomorphological appearances. Climate is also
signified as a tourist value, but its health effects have not been investigated enough.
Anthropology tourist values are divided into archeological, classical, medieval and
historical monuments.
The degree of authenticity, protection and improvement of tourist motifs of Serbia is

important for systematic tourist valuation. In this connection, tourism and protection
of environment could be made more complementary to each other, not only by
declaring various kinds of sites under protection, but also by recognizing the principle
of active protection of nature and the corresponding postulats about water, as well. It
is especially insisted upon protection of water objects, since they are most
endangered, while at the same time they are of an outstanding importance, not only
for the development of tourism, but for the mankind in general.
1. BASIC GOALS
This brief account deals with general spatial strategies in tourism development of
Serbia, together with the territorial definitions of priority zones for tourism from the
Serbia’s point of view and according of the projects and programs of the
neighbouroughing countries and EU as well. The basic goals in the development of
tourism and the utilization of tourist areas are:
• Intensifying tourist activities and rounding out tourist attractions.
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498
• Activating new tourist areas, primarily those that have the best natural potentials
to develop tourism.
• Priority financing from central Republic sources of programs/project that are the
basis of tourist activities: infrastructure, municipal living standard, public services,
protection of the natural and cultural heritage.
• Collaboration with other countries of Central and South-East Europe, primarily in

the field of development of transnational and crossborder tourist areas.
• Greater local community involvement in activating tourist resources.
• Development of tourism’s social functions, particularly regarding health, sports,

recreation and the education of children and young people.
• Development of recreational tourism for city dwellers and others.
• Achieving priorities in the basic types of tourism: mountain, water, transit, spa,
village, hunting, cultural-historical and ecological.
• Differentiating between the goals of tourism and those of specialization based on

spatial-functional units: tourist zones, tourist regions, transit tourist corridors,
urban tourist centres and spas.
The following principles are underlined in the conception of active protection of

touristic environment : a) there should not only be protected and developed certain
parts of Serbia, but space on the hole; b) the protection of environment should not be
reduced to its preservation, but it should be such as to serve appropreately vital
needs of the society; c) the environmental protection should not follow the
development of economy and society, but it should be recognized as a specific
planning which preceed the development of economy and society.
2. MOUNTAIN TOURISTIC ENVIRONMENT
The territory of Serbia, whose area is 88.361 km2, is a distinctly continental part of
the Balkans. It is characterized by numerous and diverse natural potentials for the
development of tourism. Mountains which belong to different systems according to
their formation and morphology, may be specially emphasized among them. They
are the basis for the development of moderatelly high altitude tourism, which has a
summer and winter season, both with important functions of health, recreation,
excursions, residential stays, climatic-therapy, traditional and modern manifestations.
The average height above sea level of the relief of Serbia is 470 m. Most areas are
between the 500 and 1000 m contour lines (24.105 km2 or 27.2% of the territory).
However, 8.468 km2 of the territory of Serbia or 9.5% is between the 1000 and 1500
m contour lines. Mountain areas very suitable for tourism between the 1500 and
2000 m contour lines occupies 1.213 km2 or 1.3% territory. Only 206 km2 are 2000 m
above the sea level, which is a limiting factor for the development of alpinisam and
top competitions on snow. All this contributes to the complexity of the problem of
protection and tourist equipment of mountain areas without disturbing ecological
relations. Planned actions with sustainable ecological quality of mountain areas in
499
Serbia are the basis for appropriate valorization for current and future requirements
on the tourist market. This is due to the fact that mountains in Serbia can be defined
as excursion-recreational, sport-manifestational, cultural-manifestational, memorial,
climato-therapeutical, hunting grounds, secondary homes and national parks.
According to the international criteria of IUCN-WMC, the territory of the Republic of

Serbia, together with the mountainous area of Bulgaria, represents one of six
European and one of the 153 world’s centers of biological diversity. Five percent of
the territory of Serbia is regulated for nature protection, and the Spatial Plan of the
Republic of Serbia projects to include 10% of the territory by the year 2010.
The Republic of Serbia has 5 national parks, 20 nature parks, 3 areas with
outstanding characteristics, 120 nature reserves, 12 special natural reserves, 470
natural monuments and 45 natural memorials. Most legally protected sites are on
mountains. It seems that this is not enough for the complex development of tourism,
as it requires more space and asks for new territories.. They can be correctly
valorized touristically by adopting criteria of sustainable development, which mean
planning according to the spatial capacity and complementarity with other activities
connected with mountains.
3. PRINCIPLES OF SPA TOURISM
The complex tectonics of the relief of Serbia has caused the formation of a great
number of mineral, thermomineral, gaseous and radioactive springs. Geological bore
holes also exist from which gushes water at various temperatures and with different
chemical composition. Such water is also considered therapeutic. Special
settlements – spas have developed near springs of mineral water, where prophylactic
and therapeutic health as well as recreative tourism takes place.
Spa water, with temperatures from 12 to 92oC and a rich content of minerals is the
basis of balneotherapy, practiced by the Romans during their reign over the territory
of modern Serbia. The basic cause of a great interesting in spas is the healthy
character of thermomineral springs, used by diseased people and convalescents
both. However, today modern spas are less interested in that, but most effort invest
in healthy people offering them a recreative refreshment. In this way spas have been
affirmed as qualified tourist resorts, whose supply, besides a modern remedial
treatment, includes a great variety of recreative and cultural activities.
As the reserves of mineral water are limited and the spa complexes are susceptible
to changes tourism in them must be in accordance with basic ecological principles.
These are founded on planning, evolution, protection, revitalization, promotion,
complementarity with the environment, spatial capacity and legal regulations. A
change in one ecological spa component causes a negative chain reaction in a
series of elements and factors, so it must be prevented.
Spas in Serbia have a capacity of 40.000 beds. About 400.000 tourists stay in them
during one year. Among the spas in Serbia Vrnjacka Banja, Sokobanja, Niska Banja,
Bukovicka Banja, Koviljaca, Mataruska Banja and Gornja Trepca stand out by their
orderliness, hotel capacity and volume of tourist turnover. Almost all of them are also
permanent settlements with significant facilities.
500
Fig 1. Map of Major Features, Biodiversity and Protected Areas of Yugoslavia

(www.unep.org)
501
They are subject to regulations of the Law on Spas in Serbia, to which ecological
criteria should be included to a greater extent and more precisely, the sustainable
development emphasized, complementarity developed and collisions prevented.
Spas in Serbia are tourist centers which work the whole year round. This should not
be limited only to economic indexes, but also their human health component –
prevention, hospitalization and recovery after classical hospital treatment should be
emphasized. For all this a healthy ecological environment is required.
4. SPATIAL ORGANIZATION FOR TOURISM
Tourist zones with their component tourist regions are shown on the map. Territory of
the Republic of Serbia are classification into six tourist zones. This six tourist zones
are distribution in two classes.
Tourist zones and regions first class have international and national character :
• Eastern zone - Stara planina (alpine skiing); Krajiste and Vlasina (tour, alpine
skiing).
• Central I zone - Kopaonik (tour, alpine skiing); Golija (summer recreation, winter
sports)
• Southern zone – Sar planina (alpine skiing); Prokletije (alpine skiing)
Tourist zones and regions second class have national rank :
• Western zone - Tara-Zlatibor-Zlatar (summer recreation).
• Central II zone – mountains of Valjevo area, Sumadija and Kucaj (excursions,

hunting, villages); Djerdap and Deliblatska pescara (excursions, nautical, cultural
heritage).
• Northern zone – Fruska Gora (excursions, nautical and cultural heritage); Upper
Danube river basin and upper and lower Tisa river (nautical, hunting, excursions).
At the present, existing tourist areas and centres are : Belgrade as urban tourist
centre; area of northern Kopaonik, Zeljin and Vrnjacka Banja spa; transit tourist
corridor Novi Sad-Belgrade-Nis; Novi Sad with Fruska Gora, the Djerdap area; the
area of Tara, Zlatibor and Zlatar; and in future the area of Danube River Basin.
5. CONCLUSION
Serbia’s potentials for the development of tourism are diversified and noteworthy,
and only a small portion has been activated. In the past several years there has been
a slowdown in the development of tourism and a decline in tourist activities. Due to
the recent changes in our country and adoption of the Spatial Plan of the Republic of
Serbia in the Serbian National Assembly, this first strategic planning document could
be regarded as a efficient tool that provides long-term guidelines and establishes an
integral and comprehensive approach to the Republic of Serbia’s tourism
development.
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Fig 2. Map of Spatial organization for tourism (Spatial Plan of the Republic of
Serbia)
503
REFERENCES
1. ″Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia″, (1996), Government of the Republic of

Serbia, Ministry of Construction – Republic Administration for Spatial Planning
and Urbanism, Belgrade
2. “Sustainable Tourism in the Protected Areas”, (1996), Proceedings, Ministry of

Environmental Protection, Ministry of Tourism, Belgrade
3. Stankovic S. (1989): “Tourist Values in Serbia and Active Environmental

Protection”, Geographical annual, Vol. 25, Serbian Geographical Society,
Kragujevac
504
CHOOSING DATA VECTORS REPRESENTING A HUGE DATA SET:

KOHONEN'S SOM APPLIED TO THE KEFALLINIA EROSION DATA1
Anna Bartkowiak (1), Andreas Vassilopoulos (2), Niki Evelpidou (2)

(1)
Institute of Computer Science, University of Wroclaw, Poland
email: aba@ii.uni.wroc.pl,
(2)
Remote Sensing Laboratory, Geology Department, University of Athens, Greece
email: evelpidou@geol.uoa.gr
ABSTRACT
We consider a large set of data comprising N=3422 data vectors, each containing observations on
p=3 variables. We find for these data representative data vectors. We do it by employing the
methodology of Kohonen's self-organizing maps. The found representative data vectors are called
codebook vectors. In particular we analyze two collections (assemblages) of codebook vectors
counting m=275 and m=120 elements. The quantity of the representation is measured by evaluating
two errors: the quantization error q1 and the topological error q2. We show for our data that the
magnitude of these errors depends on the way the original data were standardized.
After a thorough graphical analysis of the results we came to the conclusion that codebook vectors
obtained from data standardized by range yield a little better representation as those do which were
obtained from data standardized by variance. None of the representations is satisfactory from our
point of view.
Keywords: codebook vectors, methodology of Kohonen's self-organizing maps,

Kefallinia island, Ionian Sea
1. INTRODUCTION
Kefallinia island is situated at the Ionian Sea, across the inlet of the bay of Patra,
between the islands Zakinthos and Lefkada (see Figure 1). The pass of Ithaca
(2.59km wide) separates it from Ithaca Island at the northeast; at the south the pass
of Kefallinia (15.4km wide) separates it from Zakinthos. It is the largest island of the
Ionian island complex, with an area of 779.3km2. Its relief is mainly mountain, with
only a few plains appearing at the coast areas and inland. The climate of the island is
characterized by a relatively high precipitation.
The geology of the island is characterized of two isotopic zones: the Preapulian and
the Ionian zone. They constitute the dominating structure for the Ionian Islands
(Aubouin, J., Dercourt, 1962). The Preapulian zone is dated from Jurassic to Upper
Miocene. That zone is characterized by small discordances and Upper Cretaceous-
Miocene sedimentary deposits (e.g. like limestones, marly limestones). It covers the
largest part of the island. The Ionian zone is a continuous stratigraphic unit from
Upper Jurassic to Eocene. It appears at a significantly smaller area, at the southeast
part of the island, and is composed of Jurassic limestones and evaporates. The most
important tectonic characteristic is the overthrust of the Ionian on the Preapulian
zone. Finally, the faulted tectonics that is correlated to the convergence of
lithospheric plates has determined the postalpine structure and the Pliocene
sediment deposit. The post alpine deposits are Pliocene marls, quaternary sea
1
505
sediments and terrestrial formations (Horstmann, G., 1967, Mirkou, R.M., 1974,
Sorel, D., 1976, Dermitzakis, M.D., et al 1977, Underhill, J., 1989).
Fig. 1:The study area.
The large distribution of the limestones has contributed to the creation of numerous
surface and subsurface karstic formations. The swallow hole of Argostoli is noted.
The drainage network is defined by the mountain chain of Enos, which is actually the
main watershed. Therefore, small drainage basins are formed north of Enos, and
flow towards the north and northeast, or south and flow towards the south or
southeast. The geological basement, the structure of the island, the climate, and the
evolved drainage system has determined the territorial coverage and consistently the
development of human activities.
Recent works concerning the geology, geomorphology and environment of Kefallinia

using GIS platform have been made by Vassilopoulos (2001), Vassilopoulos (2002).
The parameters of drainage density, drainage frequency, morphology and

vulnerability were used to calculate the erosion risk of Kefallinia Island. Especially the
last parameter is determined by a series of additional parameters concerning the
506
lithological formations, the land use and the climatic conditions (Kuenen 1956,
Sparks 1965, Jensen and Painter 1974, Bolton 1979, Selby 1987). The parameter of
drainage density was calculated with the use of GIS for every cell of the grid
(500x500m) of the area, as the cumulative length of the drainage system branches
that are at each grid cell, to its area. The parameter of the morphology was
calculated – from the morphological slope, with the use of GIS – as the cumulative
length of the contours of each grid cell to its area. Finally, fieldwork data combined to
the creation of an algorithm in SQL (Simple Query Language) for the correlation of
partial parameters resulted in the calculation of vulnerability. The erosion risk was
calculated based on the above parameters and the usage of logical rules. The
geographical distribution of this output for the location of the high erosion risk areas
took place through the GIS as well.
As mentioned, the above calculations took place on a total of 3422 grid cells of
500x500m. The aim of this study was the development of a method for the
management of this information without the loss of data that would alter the final
erosion risk map.
2. AIM OF THE PAPER
We assume that we have a large set of data. Our aim is to find some collections
(assemblages) of representative data vectors for this data. Obviously, the size of
such a collection should be much smaller than the original data set. The
representative vectors will be called codebook vectors. Then, in many
considerations, instead of dealing with the massive data set we might deal only with
the representative collection of codebook vectors.
Thus, our goal is to subdivide the entire data set into subsets of rather similar data
vectors. However, each data vector (codebook vector) may be imagined as a point
located in the multivariate space Rp, with p denoting the number of components
(variables) of each vector. Therefore, in terms of geometrical concepts, we may say
that we want to find spatial regions where points belonging to one region are close
each other. Next − for each region − we will choose a representative point (the
codebook vector). To achieve our goal we will employ the methodology of Kohonen’s
self-organizing maps. The methodology is briefly introduced in Section 4. Each
established subset will have its representative. That representative − depending on
the context − will be called 'codebook vector' or 'codebook point'. For the entire
analyzed data we will obtain a collection (assemblage) of representatives. We may
obtain different collections of codebook vectors − depending on the parameters used
in constructing Kohonen maps.
In this paper the considered data will be the Kefallinia data described in Section 1.
We will focus our attention on constructing maps of size 19x15 and 12x10. From
these maps we will obtain two collections (assemblages) of representatives: one
counting m=285 and the other m=120 codebook vectors. We will show the
consequences of choosing the indicated collections as representatives of the original
data set. We do it by evaluating two kinds of errors: the quantization error q1 and the
topological error q2.
It is advised to standardize the data before applying the algorithm searching for the
representatives. It happens (and we stated it clearly for our data) that the magnitude
507
of the errors q1 and q2 depends on the way the original data were standardized. In
the following we will apply two methods of standardization of the original data: by
variance (to mean=0 and standard deviation=1) and by range (data after
standardization belong to the interval [0, 1]). The concepts of these two methods of
standardization are explained at the beginning of Section 5 and 6. These sections
show the results (i.e. the self-organizing maps and the codebook vectors) obtained
for the Kefallinia data normalized either by variance (Section 5) or by range (Section
6).
In Section 7 we compare the results obtained for different methods of standardization

of the data. It appears that the results are slightly different. We investigate also, how
good the individual data points are represented by the found codebook points.
Applying graphical methods we find that the representation is not a very good one.
3. STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KEFALLINIA DATA
We have a data matrix X of size N x p. Then each row of X comprises a data vector
representing a geographical area (a cell) in the Kefallinia Island. Each cell was
characterized by p variables (features), from these we will consider − for simplicity of
the exposition − only p = 3 variables.
These are drainage density, slope (inclination) and vulnerability of the terrain.
Despite taking only p=3 variables the presented methodology is valid for any integer
p >= 1.
The Kefallinia island was subdivided into N=3422 cells, thus the X matrix taken for
our analysis had initially the dimensions 3422 x 3.
However, there were 2 very big outliers in the first variable. One was the data vector
no. 579 (with values 18.42, 1.88 and 10.00), the other the vector no. 835 (with values
15.82, 1.59 and 10.00).
We decided to remove these data vectors. After removal, N=3420 data vectors were
left for further analysis.
The means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum of the analyzed data are
given in Table 1 below:
Table 1: Basic univariate statistical characteristics

of the Kefallinia data (N=3420)
Drainage Slope Vulnerability Comment
m 1.32 29.25 4.78 ;mean
s 1.52 17.61 2.56 ;standard
deviation
min 0 0 2.99 ;minimum value
max 8.1 82.8 10.00 ;maximum value
Figure 2 presents histograms and scatterplots of the data.
508
2000 100
1500
slope
1000 50
500
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
drainage drainage
600 10
vulnerability
8
400
6
200
4
0 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10
slope drainage
3000 10
vulnerability
8
2000
6
1000
4
0 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
vulnerability slope
Figure. 2. Histograms (left) and scatter plots (right) for the Kefallinia data (N=3420).
Looking at the histograms one may see that the distributions of drainage and slope
are positively skew. The variable vulnerability has a very special distribution: there
are more then 2000 data vector (thus: nearly 2/3 of the data) which have vulnerability
equal to 3.00; moreover, for about 500 observations, this variable is equal 9.00.
Thus, the distribution of this variable is highly concentrated on just two values. The
same may be seen very distinctly in the second and third scatter plot located at right
in Figure 2.
4. THE CONCEPT OF A SELF-ORGANIZING MAP − THE SOM METHODOLOGY
Suppose we have a data matrix X containing N rows and p columns. Each row of X
comprises a data vector with values gathered for a definite unit (e.g., a geographical
area, a cell). Each unit is characterized by p variables (features). Suppose further,
that N is large, e.g. several thousands. Our goal is to find a representative set of the
recorded data vectors.
This can be done by use of neural networks, in particular by applying the method of
self-organizing maps proposed by Kohonen (1995). The method (called also the
SOM methodology) is widely used as a very efficient tool for visualization of
multivariate data.
The description of the method may be found in many textbooks and most of neural
network packages support this method. It is out of scope of the paper to describe
precisely how the self-organizing maps are obtained. Never the less we feel obliged
to explain some basic concepts used by that method.
509
For our analysis we will use 'SOM Toolbox for Matlab 5', a highly specialized
package working in the Matlab environment. The package, called in the following
Somtb2, was designed by Vesanto et al. (2001), see also Vesanto (1999).
Most frequently the basis of a SOM is supported by neurons which appear in a

regular lattice composed from equal-size adjacent areas called units. The areas may
have, a/o., the shape of a square or of a hexagon.
The lattice (comprising the units) will be referred to as the map. The side-lengths of
the lattice (map) may be taken as some defaults; alternatively, the user may declare
own values.
We will consider lattices (maps) which are composed from hexagons. We will fix our
attention on maps of two sizes: one with side lengths 19x15 (the default proposed by
the package Somtb2), the other with side lengths 12x10 (this was our choice).
Thus, assuming the indicated side lengths we will obtain maps counting m=285 and
m=120 units appropriately. The units will have – in our investigations − the hexagon
shape (see, e.g., Figure 4). Each hexagon in the map represents a corresponding
concave region in the data space. The corresponding region in the data space is
called the Voronoi region. Albeit all the hexagons in the map are of equal size, the
corresponding Voronoi regions are in principle of various sizes, depending on the
configuration of the observed data points.
Our goal is to obtain a subdivision of the data space into m Voronoi regions and
establish a neighborhood relation between the Voronoi regions in the data space and
the hexagons in the map. Then each region will comprise a number of data points.
Let us denote these numbers by {h1, ... , hm}.
For each region a center may be defined. The centers, denoted by {c1, ... , cm }, are
called codebook vectors. They will be assumed as representative for all data points
belonging to the established Voronoi regions.
Because there is a one-to-one correspondence between the Voronoi regions in the

data space and the hexagonal units in the constructed map, we may say that each
unit in the map represents a region in the data space.
Kohonen elaborated a methodology (Kohonen, 1995) which ensures that most of the
topology from the data space is preserved in the constructed planar map. Speaking
in other words, this means that neighboring regions in the data space are
represented (in the majority of cases) by neighboring hexagons in the map.
The process of finding the proper Voronoi regions, i.e., the subdivision of the data
space into adjacent Voronoi regions is called space quantization. (Kohonen, 1995).
These regions are obtained during the process of learning (unsupervised learning,
exploiting the concept of neighborhood of neurons in the map grid and codebook
points in the feature space) of the self-organizing map.
During that process, the codebook vectors adapt their positions to the true
distribution of the observed data. This happens during many cycles (epochs) of the
iterative process of learning.
510
a) Drainage Slope
4.93
b) 61.5
L
L
2.46 31.5
1.31
L
L
1.58
d d
c) Vulnerability d) hits sM
9.23
6.12
4.78
L L
d
Kefallinia som sM size 19 x 15 q1=0.197 q2=0.037
Drainage Slope
a) 4.29 b) 56.8
L L
2.15 30.6
1.31
L
L 4.41
d d
c) Vulnerability d) Hits sM1
9.11
6.07
4.78
L L
d
Kefallinia som sM1 size 12 x 10 q1=0.298 q2=0.032
Figure 3. Maps constructed for the Kefallinia data standardized by variance. Top: map of size 19x15.
Bottom: map of size 12x10.
Component planes denoted as a), b) and c) exhibit values of variables converted to their original
scale, i.e., without standardization. Maps denoted by d) show − by the magnitude of the painted area –
how many data points are ascribed to subsequent units of the respective map.
511
Bar plots on top of sM1 12x10
Figure 4. Bar plots painted on top of the map with side lengths 12x10, constructed for data
standardized by variance. The bar plots exhibit the magnitude of components of codebook vectors
representative for the respective regions. With 3 investigated variables each codebook vector has 3
components. The 3 bar plots located in each hexagon show the magnitude of the 3 components.
Looking at the figure one may observe the change of the components across the map.
5. RESULTS FOR DATA STANDARDIZED BY VARIANCE
In this section we present results of the analysis performed for data, which were
firstly standardized by variance. This is standardization used in statistics. We
standardize the data to have mean=0, and standard deviation=1. After such
standardization the majority (more then 95 %) of the observations is contained in the
interval (-3.00, +3.00).
We have constructed maps of hexagonal shape, firstly the map with default side
lengths: 19x15; and next the map with the declared side lengths 12x10. The
constructed maps are shown in Figure 3.
In Figure 3 we show together eight exhibits. Four of them (in the upper part of the
figure) are based on the map structure 19x15. The next four (located in the lower part
of the figure) are based on the map structure 12x10. Each exhibit is displaying
different information. Exhibits a) , b) and c) are called component planes. They show
the components of the codebook vectors representing the corresponding Voronoi
regions. The components were 'de-normalized', which means that they are shown in
the original scale of the data (i.e. in values of the variables before normalization). The
magnitude of the components is shown by hues of the color map jet available in
Matlab. Very low values are marked by deep blue (L in the map). The increase of the
value of the component is notified by the hue changing from deep and next light blue
through green, yellow, and red to deep red and finally dark brown (for the highest
values). The applied color map is convenient for exhibiting graphs both in color and
512
in shades of gray. When converted to shades of gray (in print) we obtain two poles of
black − for the lowest and highest values of the data − ranging through shades of
gray and white in the middle. The correspondence between the values of the
component and the hue is shown in the color bar located at right of each map. The 'd'
letter in bottom of the color bar indicates that the data were ‘de-normalized'. Looking
at the panels denoted by a), b) and c) obtained for the two map structures, one may
state that they show a similar pattern. The displays for the map structure 19x15 are
finer, those for the map structure 12x10 coarser; never the less in both maps a
similar trend of change of each of the three analyzed variables is clearly visible. The
information contained in exhibit a), b) and c) of Figure 3 may be presented in a more
comprehensive way. This may be done by drawing bar plots on top of each hexagon
of the respective map. For the ith hexagon we find the correspondent codebook
vector ci and display its component in the form of a bar plot. Figure 4 is displaying
such bar plot for the map structure 12x10. One may observe there the change of the
components when moving across hexagons of the map. Let’s have a look at the
hexagons located in the first column of the map. Looking at the bar plots exhibited in
the hexagon one may notice that the bars for the first and 3rd components are very
small. However the 2nd component – which displays the magnitude of the variable
slope – changes considerably when moving from top to bottom of the column. The
same might be stated when looking at exhibit b) in Figure 3 (however the exhibit b)
shows values of the variable slope solely). To see the changes (in fact no change) in
variables drainage and density we should look at the utmost left columns firstly in the
exhibit a) and next in the exhibit b).
We might summarize that the bar plot has the advantage of displaying the values of
all variables simultaneously.
Let m denote the number of units in the map. We know that each unit in the map
corresponds to one Voronoi region in the data space. We might be interested to
know how many data points are contained in subsequent Voronoi regions. The
number of points belonging to one such region may be counted and expressed by
numbers called hits. Exact number of hits are shown in Table 2 (for the map 19x15)
and Table 3 (for the map 12x10). Approximately, the numbers of hits are shown in
exhibit b) of both maps in Figure 3. The frequencies (counts) of data points belonging
to each Voronoi region are marked there by the size of the painted hexagon.
Both from the exhibit b) in Figure 3 and from Tables 2 and 3 one may see that the
number of hits is distributed very unevenly. Concerning map 19x15: There are
regions with over 50 hits; and some, which got one hit only. This is connected with
the specific spatial distribution of the data, a fact notified already in Section 4 (see
also Figure 2). Concerning the hits notified for the map structure 12x10: The number
of map units is here nearly halved (m=140, as compared to the map 19x15 with
m=285). Therefore we are justified expecting that the number of hits for the 12x10
map will be much higher. In fact the highest number of hits for that map is equal to
107. Additionally, there are fourteen units with hit frequency over 50. The smallest
number of hits equals to two, which was observed for 3 units. None of the units in
both maps is empty. The quality of the representation is measured by two indices: q1
− the approximation error, and q2 − the topological error. These errors, evaluated for
our maps are: - for the map 19x15: q1=0.197, q2=0.038; for map 15x10: q1=0.298,
q2=0.032.
513
Comparing the quantization error for both maps we may state that for the map 12x10
the value of q1 is considerably higher (nearly by one third); however the topological
error for that map is a little smaller. Thus one might conclude that both maps reflect
in a satisfactory manner the location of the Voronoi regions in the considered data
space. However, what concerns the error of approximation, i.e. the mean distance of
the data points to their nearest representatives, the first map with a considerably
greater number of representatives is certainly better.
Table 2: Hits of the map sM of size 19x15
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15
0
1 50 0 2 9 69 35 13 20 2 8 10 27 19 16 14
2 19 4 11 3 2 24 34 19 2 10 6 9 10 7 22
3 34 2 2 7 8 9 6 16 15 6 9 12 20 8 11
4 29 2 7 9 14 7 7 16 6 7 12 10 12 6 24
5 49 9 7 5 5 12 12 4 33 7 6 12 6 11 7
6 33 8 5 6 2 10 13 12 5 5 3 9 14 6 8
7 30 21 3 3 5 2 9 8 6 6 15 1 10 18 10
8 46 10 2 1 5 5 5 6 5 3 14 9 11 2 17
9 33 31 1 4 8 1 3 2 1 1 2 6 6 8 3
10 29 20 5 8 9 6 12 7 21 29 4 4 3 11 18
11 33 23 2 5 4 8 5 6 10 9 6 13 2 1 3
4
12 15 3 11 10 5 12 13 14 16 8 12 6 10 12
7
13 42 16 7 4 7 6 12 16 14 11 16 12 10 7 10
14 50 13 9 9 10 8 7 3 20 8 10 12 9 7 13
15 26 18 9 5 5 10 10 11 18 14 8 10 17 9 9
16 52 9 7 13 6 7 12 6 16 16 13 13 12 8 16
17 25 28 11 7 11 11 9 10 15 11 11 12 11 13 10
18 17 16 8 6 7 10 11 13 12 8 7 14 8 5 17
19 56 19 4 7 21 14 3 8 23 31 20 17 14 11 14
Table 3: Hits of the map sM1 of size 12x10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 87 4 19 10 75 36 17 36 43 35
7
2 15 2 13 16 31 10 14 26 21 45
3 77 5 18 30 11 56 12 26 25 9
4 75 10 12 16 43 20 13 32 17 36
5 70 32 5 10 16 9 15 25 19 27
6 92 6 18 4 2 2 9 2 13 28
7 86 6 12 23 30 27 58 30 4 9
8 99 8 17 20 27 28 24 33 13 45
9 70 21 16 24 19 22 27 24 26 15
10 78 11 21 17 25 36 29 25 23 35
11 58 33 12 20 29 23 24 21 15 22
12 28 80 31 26 25 51 49 38 24 49
514
Drainage b) Slope
a) 4.85 64.7
2.42 32.8
L L
L 0.912
d d
c) Vulnerability d) hits ssM

9.31
L
6.16
L
d
Kefallinia som ssM size 19 x 15 q1=0.0453 q2=0.0447
Drainage Slope
a) 4.16 b) 60.5
L 2.09 31.5
L L
L 2.43
d d
c) Vulnerability d) Hits ssM1
9.11
L
6.06
L
Kefallinia som ssM1 size 12 x 10 q1=0.0701 q2=0.0213
Figure 5. Maps constructed for the Kefallinia data standardized by range. Top: map of size 19x15.
Bottom: map of size 12x10. Further explanations – as under Figure 3.
515
Bar plots on top of ssM1 12x10
Figure 6. Bar plots painted on top of the map with side lengths 12 x 10, constructed for data
standardized by range. Further explanations — as under Figure 4.
6. RESULTS FOR DATA STANDARDIZED BY RANGE
In this section we present results of the analysis performed for data, which were
firstly standardized by range. This is standardization to (min=0, max=1). After this
standardization the observations for each variable are contained in the interval [0, 1].
Again we have constructed two maps. The default size, proposed by the package
Somtb2, was 24x12. However, to make the results comparable with those of Section
5 we have decided to analyze the same dimensions as in Section 5. These were
19x15 and 12x10. The corresponding maps - in an analogous layout as in Figure 3 −
are exposed in Figure 5. For the map of size 19x15 (called ssM) with m=285
codebook vectors we got q1= 0.0453, q2=0.0447. For the second analyzed map (of
size 12x10) we got q1= 0.0701, q2=0.0213.
Looking at the maps shown in Figure 5 one may state that both are to some extent
similar. This means that the trend of change of the considered variables is similar.
However, compared to those shown in Figure 3, the maps from figure 5 exhibit a
different pattern. The visible discordance is not exceptional. In self-organizing maps −
aiming at preservation of the topology of the data space − the final map may
represent the same data cloud, however looked at from a different viewpoint.
516
7. HOW GOOD IS THE REPRESENTATION OF THE DATA BY THE FOUND

COLLECTIONS OF THE CODEBOOK VECTORS
We now arrive at the most important part of our paper. We want to know what is the
practical meaning of the applied method. How good is the representation of the data
by the found codebook vectors? We would like to know what is the true location of
the codebook vectors in the data space. Best thing would be to see this location in
some graphs.
Below we show some graphs, which throw some light on our question. In Figure 7 we
show a matrix of scatterplots, which are displaying – for each pair of variables – the
distribution of the codebook points among the observed data points. The codebook
vectors were calculated from data standardized by variance. The data points
exhibited in the left and right panels are the same, however the codebook vectors are
different. In the left part of Figure 7 we have visualized the codebook vectors from the
first collection (counting m=280 elements). The right part of the figures shows
codebook points from the second collection counting m=120 elements only. Looking
at the figure one may see that the representation – especially in the scatterplots
vulnerability x slope – is very unsatisfactory.
Figure 8 the same but in 3-dimensional rotation plots. The 3-dimensional plot has the
advantage that it may be rotated yielding different views of the data cloud and the
representative codebook points therein.
map sM size 19x15 map sM1 size 12x10

100 100
slope
slope
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
drainage drainage
10 10
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 5 10 0 5 10
drainage drainage
10 10
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 50 100 0 50 100
slope slope
Figure 7. Scatterplots displaying distribution of the codebook points among the data points. Codebook
vectors were derived from data standardized by variance.
Left: codebook vectors from the map structure 19x15. Right: Codebook vectors from the map structure
12x10.
517
Data and 19x15 codebook vectors

10
8
Vulnerability
2
100 50 6 8 10
0 2 4
Slope Drainage
Data and 12x10 codebook vectors

10
8
Vulnerability
2
100 50 0 5 10
Slope Drainage
Figure 8. Three-dimensional plots of data vectors (marked by small diamonds) and collection of
representative codebook vectors (marked by enforced circles). The codebook vectors were obtained
from data standardized by variance.
Top: First collection of codebook vectors found from map of size 19x15. Bottom: Second collection of
codebook vectors found from map of size 12x10. One may observe the unsatisfactory coverage of the
data space by the codebook vectors.
518
We have catch an unfavorable view indicating that some parts of the data space are
badly covered by the found collection of the codebook vectors. This is especially
visible in the lower plot of Figure 8. one may observe that the representation of the
data by the smaller collection of codebook vectors (counting 120 elements only) is
much worse.
Analogous displays were constructed for codebook vectors obtained from data
standardized by range. The corresponding maps are shown in Figure 9 (scatterplot
matrix) and in Figure 10 (the corresponding 3D-plot). Looking at these figures one
might say that they exhibit very similar information as was already notified in Figures
7 and 8.
Generally, after inspecting Figures 7 – 10, we arrive at the conclusion, that the
representation of the data by the found collections of codebook vectors is not
satisfactory, at least for some regions of the data space. It may be stated that for
some regions − where there are many data points with almost the same data values
− there are also many Voronoi regions and many representative codebook points. On
the other hand, there are regions of the data space where the data points are
scarcer, and in such regions very few codebook points have been allocated.
map ssM size 19x15 map ssM1 size 12x10

100 100
slope
slope
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
drainage drainage
10 10
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 5 10 0 5 10
drainage drainage
10 10
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 50 100 0 50 100
slope slope
Figure 9. Distribution of the codebook points among the data points. The codebook vectors were
derived from data standardized by range. Left: codebook vectors from the map structure 19x15. Right:
Codebook vectors from the map structure 12x10.
519
Data and 19x15 codebook vectors from ssM

10
8
Vulnerability
2
100 80 60 40 20 5 10
0
Slope Drainage
Data and 12x10 codebook vectors from ssM

10
8
Vulnerability
2
100 80 60 40 20 5 10
0
Slope Drainage
Figure 10. Three-dimensional plots of data vectors (marked by small diamonds) and collection of
representative codebook vectors (marked by enforced circles). The codebook vectors were obtained
from data standardized by range. Top: First collection of codebook vectors found from map of size
19x15. Bottom: Second collection of codebook vectors found from map of size 12x10. One may
observe the unsatisfactory coverage of the data space by the displayed codebook vectors.
8. DISCUSSION AND FINAL REMARKS
We have analyzed a data set comprising n=3420 data vectors with the aim to obtain
a representative subset of the data. For this purpose we have applied the method of
520
Kohonen self-organizing maps. We have chosen in first place the method of self-
organizing maps, because this method allows for a nice planar representation of the
data with preserving most of the topology of the original data space.
This method permitted to subdivide the entire data space into a number of regions
(so called Voronoi regions). Each region has its representative codebook point, which
might be taken as representative of all data points belonging to that region.
The method is very fast, however after a careful analysis of the results (i.e. of the
spatial representation of the entire data set) we came to the conclusion that the
results are unsatisfactory for our goal. Therefore we have to look for other methods
of data reduction, at the cost of loosing the nice graphical representation preserving
the topology of the original data. One candidate method is the Neural Gas method,
which is considered in another paper (Bartkowiak et al., 2003).
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ANALYSIS OF LAND USE DISTRIBUTION IN THE

"IRON GATES" NATURAL PARK USING GIS METHODS1
Necşuliu Radu 1, Popescu Dan-Viorel 2

1
PhD Student, University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography
2
Research assistant, University of Bucharest,
Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies
radun5@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper analyses the land use distribution in the "Iron Gates" Natural Park, depending on altimetry,
slopes, aspect. The land use distribution was analysed using the digital map of the Natural Park
elaborated on the basis of the topographic maps 1:25000 with ESRI's Arcview GIS version 3.1 and the
ESRI extension - Spatial Analyst version 1.1.
The digital map consists of:
• a digital elevation model (grid cell size: 25 m);
• a polygon layer representing land use;
• a line layer representing the streams;
• a line layer representing the roads;
• a line layer representing the electric lines;
• several other layers representing settlements, railroads, isolated houses, etc.
The possible errors of the methodology, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the model
are described. The results of the analysis are explained by the geographical characteristics of the "Iron
Gates" Natural Park.
Keywords: land use, analysis, GIS methods, natural park, altimetry, slope range,
aspect conditions.
THE „IRON GATES” NATURAL PARK – GENERAL INFORMATION
The “Iron Gates” protected area was mentioned the first time as a national park in a
governmental order in 1990, and than as a natural park in an order of the Ministry of
Environment in 1998. It was also mentioned in the Law no. 5/2000 (which approves
the National Territory Planning – section Protected Areas). As it is quite new
protected area, not many researches on the Park have been made, although the
territory has been studied intensely (especially the area near the Danube – “The
Danube Gorges”).
The „Iron Gates” Natural Park is situated in the south-western part of Romania, near
the border with the former Yugoslavia, occupying an area of 115 655 ha. The
boundary of the „Iron Gates” Natural Park are: in the south - the navigable Danube
channel between the river Nera and the village Dudaşu Schelei; in the north - a more
complex boundary, which mostly follows the watershed of the tributaries to the
Danube that have the source in the Mountains Locva and Almăj.
The “Iron Gates” Natural Park includes territories from the following administrative
units (”communes”): Socol, Pojejena, Sasca Montană, Cărbunari, Gârnic, Coronini,
Şopotu Nou, Sicheviţa, Berzasca, Dubova, Sviniţa, Eşelniţa, Iloviţa, Brezniţa-Ocol
and the towns Drobeta Turnu Severin, Orşova and Moldova Nouă (see figure 1).
1
523
THE LAND USE IN THE “IRON GATES” NATURAL PARK
The forests occupy more than 70 % of the area in the "Iron Gates" Natural Park,
while the agricultural land occupies around 30.000 ha (which is 28 % of the „Iron
Gates” Natural Park total area). In communes Coronini and Socol there are the
greatest areas of agricultural terrain (around 75 % of the administrative territory),
while the smallest (under 15 % of the area) are in Dubova, Eşelniţa and Cărbunari
(where the forests have the largest extensions).
About 70 % of the agricultural areas are found on the territory of the county Caraş –
Severin (western part of the "Iron Gates" Natural Park), where the settlements’
density is a lot higher, and where the geographical conditions favoured the
development of the agriculture. In the county Mehedinţi, because of the uneven
topographic surface, the agricultural land occupies more restraint areas, situated
mostly on the terraces and near the Danube River.
The arable land occupies more than 9000 ha on the territory of the "Iron Gates"
Natural Park, the greatest areas (more than 1000 ha) being on the territory of
communes Coronini, Sicheviţa, Pojejena. The arable land is not very extended on the
territory of the towns Orşova, Drobeta Turnu Severin and of the communes Brezniţa-
Ocol, Eşelniţa, and Cărbunari.
The field observations carried out in the last years, in the frame of the LIFE NATURE
project "The Iron Gates Natural Park - Habitat Conservation and Management", lead
by the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact
Studies, revealed that there are some changes in the land use:
• a definite increase of the surface occupied by the constructed areas,

especially near the national roads and near the Danube;
• the vineyards and orchards have a very restraint area, because the population
received the land after the fall of the communist regime, and they could not
take care of them properly, so they preferred to use the land for other uses
(arable land, hayfields);
• the sterile and waste deposits occupy a much larger area, due to the intense
mining activities in the Moldova Nouă region
THE METHODOLOGY
This research had mainly the aim of developing a method for finding the relations
between the land use, the altitude, the slopes and the aspect of the surface. These
relations can be very helpful in the decision-making process (the Natural Park
administration and the local authorities will certainly need to make decisions about
the agricultural policy and the territorial planning with all the relevant information
available). Also, if applied with different sets of data (from different years), such a
study can provide very useful information on the land use changes in time,
particularly on the pattern of the changes).
In order to avoid days and days of work, necessary for measurements (using a polar
planimeter) of the areas of different categories of land use on altimetry steps, then on
524
the slopes and on the aspect of the surface, the use of the GIS tools can shorten the
work to only a few hours of summarizing data.
We used for our analysis the digital map of the "Iron Gates" Natural Park elaborated
by the Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies – University of
Bucharest, by digitising on-screen (using ESRI’s Arcview GIS version 3.1) the
topographic maps 1:25.000 made in the 1970’s, digital map that is composed of:
9 a digital elevation model (grid cell size: 25 m);
9 a polygon layer representing land use;
9 an arc layer representing the roads;
9 an arc layer representing the stream network;
9 a polygon layer representing the settlements
9 a polygon layer representing the area of the administrative units (“communes”)
9 a layer representing the park boundary
9 several other layers, representing isolated buildings, railroads, electric lines,

stream basins, geology, etc.
The main weakness of the digital map consists in the age of the data provided (more
than 20 years old), age that does not affect the method – it is true that the
conclusions drawn are not current, but they are correct for the time when the maps
were made.
The analysis of the land use categories was conducted using the ESRI Spatial
Analyst extension for Arcview GIS, elaborating for each administrative unit tables
showing the relation between the land use and the altimetry steps, slope and aspect.
The data were then summarized using Microsoft Excel 2000.
THE RELATION BETWEEN LAND USE AND ALTITUDE (see figure no. 2)
At low altitudes (below 100 m), the land use structure is the following: 31,4 % arable
land (very extended, thanks to the better climatic conditions, soil, slope, access from
the human settlements), about 15 % constructed area (this is where most of the
settlements in the "Iron Gates" Natural Park can be found), 17,8 % forest (this is the
part that was deforested, in order to gain space for the arable land and for the
settlements – the deforestation has continued after 1970, when the Iron Gates Dam
was built and some settlements have been moved), 8,8 % pastures, 8,3 % hay fields,
5 % vineyards and 1,5 % orchards, while the non-productive areas occupy 7,8 % of
the land below 100 m in altitude. This non-productive area is so big in the low
altitudes because of two reasons: first, the plain rock can be found especially in the
narrow sections of the Danube Valley: Pescari – Alibeg, Cazanele Mici şi Mari, Porţile
de Fier); second, in these areas the geomorphologic processes occur more
frequently and more intensely, because of the deforestation.
525
At altitudes of 100 – 200 m, there are some major changes in the land use, because
of the different geographic conditions: the forest already occupies more than 50 % of
the area, and the pastures (13,1 %) and the hay fields (12,4 %) become the
predominant agricultural land use. Arable lands only occupy 10,4 % of the area,
while the vineyards are found only on 3 % and orchards on 2 % of the land. The
constructed areas represent only 2,25 % of this altitudinal region.
The differences are even greater in the next step (200 – 400 m): the forest covers
more than 75 % of the area, hayfields (with 13,2 %) are far more widely met than
pastures (about 5%), while the arable land occupies only 1,7 % of this area. At 400 –
600 m, the percentage occupied by forests (80 %) and hayfields (12 %) are still the
greatest, but the arable land occupies 2,9 % of the area (this increase of arable land
is caused by the presence of some levelled surfaces or plateaus where the villages
Gârnic, Bigăr, Eibenthal and Baia Nouă are situated and the land around is used for
cultures – the constructed area is also bigger than in the 200 – 400 m region).
At altitudes above 600 m, the forests are even more extended (85 % at 600 – 800 m,
89 % at over 800 m), while the hayfields still represent around 8 % at 600 – 800 m,
and 6,7 % at more than 800 m). There are some pastures (3,8 %) and arable lands
(1,2 %) at 600 – 800 m altitude, but there are none at more than 800 m in altitude.
This is where the slopes are steeper, the access from the human settlements
becomes more difficult, and the only activity going on is chopping the trees (2,3 % of
the land with more than 800 m altitude is covered with cut forests).
This analysis revealed that, as it could be imagined, the arable land, vineyards,
orchards and the constructed areas are concentrated at lower altitudes, their weigh
decreasing in altitude (with the notable exception of the levelled surfaces at 400 –
600 m, that are more suitable for human settlements and agriculture than the steep
slopes predominant at 200 – 400 m), while the pastures and hayfields are met at
much higher altitudes (especially the hayfields, which do not require many conditions
such as slope, better possibilities of access, and that can be found because of that
even at altitudes over 800 m). It was interesting to discover that the unproductive
terrains are concentrated at altitudes below 100 m, while the area with cut forest
increases continuously with the altitude).
THE RELATION BETWEEN LAND USE AND SLOPE (see figure 3)
The analysis of the land use distribution in relation to the slope, there are some
patterns that can be observed. Thus, 48 % of the arable land is found in the areas
with less than 5 degrees slope, and 42 % in the areas with 5 to 15 degrees. The
remaining 10 % are founding areas with steeper slope (only 0,76 % at slopes greater
than 25 degrees). It is obvious that the steep slopes do not favour the crops, and that
the ploughing and the lack of trees can cause geomorphologic processes such as
land slides and creeping, and care should be taken for these regions, where the
ploughing should not be made down the hill but on the surface contours. The flatter
areas (with slopes under 5 degrees) are also favourable for vineyards (44 % of
vineyards can be found in these areas), although they are more extended on slopes
with 5 to 15 degrees (48 % of the vineyards).
The most suitable slopes for orchards seem to be the lands with slopes of 5 – 15
degrees, where 53 % of the orchards are met. The orchards are also spread in the
526
flat areas (19 %), but also in the steeper areas (25,5 % of them are met in areas with
15 – 25 degrees slope).
The constructed areas are present mainly in the flat areas (46 % on slopes under 5
degrees, 41 % on slopes of 5 –15 degrees), where there are less technical difficulties
and the general conditions are better for human activities. However, 11 % of the
constructed areas can be found on slopes of 15 –25 degrees (this happens because
the "Iron Gates" Natural Park is very fragmented, and on great areas you cannot find
flat areas suitable for settlements – so people adapted and constructed their
settlements in the best possible places).
The pastures and hayfields are widely spread on all the slopes. On the steeper
slopes (starting from 15 degrees), the hayfields are, however, preferred, because
there are more difficulties for the pasturing activity.
The forests can be found on any slope, but less on the flat terrain, more suitable for
constructed areas and agricultural terrains. They are mostly met on slopes of 25 – 50
degrees, where other land uses are hardly possible.
A land use structure for the area with 25 – 50 degrees shows that 92 % of the area is
occupied by forests, hayfields occupy about 4 %, and more than 2 % are occupied by
unproductive lands and 1 % by pastures. The other land use categories can be
neglected. This is a very good thing, because these slopes need to be protected by
vegetation, and if they would be deforested, landslides and landfalls would be
favoured.
THE RELATION BETWEEN LAND USE AND ASPECT
There is no obvious relation between the land use and the aspect, as surprisingly
most land use categories are not necessarily met on areas with south or west aspect.
The forests are less extended on the western slopes (only 66 % of the area with west
aspect) and more extended on the northern (72,85 %) and eastern (74,9 %) aspect
areas. In opposition, the arable land, vineyards, hayfields and pastures have a larger
extension in the regions with eastern aspect (see figure 4). Further investigations
regarding the suitability of the work are necessary.
PERSPECTIVES
The use of remote sensing (the only source of up to date and reliable data) and
image analysis tools can provide useful information on the present land use structure
in the “Iron Gates” Natural Park. The changes in the land use since the 1970’s can
then be mapped easily, and the diagrams and the cartographic materials can be
used by the authorities for the development of new agriculture policies.
527
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was conducted within a LIFE NATURE project "The Iron Gates Natural
Park - Habitat Conservation and Management" (LIFE00/NAT/RO/7171) lead by the
University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies.
REFERENCES
* * * (1969) – Geografia Văii Dunării Româneşti, Editura Academiei Române,

Bucureşti
* * * (1972) – Atlasul complex Porţile de Fier, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1976) – Geografia / Academia R.S.R. Grupul de Cercetări Complexe Porţile de

Fier, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1983) – Geografia României, vol. I Geografia fizică, Editura Academiei

Române, Bucureşti
* * * (1987) – Geografia României, vol. III Carpaţii Româneşti şi Depresiunea

Transilvaniei, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti
*** (1999) – Planul local de măsuri privind dezvoltarea durabilă şi reducerea poluării
mediului în Clisura Dunării
*** (1999) – Studiu privind gradul de poluare a apelor, aerului şi solului în Clisura
Dunării
CHISĂLIŢĂ, Ion (2001) – Cercetări privind stabilizarea haldelor de steril de la

Moldova Nouă cu ajutorul vegetaţiei forestiere şi influenţa acesteia asupra mediului,
rezumatul tezei de doctorat
GLĂVAN, V. (1976) – Consideraţii asupra rolului activităţilor antropice în dinamica

mediului înconjurător din SV Banatului, B.S.S.R., vol. IV
528
Figure no. 1
529
3%
8% 13%
15%
9%
8%
5%
2%
4%
31% 2%
5%
18% 77%
forest
arable land
pastures
a) below 100 m altitude c) at altitudes of 200-400 m
hayfields
vineyards
12% orchards
13%
10%
unproductive land
12% 5%
5% constructed areas
3%
2% other
2%
3%
53%
80%
b) at altitudes of 100-200 m d) at altitudes of 400-600 m

Figure no. 2 - The structure of land use at different altitudes
530
Distribution of forests on slope Distribution of arable land on slope
35 – 50 °
25 – 35 °
5% 0–5° 15 – 25 ° 1%
25 – 35 ° 7% 9%
20%
5 – 15 °
0–5°
32%
48%
5 – 15 °
42%
15 – 25 °
36%
Distribution of hayfields on slope

Distribution of pastures on slope
25 – 35 °
3% 0–5° 25 – 35 °
20% 5% 0–5°
15 – 25 ° 15%
22% 15 – 25 °
29%
5 – 15 °
5 – 15 °
51%
55%
Figure no 3 - Distribution of different land use categories on slope
531
4%
12% 11%
4%
0%
1% 1%
1% 14% 5% forest
5% 76% 1% hayfields
73% 1% 2%
arable land
3%
vineyards
orchards
pastures
a) North b) East constructed areas

other
12% 5% 13% 7%
1% 2%
1% 1%
6% 6%
70% 1% 65% 2%
4% 4%
c) South d) West
Figure no 4 – The structure of land use in regions with different aspect
532
STUDIES OF THE DARDANELLES’ DISCHARGE INTO THE NORTH

AEGEAN SEA USING SATELLITE DATA1
Lennart Jönsson
Dep of Water Resources Engineering, Univ of Lund, P.O.Box 118, S-221 00 Lund,
Sweden. Email: Lennart.Jonsson@tvrl.lth.se
ABSTRACT
NOAA AVHRR SST data from 1995 – 1998 and SeaWiFS ocean colour data from 1998 – 2002 have
been analyzed in order to study surface water transport processes and surface water quality in terms
of chl-a levels in the North Aegean Sea (NAS) with special emphasis on the discharge of water of
Black Sea origin into the NAS via the strait of the Dardanelles. SST data and chl-a data strongly
indicate that the discharge from the Dardanelles is often visible as a more or less well defined plume-
like feature extending far into the NAS. Satellite data indicate that there is a seasonal variability of the
initial transport pattern of the BSW in the NAS, often with transport to W/NW during Jan – May and
during Nov – Dec and with transport often more to the W/SW during July – Oct. This late summer
/autumn pattern is correlated with prevailing wind directions on Limnos island during this period. Basin
scale chl-a data from 1999 showed very clearly that the chl-a levels were significantly higher during
the whole year in NAS approximately north of the island of Limnos. Chl-a data from two N-S transects
off the mouth of the Dardanelles and from the western Sea of Marmara showed that there is a cyclic
variation of the levels with minima occurring within the period from middle of June to early September.
The temporal occurrence of the maxima was more difficult to distinguish but it seemed to be during
early April to early May.
Keywords: Remote sensing, water transport, water quality, Dardanelles, North

Aegean Sea, Black Sea
INTRODUCTION
The North Aegean Sea (NAS) is part of the Mediterranean Sea with Greece and
Turkey as bordering countries and constitutes a hydraulic link between the Black Sea
and the Mediterranean Sea. The hydrography and the water quality situation of NAS
are of scientific as well as practical interest, the latter due to the importance of
shipping, boating, commercial and recreational fishing, tourism of the area. Several
studies on the hydrographic conditions have been reported on the basis of in-situ
measurements, which, naturally, cannot provide a full spatial and temporal coverage
of the situation. Lately, results from computer modeling of circulation patterns have
also been published. The knowledge of the water quality situation is, however,
considerably smaller, especially the large-scale characteristics. Extensive areas of
the surface waters of the NAS are influenced by the less saline and relatively polluted
discharge from the strait of the Dardanelles originating from the Black Sea via the
Sea of Marmara (BSW). Thus, it is of great importance to study the discharge
characteristics from the Dardanelles in order to understand both the hydrographic
and the water quality situation in the NAS. Analysis of thermal and ocean color
satellite data has a good potential of providing additional mesoscale knowledge of
some aspects on the discharge characteristics as the density of the discharge is
lower than that of the surface layer of the NAS and as the temperature and the water
quality are different. The purpose of this paper is to present results from the analysis
1
533
of NOAA AVHRR Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data and, primarily, SeaWiFS
ocean color data in terms chlorophyll-a concentrations from the North Aegean Sea
concerning surface water transport patterns and water quality characteristics (chl-a)
with special emphasis on the discharge properties from the Dardanelles’ strait.
THE NORTH AEGEAN SEA
The North Aegean Sea, Fig 1, consists of two major sub-basins, the Athos basin to
the north with a maximum depth of about 1,500 m and south of it the Chios basin with
depths down to 1,000 m. The southern part of the Aegean Sea is made up of the
Cretan Sea, which is separated from the NAS by the Kiklades Plateau, where shallow
passages (~ 300 m) exist between the islands. The islands of Limnos and Imvros
are located off the mouth region of the strait of the Dardanelles. The monthly average
discharge from the Dardanelles is reported
Fig 1. Map of the North Aegean Sea
to be 5,000 – 15,000 m3/s with low flows in Nov–Jan and high flows in April-July
(Korafalou et al 2001). An overview of the oceanography of the Aegean Sea is given
by Poulus (Poulus et al 1997). In-situ measurements have been reported by several
authors (Zodiatis 1994), (POSEIDON System) and the analysis of these data indicate
a number of characteristics of the general hydrography and the seasonal flow pattern
– extensive upwelling off the Turkish coast in summertime, the thermohaline structure
of the upper layer of the Athos basin greatly affected by the BSW outflow with a
stable upper layer of an approximate depth of 40 m. The BSW influence can be
traced over extensive areas of the NAS – from the Dardanelles to the eastern coast
of Greece and also down to the Kiklades plateau. In wintertime BSW flows
534
westwards, mainly to the north of the Limnos island where summer/autumn shows a
more southwesterly flow direction.
The downstream part of the Dardanelles’ strait is shown in Fig 2, left, with a hydraulic
control at the smallest section at Nara Pass (D4). The width of the mouth at the
Aegean Sea is about 13 km and the depth about 50 m. The flow in the Dardanelles’
is of a two-layer, estuarine type with a less saline water (of the order of 20 0/00) in
the upper layer flowing towards the Aegean Sea and a more saline (of the order of 38
0/00) bottom water flowing towards the Sea of Marmara. Fig 2, right, shows an
example of the salinity transect from the mouth to the Sea of Marmara from March
1986 (Oguz et al 1989) evidencing the strong vertical salinity gradient and the
hydraulic controls at the Nara Pass (D4) and at the mouth (C7) where the upper layer
depth is about 10 m.
Fig 2. Top: Downstream part of the Dardanelles’ strait. Mouth at C7. Bottom: Salinity
transect from the mouth (C7) to the Sea of Marmara (D1) (Oguz et al 1989)
SATELLITE DATA
SeaWiFS ocean color satellite data are obtained in six visible and near infrared
channels with a spatial resolution of about 1,1 km at nadir. As the atmospheric
conditions in the NAS area are often favourable, a large number of useful SeaWiFS
scenes (more than a hundred) have been downloaded on a regular basis from the
data archive at NASA GSFC, USA. The analysis of the SeaWiFS data is essentially a
two-step procedure (besides the raw data calibration). Atmospheric correction is the
first step and a very important one, as about 80-90 % of the satellite signal is due to
atmospheric effects (molecular and aerosol scattering etc).
The L1A SeaWiFS data have been atmospherically corrected using the MUMM
method (from the Belgian Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Models),
see Ruddick et al (2000). Basically, this method assumes that the ratio of 765
nm:865 nm aerosol reflectances and water-leaving reflectances are spatially
homogeneous and can be considered as calibration parameters. After the
atmospheric correction step, water-leaving radiances are obtained which are used as
inputs to the chl-a algorithm in the software package SEADAS 4.0, (O,Reilly et al
2000):
535
chl = exp(2.303(0.366 − 3.067 R + 1.930 R 2 +

+ 0.649 R 3 − 1.532 R 4 ))
where chl = chl-a concentration in mg/m3 and R = maximum of 10 log of ratios of

normalized water leaving radiances for 443/555, 490/555 and 510/555 nm
respectively.
NOAA AVHRR data have got a spatial resolution of 1.1 km at nadir and were directly
downloaded at a receiving station at the University of Lund. As there are several
NOAA satellites orbiting at any given moment, it was possible to obtain data several
times a day. The data are obtained in the visible band, near infrared band and in the
far infrared band. The two channels in the last category (ch4: 10.5 – 11-5 µm and
ch5: 11.5 – 12.5 µm) were used to determine the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) on
the basis of the brightness temperatures for these two channels as input to the split-
window algorithm (Jönsson 2000).
SEASONAL NOAA SST IMAGES FROM THE NORTH AEGEAN SEA
A large number of NOAA AVHRR images from 1995 to 1998 have been analyzed in
terms of SST with a 0.3 0C resolution basically using the temperature as a tracer for
water transport patterns and flow phenomena. The former aspect was mainly related
to the seasonal transport
Fig 3a,b c. NOAA AVHRR SST images of the North Aegean Sea. Left: N-14, 98-02-
21 at 1226 GMT. Middle: N-12, 97-09-14 at 0504 GMT. Right: N-12, 95-12-21 at
0540 GMT.
pattern of the discharge of BSW water via the strait of the Dardanelles and the extent
of BSW affected surface water areas in the NAS. The latter aspect concerned the
upwelling phenomenon off the western Turkish coast. Figs 3a,b,c show three
examples of the variability of the transport pattern from February (total span 11.5 –
18.7 0C), September (total span 17.5 – 24.3 0C) and December (total span 9.0 – 15.8
0
C) respectively. Magenta colour represents cold water, blue-green colour represents
warm water. On the basis of 34 NOAA AVHRR SST scenes (1995 – 1998)
representing all months of the year the following transport pattern of the BSW was
536
found: during Jan-May and Nov-Dec the BSW discharge is mainly directed to the
west/northwest passing through the islands of Limnos and Imvros. During July-Oct
the transport is mainly directed to the southwest, south of the two islands. June and
Oct might be transitional months. It was also observed that extensive upwelling takes
place off the Turkish coast, south of the mouth of the Dardanelles, during July-Oct.
No upwelling during the rest of the year. Moreover it was found that extensive areas
of the northern part of the NAS (north of Limnos and Imvros) are characterized by the
BSW during periods with BSW transport to the west/northwest (Jönsson 2000).
SEAWIFS CHL-A IMAGES FROM THE NORTH AEGEAN SEA – BASIN SCALE
CHARACTERISTICS
Several hundred SeaWiFS NAS scenes from 1998 up to the end of 2002 have been
processed as to the chl-a levels. Figs 4a,b,c,d give examples of the mesoscale
seasonal chl-a patterns in the NAS. As the BSW is eutrophic with considerably higher
chl-a contents than the NAS water, it is also possible to get an insight into the
variability of the initial transport pattern of the BSW from the mouth of the
Dardanelles and the extent of influence of the BSW on the surface waters of the
northern NAS. The high chl-a contents of the BSW discharge from the
Fig 4a,b,c,d. Top left: 1999-04-18. Top right: 1999-06-15. Bottom left: 1999-09-30.
Bottom right: 1999-10-29. All images received at about 1000-1100 GMT. Colour
scale: 0 – 10 mg chl-a/m2
537
Dardanelles is evident and, moreover, it is obvious that the BSW affects extensive
parts of the northern NAS throughout the year. Thus, Fig. 4a shows a level of about
1.5 mg chl-a/m3 in the eastern part whereas the levels in the western part are of the
order of 0.4 mg chl-a/m3. Levels in the south (bluish) amount to about 0.15 mg chl-
a/m3. Averaging the chl-a contents in two large areas north and south of Limnos
approximately, Fig 5a, for more than 40 scenes from 1999, one obtains the diagram
shown in Fig 5b. The squares correspond to the upper, red rectangular area in Fig 5a
and the crosses correspond to the lower, green rectangular area in Fig 5b. The
results could be summarized as follows: In the first place it is very obvious that the
chl-a concentration is significantly higher in the northern rectangular area during the
whole year with levels of 0.5–1.1 mg/m3 to be compared with levels of 0.2–0.4 mg/m3
in the southern rectangular area. Secondly, there is a rather distinct seasonal
variation of the chl-a levels, especially in the northern part with the most enhanced
levels from about late January to early April. This fact does not seem to correlate very
well with the discharge characteristics of the upper layer of the Dardanelles with
maximum discharges during April to July.
Fig 5 a,b. Areas for averaging of chl-a levels during 1999. Red rectangle (north),
green rectangle (south). Variation of the chl-a concentration in the two rectangles
during 1999. Squares (north), crosses (south)
DIRECTIONAL DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BSW AND WIND

PROPERTIES
A systematic, qualitative study of a large number of SeaWiFS scenes from the years
1998 – 2002 shows that one can trace the transport of BSW via the Dardanelles far
into the NAS due to enhanced chl-a levels (Jönsson 2002). Visual inspection of the
chl-a patterns indicates that there seems to be several transport patterns with two
dominating types, one with an initial transport to the west and then to the northwest
between the two islands of Limnos and Imvros and the second one with a more
westerly transport towards and even south of Limnos. Fig. 6 shows the result of a
characterization of the transport pattern for the year 1999 according to five different
classes (based on a visual judgement according to chl-α patterns) – transport to
north (N) along the Turkish coast, transport to west–northwest (N-NV) between the
islands of Limnos and Imvros, transport to west (V) towards Limnos, transport
538
towards west-westsouthwest (V-VSV) partly along the southern coast of Limnos and
finally transport towards west-southwest (V-SV) south of Limnos. There is a distinct
seasonal variation with transport to the west-northwest between the islands of
Limnos and Imvros from January to the beginning of June and from the middle of
October to December. During summer, July to October, the transport is mainly
towards Limnos and beyond it, mainly passing the southern coast of Limnos. These
transport pattern findings do approximately agree with results based on NOAA SST
studies (Jönsson, 2000).
A comparison with ECMWF wind data from 1999 for the island of Limnos showed
that there seemed to be a correlation between the more southerly BSW transport
direction summer/autumn with prevailing winds from the north to northeast during
late May to early October.
Fig 6. Transport pattern of BSW water in the NAS for the year 1999 according to chl-
α patterns in SeaWiFS scenes.
CHL-A CHARACTERISTICS AT THE MOUTH REGION OF THE DARDANELLES
Almost all available SeaWiFS scenes from 1998 up to late 2002 were analyzed in
order to obtain the seasonal chl-a characteristics in the mouth region of the
Dardanelles. One reason was to check the relation with the mesoscale chl-a
characteristics in the northern NAS, Fig 5a,b. A second reason was to indicate that
the enhanced chl-a levels in the mouth region were due to discharge from the
Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmara. A third reason was to provide quantitative data
of the water quality in terms of chl-a levels in the BSW discharge water, this
obviously being a very important source for the surface water quality conditions in
the northern NAS. Each SeaWiFS scene was analyzed as to the maximum chl-a
concentration in the BSW plume from the Dardanelles along two N-S transects in the
NAS, the first one about 15 km (longitude 25.980) off the very mouth and the second
one about 5 km (longitude 26.100) from the mouth. Moreover, the average chl-a
concentration was determined in a 3x3 pixel size area in the western Sea of
Marmara (latitude 40.600, longitude 27.350).
The discharge from the Dardanelles, using chl-a as a tracer, was most often visible
as a more or less distinct plume-like feature extending far into the NAS thus making
539
it possible to determine the above-mentioned maxima. Fig 7 shows an example of

such a plume and with the chl-a levels across eight different transects –
approximately 35, 25, 20, 15, 6, 4, 2, 0 km respectively from the very mouth of the
Dardanelles. Each transect comprises the horizontal axis from pixel number 100 to
number 200 (about 100 km) and on the vertical axis the chl-a concentration is
depicted (0 – 1.5 mg chl-a/m3). The plume shows up as the narrow peak at about
pixel number 140-150 monotonously decreasing from 1.7 mg chl-a/m3 at the mouth
to about 1.0 mg chl-a/m3 35 km from the mouth with a simultaneous widening of the
plume-like feature from a width of about 13 km at the mouth corresponding to the
width of the strait at this point, Fig 2. The background chl-a concentration of the NAS
water outside the plume (from pixel number 100 up to the plume) is about 0.5 mg
chl-a/m3. Zero chl-a values are due to land or clouds. The corresponding SeaWIFS
image was obtained 1999-06-06 and the mouth area of this image is shown in Fig 8
with the colour scale comprising the interval 0 – 1.5 mg chl-a/m3 (the latter number
with the magenta colour).
Fig 7. SeaWiFS MUMM 1999-06-06. Chl-a levels along N-S transects off the mouth of the
Dardanelles
Thus, Fig 7 shows, that the maximum value of the chl-a concentration is fairly easy to
determine for most scenes for N-S transects through the plume. The two transects 15
km and 5 km from the mouth respectively correspond to the fourth and the fifth
diagram in Fig 7. Fig 9 shows the result of the analysis of the SeaWiFS scenes from
1998 up to late 2002. Red crosses correspond to the maximum chl-a value along the
transect 15 km from the mouth, blue dots correspond to the maximum chl-a value 5
km from the mouth and green squares correspond to the average chl-a level in a 3x3
pixel area in the western Sea of Marmara. As weather conditions are not favourable
for satellite detection all around the year, the density of measurement points varies
throughout a year.
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Fig 8. Enhancement of SeaWiFS chl-a image for the plume analysis in Fig 7
Fig 9. Chl-a data related to the Dardanelles from 1998 – 2002. Red crosses:
Maximum value along N-S transect 15 km from the mouth. Blue dots: Maximum
value along N-S transect 5 km from the mouth. Green rectangles: Average value in a
3x3 pixel area in the western Sea of Marmara
541
There is also a fair amount of scatter. In spite of these drawbacks a visual inspection
of the blue dots (5 km from the mouth) reveals a cyclic variation of the chl-a level,
especially as far as the lowest concentrations are concerned. The five low chl-a
periods during the five years occur approximately in the beginning of September
(1998), the end of August (1999), middle of June (2000), middle of July (2001),
beginning of September (2002) respectively. The same goes approximately for the
low periods for the 15 km transect and, less obvious, for the Sea of Marmara. High
chl-a value periods are somewhat more difficult to distinguish. However, there seems
to be maxima in the beginning of April (1999), end of April (2000), beginning of May
(2001) for instance. The chl-a levels vary approximately between 0.8 and 2 mg chl-
a/m3 for the 5 km transect, approximately between 0.7 and 1.7 mg chl-a/m3 for the 15
km transect and approximately between 1 and 3 mg chl-a/m3 for the Sea of Marmara.
Fig 10 shows the difference between the chl-a concentrations in the Sea of Marmara
and in the 15 km transect (blue circles) and the difference between the chl-a
concentrations in the 5 km transect and in the 15 km transect (red crosses)
respectively based on the measurements in Fig 9. A visual inspection shows that
almost all points represent differences > 0 and by far the majority of the blue circles
are situated above the red crosses, indicating that the chl-a concentration most of the
time is the highest in the Sea of Marmara, smaller at the 5 km transect and smallest
at the 15 km transect.
Fig 10. Difference between chl-a levels at the three locations in Fig 9
This fact is a strong indication that the chl-a properties in the plume-like feature are
related to the Sea of Marmara water and thus the BSW.
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The basin scale chl-a minimum in the northern NAS, Fig 5b, occurs approximately in
late August/early September for the year 1999 which correlates well with the
minimum chl-a level off the mouth of the Dardanelles, Fig 9. The basin scale
maximum seems to occur during March, Fig 5b, which coincides fairly well with the
maximum chl-a level off the mouth of the Dardanelles, Fig 9.
CONCLUSION
NOAA AVHRR SST data from 1995 – 1998 and SeaWiFS ocean colour data from
1998 – 2002 have been analyzed in order to study surface water transport processes
and surface water quality in terms of chl-a levels in the North Aegean Sea (NAS) with
special emphasis on the discharge of water of Black Sea origin (BSW) into the NAS
via the strait of the Dardanelles. SST data and chl-a data strongly indicate that the
discharge from the Dardanelles is often visible as a more or less well defined plume-
like feature extending far (more than 35 km) into the NAS. Chl-a data along two N-S
transects off the mouth region of the Dardanelles also strongly indicate that this
discharge is characterized by Sea of Marmara and thus Black Sea Water. It was
further found that there is a seasonal variability of the initial transport pattern of the
BSW in the NAS, often with transport to W/NW during Jan – May and during Nov –
Dec and with transport often more to the W/SW during July – Oct. ECMWF wind data
(prevailing wind directions from the north or northeast) from the island of Limnos
seemed to correlate fairly well with the late summer/autumn transport pattern of the
initial BSW transport patterns during the same period. SST data strongly indicate the
existence of extensive upwelling of cold water off the Turkish coast, partly interacting
with the discharge from the Dardanelles, during late summer/autumn. There were,
however, no signs of any enhanced chl-a levels during the upwelling periods. Basin
scale chl-a data from 1999 showed very clearly that the chl-a levels were significantly
higher during the whole year in NAS approximately north of the island of Limnos. The
highest levels , ~ 1.0 mg chl-a/m3, were found during late January/early April and
the lowest levels, ~ 0.5 mg chl-a/m3, during late August/early September. Chl-a data
from two N-S transects off the mouth of the Dardanelles and from the western Sea of
Marmara showed that there is a cyclic variation of the levels with minima occurring
within the period from middle of June to early September (the actual time for the
minimum was a bit different for each of the five years analyzed). The temporal
occurrence of the maxima was more difficult to distinguish but it seemed to be during
early April to early May. As a general conclusion one could state that the use of SST
and chl-a data derived from satellite data provides a unique opportunity to study
mesoscale surface water transport patterns and water quality conditions in the NAS.
REFERENCES
Jönsson, L. 2000: “Hydrodynamic phenomena in the North Aegean Sea derived from
NOAA AVHRR and CZCS ocean colour data”. Report nr 3230, Dep of Water
Resources Engineering, Univ of Lund, Sweden
Jönsson, L. 2002: “Studies of chlorophyll-a levels in the North Aegean Sea using
SeaWiFS data”. Proc EARSeL 2002 conference, Prague, 4-6 June 2002
Kourafalou, V., Barbopoulus, K. 2001. High resolution simulations on the North

Aegean Sea seasonal circulation. Annales Geophysicae.. Submitted June 2001
543
Oguz, H., Sur, I. 1989. A two-layer model of water exchange through the Dardanelles
strait. Oceanologica Acta, Vol 12, No 1: 23-31
O’Reilly, J. et al 2000. Volume 11, SeaWiFS Postlaunch Calibration and Validation

Analyses, Part 3 (chapters 1 and 2). In: SeaWiFS Postlaunch Technical Report
Series, NASA Technical Memorandum 2000-206892, Volume 11
Poseidon System, Monitoring, Forecasting and Information System for the Greek
Seas, National Center of Marine Research, Laboratory of Oceanography, Hellenikon,
Greece. Internet: http://www.poseidon.ncmr.gr
Poulos, S.E., Drakopoulus, P.G., Collins, M.B. 1997. Seasonal variability in sea
surface oceanographic conditions in the Aegean Sea (Eastern Mediterranean): an
overview. J. Mar. Systems: 225-244
Ruddick, K., Ovidio, F., Rijkeboer,M. 2000. Atmospheric correction of SeaWiFS
imagery for turbid coastal and inland waters. Applied Optics, 39(6):897-912
Zodiatis, G. 1994. Advection of the Black Sea Water into the North Aegean Sea. The
Global Atmosphere and Ocean System (2)1: 41-60
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APPLICATION OF LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM AND

REMOTE SENSING IMAGERY FOR THE ROMANIAN TERRITORY1
Gabriela Borto, Ana Ursanu,

Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy
12 Dimitrie Racovita str., sector 3, Bucharest, Romania
phone: ++40 21 3135990, fax: ++ 40 21 311124, e-mail: geoinst@rnc.ro
ABSTRACT
Updating and mapping land use information is becoming increasingly important for the studies related to
environment in general and to global change in particular. The paper presents a new methodology of land
cover and land use mapping for Romanian territory, based on procession of Landsat 7 satellite images
and on the GIS tools, using the new Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) developed by FAO (Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). LCCS is applicable at any scale and allows
correlation with existing classifications and legends so that the system could serve as an internationally
agreed reference base for land cover. The methodology regarding the inventory of land use and land
cover using remote sensing imagery for the agrarian reform has been recently applied and completed for
the Romanian case-study by CRUTA (the Romanian Center for Using Remote Sensing Imagery in
Agriculture) within a FAO project.
Keywords: land use, land cover, remote sensing, methodology, Romania.
BACKGROUND
Updating and mapping land cover and land use information is becoming increasingly
important for the studies related to environment in general and to global change in
particular. The action plan called Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) from Rio de Janeiro in 1992, includes among
its outlined key objectives, one that was and still is to reverse the lack of reliable
information on current status and trends of land cover which is a major obstacle for
achieving sustainable economic development. This kind of information is imperative in
order to define sustainable land use systems that are best suited for each place. Land
needs to be better matched to its uses to increase production, while at the same time
attempting to protect the environment, biodiversity, and global climate systems. It is
therefore essential to have detailed data on potentials and limitations of the present
uses. This information is required in many aspects of land use planning and policy
development, as a prerequisite for monitoring, modeling and environmental change, and
as a basis for land use statistics at all levels.
From Agenda 21, the way forward was dependent upon the following key factor: the use
of remote sensing and GIS technologies for coordinated, systematic and harmonized
collection and assessment of data on land cover and environmental degradation.
Technological advances, such as the vast amount of remote sensing data having
1
545
become available from earth observation satellites, make it increasingly possible to

map, evaluate and monitor land cover and land use over wide areas.
Thus, a first priority would be to create a globally acceptable land cover classification
system from which a global land cover network could be created in a second phase and
established in order to harmonize the various mapping and monitoring activities
worldwide.
FAO/UNEP LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
At present there is no internationally accepted land cover classification system, nor a

global agreement on the definition of land use and land cover concepts. As a result
many classification systems and innumerable map legends exist, and maps and
statistics from different countries, and in many cases even from the same country, are
incompatible with each other.
To date, the most commonly used system was among others the USGS developed by
the USA in 1976, or CORINE classification, developed especially for the Mediterranean
countries. They use pre-defined land cover classes as all other systems but very often
there are differences between the definitions and extent of same types of land cover
classes.
FAO and UNEP have started to bring about a most needed synergy among land cover
mapping projects. Both organizations have laid the foundation for a universal
classification system based on innovative concepts, acceptable to main stakeholders
and globally applicable.
Many other institutions and organizations in the world are already involved in
discussions while developing the classification and related tools in order to reach
consensus on a basis of clear and concise definition of land cover and land use and to
create a system which could act as a widely accepted global reference base:
• US Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee
• US Federal Geographic Data Committee, Earth Cover Working Group
• United Nations Environment Programme
• CESD-Communautaire's Land Use Programme - Multi-Purpose Information

Systems on Land Cover and Land-use
• International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Data Information System (IGBP-

DIS)
• International Geosphere Biosphere Programme and International Human

Dimensions Programme, Land Use and Cover Change (IGBP-IHDP LUCC)
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• International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) - Modeling Land-Use

and Land-Cover Changes in Europe and Northern Asia (LUP)
• South African National Land Cover Database Project
These contacts facilitate the exchange of ideas and aim at joint concept development.
The Land Cover Classification System (LCCS) is based on independent and

universally valid land cover diagnostic criteria rather than on a pre-defined set of land
cover classes, a key aspect in making this system highly flexible providing a
comprehensive land cover characterization regardless of mapping scale, land cover
type, data collection method and/or geographic location. LCCS will thus have a high
applicability in all climatic zones and environmental conditions and also will be highly
compatible with the existing classification systems.
The classification concepts of the new Land Cover Classification System (LCCS)
were developed, discussed and approved by the Africover Working Group on
Classification and Legend with support from French trust fund (Di Gregorio & Jansen,
1996; FAO, 1997). This Working Group gave FAO the mandate to fully develop the
proposed classification. The first full operational version of the classification and its
software program has been developed for implementation by the Italian trust fund
GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover-East Africa Project, based in Nairobi, in collaboration with
the Soil Resources Management and Conservation Service (AGLS).
The LCCS software program contains four different Modules. These are:
¾ Classification: land cover classes are defined by the combination of a set of

independent classifiers, which are hierarchically arranged and which can be
linked with environmental and specific discipline related attributes.
¾ Legend: storage of defined land cover classes according to the domains to

which these classes belong. This module allows export of data in commonly used
file formats and allows users to add user-defined names to the provided standard
names.
¾ Field Data: storage of the detailed field survey information and automated
classification of the data. Retrieval and edit functions exist.
¾ Translator: comparison and correlation of classifications and/or legend through

the reference classification is possible at the level of the classifiers and entire
classes.
LCCS is a standardized a priori classification system, created for mapping exercises

and independent of the scale or means used to map. The proposed classification uses a
set of independent diagnostic criteria (classifiers), hierarchically arranged to assure a
high degree of geographical accuracy; that allow correlation with existing
classifications/legends, consequently, the system could serve as an internationally
agreed reference base for land cover. The methodology is applicable at any scale and
547
is comprehensive in the sense that any land cover identified anywhere in the world can
be easily accommodated. The rearrangement of land cover classes, based on
regrouping of the used classifiers, facilitates the extensive use of the outputs by a wide
variety of end-users. The system has been designed with two main phases: an initial
dichotomous phase, where eight major land cover types are distinguished, followed by
a subsequent modular-hierarchical phase in which land cover classes are created by
the combination of sets of predefined classifiers tailored to each major land cover type.
This approach allows the use of the most appropriate classifiers and reduces the total
number of impractical combinations of classifiers. Because of the complexity of the
classification and the need for standardization, a software application has been
developed to assist the interpretation process. Because of the flexible manner in which
the classification is set up, with creation of classes at different levels of the system and
the optional use of modifiers, environmental attributes and specific technical attributes in
combination, coupled with the tremendous number of classes possible, this innovative
software application assists the user to select the appropriate class using a step-by-step
process, i.e., classifier by classifier (fig. 1 - Overview of the LCCS, its two main phases
and the classifiers, from Di Gregorio, Jansen, 2000).
The classification system leads to mutually exclusive land cover classes, which
comprise (1) a unique Boolean formula (a coded string of classifiers used); (2) a
standard name; and (3) a unique numerical code. Both the numerical code and the
standard name can be used to build an automatically generated legend, with the
classes created grouped according to the main land cover categories and their domains
according to the level of detail. The nomenclature can be linked to a user-defined name
in any language.
Further definition of the land cover class can be achieved by adding attributes. Two
types of attributes, which form separate levels in the classification, are distinguished:
• Environmental attributes (these are attributes – e.g., climate, landform, altitude,

soil, lithology, and erosion – which influence land cover but are not inherent
features of it and should not be mixed with “pure” land cover classifiers)
• Specific technical attributes (these are associated with specific technical

disciplines – e.g., for (semi)-natural vegetation, the floristic aspect can be added;
for cultivated areas, the crop type, and for bare soil, the soil type).
All primarily vegetated land cover classes are derived from a consistent physionomic-
structural conceptual approach that combines the classifiers life form, cover and height
(in (semi)-natural vegetation) and life form (in cultivated areas) with spatial distribution.
The primarily non-vegetated classes have a similar approach, using classifiers that
deal with surface aspects, distribution/density and height/depth.
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND COVER AND LAND USE
Land cover and land use both describe the terrestrial environment in natural and
human-activity-related terms, respectively. The common integrated approach adopted in
the LCCS, defines land cover as the observed (bio) physical cover on the earth’s
surface, but, in addition, it is emphasized that land cover must be considered a
geographically explicit feature which other disciplines may use as a geographical
reference (e.g., for land use, climatic and ecological studies) (Antonio Di Gregorio, Luisa
J. M. Jansen, 2000). Land cover may be of natural origin, such as forest glaciers, rivers
or bare soil; it may also be created by LU, e.g., buildings, roads, or water reservoirs.
land use refers to the manner in which these biophysical assets are used by people
(Cihlar and Jansen, 2001). Land use is characterized by the arrangements, activities
and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain
it. There is a close relationship between land cover and land use. Moreover, land
characteristics influence the performance of a certain LU. However, land use and land
cover are not identical, and the knowledge of land cover may not define land use. For
example, vegetated areas are frequently described in terms of physiognomy and
structure (e.g., different types of forest, woodland, grassland) without specification of
their use as plantations, agroforestry, protected wildlife habitats, revegetated mining
areas, and so on.
A reference classification system for land use will be developed and linked to the
developed Land Cover Classification System (LCCS). This system should enable a
variety of end-users to use the results for their specific application (e.g. from rural
planning to statistics). Creation of such a system would enable intercomparison of
existing data and a harmonized approach of data collection in areas where this
information is not available or obsolete. A land use product at a small scale using this
reference classification system should be made available to the international research
community.
A consolidated effort should also be made to collect more detailed land use information
and to use it in a variety of applications related to resources planning and management.
This type of land use information to be used for national and local planning of
sustainable land use systems will need to be much more detailed (for example at
1:100,000 scale) implying the need for financial resources. Awareness should be
created internationally and nationally that one cannot attempt to effectively protect the
environment, biodiversity and global climate systems if one of the key elements of
information to do so is unavailable.
REMOTE SENSING IN LAND COVER MAPPING
Remote sensing has become an important tool for the development of environmental
databases and decision-support tools, environmental analysis and natural resources
management
Remote sensing covers all the techniques related to the analysis and use of data from
satellites such as Landsat TM, SPOT, ERS, etc., and from aerial photographs. The
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main objective of the remote sensing is to map and monitor the earth’s resources.
Compared with traditional survey techniques, satellite remote sensing is accurate, fast
and cost-effective.
High-resolution satellite data, Landsat TM or SPOT combined with data from other
sources (thematic maps at various scales) provide new possibilities for land cover and
land-use analysis. By comparison with classical methods (topographic measurements,
aerial photogrammetry, etc.), satellite data offer a range of advantages:
• They allow the analysis of land cover and land use over large areas – thousands
of hectares or more in a single image
• Satellite images can be acquired over the same area at a high rate of repetition,
thus permitting selection of the most appropriate seasonal data
• Satellite data are recorded in various wavelengths, visible and non-visible, which
provide accurate information on ground conditions
• They can be acquired without encountering administrative restrictions.
The basic principles of the satellite images’ interpretation are related to the spectral
reflectance curve of the different surfaces (fig.2).
Fig.2. Spectral reflectivity curves of natural surfaces and position of the spectral bands
in the two most important Earth resources mapping satellites (Giuliana Profeti, 2002,
modified after Richards, 1993)
Three main categories of reflective surfaces are easily recognizable from their curves:
bare soils, water and vegetation. From their shape it is easily noticed that:
550
• Water absorbs the majority of incident radiation in the visible, reflecting less than
10% of it, and the absorbed percentage reach 100% in the infrared wavelength.
• The reflectivity of the soils increases at increasing wavelength; the intense

absorption of radiant energy by soil moisture causes a series of minims, centered
approximately at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 µm.
• Vegetation has a reflectance peak in the green band of the visible and a
minimum in the red region, related to the selective absorption by chlorophyll, but
it is greatly higher in the near infrared.
THE NEED FOR A NEW LAND COVER MAP IN ROMANIA
Land cover and land use maps are a necessary tool for development planning and
management of the territory. Furthermore, land cover maps, depicting the current reality
are a must in Romania, where, due to political changes, rapid dynamic phenomena
have taken place, resulting in a complete restructuring of the major economic sectors.
This is particularly the case for agriculture. The hurried upland distribution carried out
separately by each county (judet) had the effect that the number of landowners was
multiplied by almost 2,000. Now, 80% of the country's agricultural acreage has been
split up and divided between 5,500,000 new individual private owners, the average size
of private holdings being approximately less than 2.0 ha. The main effect of this process
was the high fragmentation of the land, with a current estimated number of parcels to be
adjudicated, demarcated, surveyed and registered, exceeding 40 millions. The resulting
strip farming and fragmentation, particularly in the plain areas, created parcels of
typically only a few meters wide by hundreds of meters long. In the hilly areas, where
the land quality is more varied and where physical boundaries remained intact, the
subdivision of small fields and vineyards created even greater fragmentation. Large
agricultural areas, often irrigated, have been abandoned. On the other hand, huge state
farms have been subdivided into small parcels now cultivated to a variety of subsistence
crops.
This important transformation of the agricultural structures has major consequences for
Romania: the former cadastre needs to be completely updated; information on
agricultural production is difficult to be located. The massive land distribution was not
accompanied by any initiative to update on modern basis the objective information
about the changes of the land cover/land use. For a large agricultural country such as
Romania, the knowledge of the land cover /land use/ cropped areas of the different
regions has not only a basic value for development planning, but mainly an economic
and social importance.
The EU Corine Land Cover program, which has been also adopted by Romania,
produced a 1:100 000 scale database from Landsat TM 1989-1991 satellite imagery.
This information was, at the time, a good support for environmental applications but,
since the map legend was not suited for agriculture and also because the satellite
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imagery was acquired before the land distribution process, the Corine maps do not
provide any useful information to the agricultural sector.
As remote sensing is definitely the technology which could provide objectively the
needed information with accuracy, in limited time and at comparable low cost, the
Ministry of Agriculture requested FAO assistance for the generation of the needed
database on land cover/land use of the whole country and for the transfer of the
appropriate technology. The resulting project is "TCP/ROM/2801: “Land cover/land use
inventory by remote sensing for agricultural reform", developed by CRUTA (Romanian
Centre for Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture) and ROSA (the Romanian
Space Agency) with an interdisciplinary staff consisting of geographers, cartographers,
mathematicians. In this framework, recent appropriate methodologies for land
cover/land use inventory by satellite have been transferred by on-the-job training, the
equipment has been complemented and upgraded and recent satellite data is provided.
The immediate objectives of the project are:
1. To provide the Ministry of Agriculture with an objective and accurate database

on the present land cover of the whole country including detailed land cover/land
use maps and also larger scale information for areas of particular agricultural
interest.
2. To strengthen the capacity of the remote sensing group of CRUTA staff and
other staff from the Ministry of Agriculture, the Institute of Geography and the
Institute of Pedology to apply internationally recognized methodologies on land
cover/land use mapping by satellite remote sensing and GIS technologies.
3. To transfer the know-how and practical applications of high resolution optical

remote sensing, GIS based methodologies and LCCS to the staff assigned to
project through formal and on-the-job training.
The achievement of these objectives will create the basis for the availability of accurate
baseline information on land cover/land use and associated land characteristics, thus
enabling the country to prepare and implement sound agricultural development plans,
including criteria for land consolidation. The project will be a complementary data
source for the World Bank project for cadastre undertaken by the National Office for
Cadastre, Geodesy and Cartography (ONCGC) and also an important support for the
planned agricultural census to be realized by the National Institute for Statistics (INS).
The on-the-job training will strengthen the capacity of the remote sensing staff of
ROSA/CRUTA in satellite data interpretation and GIS enabling them to provide, through
the links established by this project, accurate information/data and services to the
Ministry of Agriculture and other country institutions, firstly on the current land
cover/land use situation and later on water resources, forestry, land degradation and
other subjects relevant to the sustainable development of the country agriculture and
renewable natural resources.
The specific outputs of the activities undertaken during this project will be:
552
1. The production of land cover maps of the whole country and detailed land
cover/land use maps for few areas of particular interest. This output will be an
essential input to the land redistribution and the improved agricultural planning
process. This will be achieved through interpretation of the most recent satellite
data, integrated by field observations and/or other available information. Inventory
results will be at 1:50 000 scale for the national coverage and at 1:25 000 scale for
the selected areas. Land cover classification will be according to the FAO Land
Cover Classification System (LCCS). Data will be provided to the Ministry of
Agriculture both in graphic form (maps) and also in digital form, to constitute a
database for the Ministry itself, but also to provide complementary GIS information
to the National Office for Cadastre, Geodesy and Cartography in charge of the
finalization of the land redistribution process.
2. The production of a comprehensive database for the whole country, by adding

to each land cover mapped unit (polygon) as attributes, information on soil types,
land erosion features and municipal/district boundaries.
3. Approximately ten people having background on remote sensing and GIS have
received specialized on-the-job training performed by the project's consultants.
The project activities facilitating the transfer of a modern technology on satellite
mapping of land cover/land use, specifically based on the considerable FAO
experience on this subject will constitute a good basis for the sustainable
development of remote sensing applications in the country.
The on-going activities are mapping of land cover at 1:50 000 scale from the satellite
data (Landsat) interpretation. The scale of such maps is large enough to provide
detailed information, and it allows for regional assessment, statistics and subsequent
planning.
The maps are prepared using Landsat TM satellite data, acquired in 2000, as the main
data source and thus represent the land cover existing at that time.
The main phases which are applied in this project, for the creation of the land cover
maps, are the following:
Satellite data selection: The main satellite data selected for the project were Landsat 7
TM acquired in the summer of 2000. There will also be used, in certain situations,
Landsat 5 TM satellite images acquired in 1990 and SPOT images.
Satellite data preprocessing: This phase included the standard operations of

geometric correction and registration of the satellite image into the projection Stereo 70.
Ground control points (GCP’s) on the satellite image and on the topographic maps were
identified and the linear geometric correction function available in the ERDAS Imagine
8.3.1 package was applied. Satellite data merging procedures were applied for merging
of the new panchromatic Landsat 7 channel 8 (15 m resolution) with the multispectral
Landsat 7 channels (30 m resolution) to facilitate the interpretation process and
increase the classification accuracy. False colour composites (FCCs) were prepared.
553
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), based on the contrast between red
and near infrared, was produced to easier distinguish between vegetated and non-
vegetated surfaces.
Satellite data interpretation and vectorization of the resulting units: Landsat TM

enhanced colour composites RGB (red, green, blue) 4,5,3; 5,3,2; 4,5,7; and 4,3,2 are
used for the interpretation and delimitation of the land cover classes. Interpretation and
vectorization on the screen, available in ArcView format was the preferred methodology
because polygons created have vector format and can be directly transformed to a land
cover map. This exercise is carried out in parallel with the development of a legend
using the LCCS approach. Examples of the procedures are provided in fig. 3 (Main
layers used in the image interpretation), which shows subsets of the spatial-spectral
properties of the Romanian territory in different reflective bands.
Land cover classification: The land cover classification will be performed using the
FAO Land Cover Classification System (LCCS). In this project it was built a legend (fig.
4) according to the Romanian space characteristics, the defined mapping scale and to a
particular data set, acquired from the satellite images. This legend is open to new
classes which could be found in the future.
Field checking: Field visits will be undertaken in certain areas under study to test
accuracy of image interpretation at selected sites and to clarify interpretation
assumptions. GPS technologies will be used for field checking and verification of the
results.
Composition of final land cover maps: Vector shapefiles are created manually, in
ArcView using both the original image and the georeferenced topographic map at 1: 50
000 and 1: 100000 scale in the background to provide a basis for visual interpretation.
Analysis and interpretation of the satellite data are carried out in the CRUTA facilities,
using ERDAS 3.8.1 digital image processing software and ArcView 3.2 software for the
GIS tasks.
The interpretation is made on the basis of the previously defined legend, created using
the LCCS software. The appropriate “user label” code from this legend file is added to
each polygon as an attribute.
Generation of the GIS database: The land cover classes database will be completed
with soil type and erosion database. Various statistical parameters can be calculated,
such as the area covered by each land cover class, the percentage of the total area
covered by each class and the ratio between the areas covered by different classes.
Data on administrative boundaries, acquired in digital format, will be combined with the
land cover maps using the ArcView intersect command. This provides the opportunity to
calculate statistical parameters on the basis of some administrative units rather than by
map sheet – the preferred method for many potential users of the data.
Metadata: data describing the contents of the database for each map sheet will be
prepared in MS Excel format, to preserve information for future users of the database.
554
CONCLUSION
The database will provide very useful information for agriculture, forestry and urban
development planning, for environment protection and for many other applications. The
data collected in the database provide the possibility for different kinds of spatial
analysis, which is necessary in land management.
REFERENCES
Josef Cihlar, Louisa J. M. Jansen (2001), From land cover to land use: a methodology
for efficient land use mapping over large areas, Professional Geographer,
53(2)2001, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK;
He Changchui (1999), Integrated Global Observing Strategy: Putting the Vision Of

Digital Earth into Actions by International Communities, Keynote speech at the
International Symposium on the Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences:
Beijing, China, 29 November-2 December 1999
Antonio Di Gregorio, Louisa J. M. Jansen (2000), Land Cover Classification System

– Classification concepts and user manual for software, version 1.0, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2000.
Giuliana Profeti (2002), Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Image Processing, Lecture

notes
www.fao.org
www.esri.com
555
Fig.1. Overview of the LCCS, its two main phases and the classifiers (from Di Gregorio, Jansen, 2000)
556
Fig.4. LCCS Legend for Romania

LCCS Class DB Comments Map
Code sheet
Cultivated and managed terrestrial areas

Orchards ord cultivated
Vineyards vnd cultivated
Very large size herbaceous fields vlsh < 50 ha
Large size herbaceous fields lsh 5 – 50 ha
Medium size herbaceous fields msh 2 – 5 ha
Small sized herbaceous fields ssh > 2 ha
Horticultures (large to medium size fields) hct Water-melon, etc
Forest plantation fpl rect. plots
Windbreaks wbr line of trees
Gardens gdn ssh, vegetables
Cultivated aquatic areas
Rice fields rcl filled with water
Natural terrestrial vegetation
Deciduous forest dcf (f) red, orange in 453
Coniferous forest cnf (f) brown in 453
Mixed forest mxf (f)
Riverine forest rvf
Grassland grl light green, dark yellow in
453
Mountain grassland mgr bright yellow in 453
Low trees and bushes on karst limestone trk
Natural vegetation in Danube Delta nvt_DD
Subalpine sap Pinus Mugo, m. grass, rocks
Natural aquatic vegetation
Wetlands wld dark red to blue in 453, NDVI
Flooded forest flf
Peat bogs pbg
Peat marshes in Danube Delta pmr_DD
Waterlogged coniferous forest and bushes wcf tinov
Urban and artificial surfaces
High density urban areas hdu not utilized on this stage
Medium density urban areas mdu cities, regional to main
Low density residential areas/gardens ldu villages
(villages)
Dump sites dst
Extraction sites est white in 453
Greenhouses ghs
Airports apt
Ports prt
Built-up areas bpa all urban areas outside cities
557
Tailing ponds tpd

Sheperds’houses shh from the topomaps
Cottages ctg from the topomaps
Bare areas
Bare soil brs mainly along rivers
Terra rossa tro
Dunes in Danube Delta dun_DD
Old river bed rvb check topo for the river line
Bare rocks brk Top of mountains, road excv.
Burnt area bnt bright pink to red in 642
Artificial water bodies
Fishponds fpd
Reservoirs rsv dams > 20 ha
ponds pnd water bodies < 20 ha
Natural water bodies
Lakes lks
oxbow obw old river bed still with water
Mixed units
Orchard/grassland ord/grl
Vineyards/grassland vnd/grl
Gardens/grassland gdn/grl Cult.gard. with stripes of grass
Large/medium size herbaceous fields lsh/msh
Medium/large size herbaceous fields msh/lsh
Grassland/trees grl/trs
Grassland/sparse shrubs grl/ssr
Grassland/shrubs grl/shr
Grassland/shrubs/trees grl/shr/tr
s
Shrubs/grassland shr/grl
Trees/shrubs/grassland trs/shr/g
rl
Trees/grassland trs/grl
Forest/residential area Fst/rda Big houses inside forest
Bare areas/grassland bra/grl
Linear features
Channels cnl only in the Danube Delta
Rivers rvr only the big rivers, the others as
lines
Roads rds
railways rws
New classes
LCCS class DB Comments
Code
558
Fig. 3 - Main layers used in the image interpretation:
Landsat 7 TM 453 reflective band
Landsat 7 TM 532 reflective band
Landsat 7 TM panchromatic
559
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Landsat 7 TM true colour composite
Topographic map
560
CHOOSING DATA VECTORS
REPRESENTING A HUGE DATA SET: A COMPARISON OF
KOHONEN’S MAPS AND THE NEURAL GAS METHOD
Anna Bartkowiak (1) , Adam Szustalewicz (1) ,
Niki Evelpidou (2) , Andreas Vassilopoulos (2)
(1) Institute of Computer Science, University of Wroclaw, Poland
email: aba@ii.uni.wroc.pl, asz@ii.uni.wroc.pl
(2) Remote Sensing Laboratory, Geology Department, Univ. of Athens, Greece
email: evelpidou@geol.uoa.gr, vassilopoulos@geol.uoa.gr
Abstract
We compare space quantization obtained by codebook vectors yielded by Kohonen’s
self-organizing maps and the neural gas methods. The average approximation error (called
also the quantization error) is smaller when applying the neural gas method. The results are
visualized graphically by scatterplot matrices. For the special case of 3-dimensional data
the results, i.e. location of the representative codebook vectors among the original data
points – are also visualized by a rotatable 3-D plot. The analysis was carried out for the
Kefallinia data counting n = 3420 data vectors, each with p = 3 components. We stated
that the results depend on the way of standardization of the data.
1 Introduction
Our goal is to compare two ways of space quantization by neural network methods. We will
compare Kohonen’s method of constructing self-organizing maps (SOMs) [1] and the neural gas
(NG) method [2, 3]. Both methods yield some prototype vectors (called by Kohonen codebook
vectors) which might be taken as representatives of data points being close to the respective
prototypes. Kohonen’s maps were investigated in the paper [4]. It was found that the represen-
tation of the data – by the found codebook vectors – is not very good. Therefore we decided to
look for other methods that might be better. We have focused our attention on the neural gas
(NG) method. Our judgement was, that the prototypes yielded by NG have – to some extent –
more liberty to adapt them self to the data distribution. This happens, because the prototypes
obtained by NG need not to reflect the topology of the data, while the SOMs must do it.
We will illustrate our considerations using the Kefallinia erosion data introduced shortly
in [4]. It contains n = 3420 data vectors representing basins (terrains, areas) designated in
the island. Each basin is characterized by p = 3 erosion risk predictors: drainage density,
inclination (slope) of the terrain and vulnerability of the rocks appearing in the terrain.
Our aim will be to compare the two methods (SOM and NG) as applied to the Kefallinia
erosion data.
In the following in Section 2 we will recall briefly the results obtained for the Kefallinia
data by using the SOM method. In Section 3 we will consider the NG method. We will find
some prototypes which might be considered as representatives of the considered data set. We
will evaluate some indices telling how good are the found representatives in representing the
entire data set. The results of simulations are shown in Table 2 and Figures 1–2. Section 4
summarizes our work and presents some concluding remarks.
2 Space quantization by Kohonen’s self-organizing maps

Kohonen’s maps provide a space quantization resulting in subdivision of the entire data space
into a number of adjacent regions, called Voronoi regions. The centers of the regions designate
some representative points called by Kohonen codebook vectors. The method of finding the
codebook vectors by the learning algorithm proposed by Kohonen is recognized worldwide.
The codebook vectors are obtained by an unsupervised learning algorithm using the concepts
of neighborhood and competition among the neurons. The constructed map (SOM) is a pla-
nar representation of the codebook vectors imagined as points located in the data space. The
goodness of the representation is measured by two indices:
1. Quantization error q1. This is the average Euclidean distance of data vectors to their
nearest representatives (i.e. their nearest codebook vectors).
2. Topological error q2. It tells, what is the fraction of neighbors in the map – which do not
have neighboring Voronoi regions in the data space.
The results shown in [4] were obtained using the package Som toolbox for Matlab 5
version 2.0beta [5]. The package will be referred hereafter as Somtb2. Three shapes of maps
were analyzed: 19 × 15, 12 × 10 and 24 × 12. Before starting the analysis, the data were
standardized either by var (to mean=0 and variance=1) or by range (to take values from the
interval [0, 1]). The analysis for both standardizations was carried out in parallel. The search for
the codebook vectors was iterative, the algorithm has started from initial values of the codebook
vectors established by PCA (default in Somtb2); one variant of the calculations has used also
initial values assigned at random. The results of the calculations are summarized in Table 1.
The quantization error q1 depends on the units, in which the data are expressed. This means
that the value of q1 depends on the way of standardization of the data. Therefore the values
of that error – shown in Table 1 in the blocks headed ‘STANDARDIZATION by VAR’ and
‘STANDARDIZATION by RANGE’ – are not directly comparable and should be analyzed
separately. On the other hand, the topological error depends on the notion of neighborhood, and
as such is comparable for both ways of standardization of the data.
The results (in particular, the quantization errors) depend obviously on the initial start of the
algorithm and the initial values of the codebook vectors. The process of learning makes next
that the initial (starting) values adapt themselves towards the direction of the encountered data.
Looking at Table 1 we may say generally that start from PCA (which means start from
default parameters) – when compared to random start – yields better results, i.e. smaller errors
both in the index q1 and q2. We might add, that in the average, the topological error q2 is
small. Therefore we are entitled to infer that the obtained maps reflect quite good the positions
of the codebook vectors in the data space. However, inspecting geometrically the dispersion
of the codebook vectors in the data space (the appropriate graphs are shown in [4]), we might
observe, that there are some regions in the data space which do not contain any (or only a few)
derived codebook vectors. Therefore we are seeking for other methods permitting a better space
quantization.
2
Table 1: Work with Kohonen’s SOM. The quantization error q1
and the topological error q2 for the Kefallinia data.
Map size: 19 × 15 12 × 10 24 × 12
Error: q1 q2 q1 q2 q1 q2
STANDARDIZATION by VAR
Kohonen start default
0.197 .0377 0.2980 0.0325 0.191 0.0345
Kohonen start random
run 1 0.211 0.0731 0.367 0.102 0.211 0.0731
run 2 0.220 0.114 0.349 0.105 0.220 0.136
run 3 0.219 0.115 0.364 0.108 0.223 0.124
run 4 0.22 0.141 0.397 0.12 0.235 0.0585
run 5 0.243 0.141 0.351 0.0538 0.223 0.108
run 6 0.226 0.11 0.345 0.0599 0.227 0.106
STANDARDIZATION by RANGE
Kohonen start default
’range’ 0.0453 .0447 0.0701 0.0213 0.0442 0.0444
Start: random
run 1 0.0497 0.0933 0.0949 0.127 0.0511 0.0646
run 2 0.0498 0.0781 0.0869 0.0561 0.0529 0.128
run 3 0.0525 0.12 0.086 0.0632 0.0514 0.0792
run 4 0.051 0.0655 0.0991 0.106 0.0498 0.0947
run 5 0.0497 0.0877 0.0916 0.0833 0.0525 0.112
3 Space quantization by the neural gas method

The neural gas method (NG), proposed by Martinetz et al. [2], is aimed – similarly as the SOM
– at space quantization. The NG method is more general as compared to Kohonen’s maps.
Similarly as Kohonen’s SOM, the NG method uses also a neighborhood function. This
function depends, a.o., from some tuning parameter λ. For a special definition of the neighbor-
hood function, supplemented by a special value of λ, the learning process in the NG method is
similar to that by the Kohonen’s SOM method.
The neural gas algorithm is not as popular as Kohonen’s self-organizing maps. It was re-
ported that for some benchmark data the neural gas algorithm was more effective than Koho-
nen’s SOM [3]. The method was also considered under the aspect of reduction of input variables
[7] and adding successively neurons (“growing neural gas”) until a satisfactory representation
is achieved [8]. The method was used in some interesting applications concerned with visuo-
motor control of an industrial robot [6].
The main difference between the SOM and the NG method is that in the NG model the col-
lection of neurons is no more connected by a network: every neuron is permitted to move freely
in the data space. The coordinates of the neurons are called traditionally weights. Thus, when
3
data vectors have p components (and are represented as data points located in p-dimensional
Euclidean space R p ), also the neurons are imagined as points located in the same space R p . The
number m of neurons to be considered (i.e. the size of the considered collection of neurons) is
fixed by the user.
Say, we consider a collection of m neurons. Each neuron may be imagined as a point in the
data space. The coordinates of the i th point–neuron will be denoted as wi = (wi1 , . . . , wi p ). At
the beginning of the calculations the assumed collection of the m neurons is scattered somehow
haphazardly (at random or according to other principles) over the data space. Next, in subse-
quent iterations, the neurons change their positions and adapt themselves to the cloud of data
points. The process of adaptation is called learning or training. Generally speaking, the train-
ing is performed in cycles called epochs. During each epoch n data vectors (chosen in random
order from the entire data set) are presented sequentially to the collection of neurons. Assuming
h epochs, the maximum number k max = n ∗ h of adjusting iterations is allowed (n denotes
the number of data vectors in the analyzed data set). In each iteration k (k = 0, 1, . . . , k max ), a
randomly chosen data vector x is presented to the collection of the neurons. For the data vector
x exposed in the kth iteration the closest neuron is found (closest in the meaning of Euclidean
distance). This neuron is called the winner and obtains the index w. The vector of weights of
the neuron–winner satisfies the following relation
d(x, ww ) = min d(x, wi ) .
1≤i≤m
Next, the neighborhood of the winner is established. The magnitude (diameter) of the neighbor-
hood is supposed to decrease exponentially with (k), the actual number of the presentation. For
each k all neurons belonging to the neighborhood of the winning neuron change their position
to get closer to the actually exposed data vector x. The change is described by the formula
wi := wi + α(k)G(i, k, x, w, λ)(x − wi ) (1)
where the function G describes the neighborhood of the winning neuron, i.e. the vicinity of the
vector ww :
n d 2 (x, w ) o
i
G(i, k, x, w, λ) = exp − 2
(2)
2λ (k)
and the index i runs over all neurons belonging to the actually established neighborhood of the
current winner w.
The neighborhood G described by the function G(i, k, x, w, λ) above depends on the squared
distance d 2 (x, wi ) of the i th neuron to the actually exposed vector x. We might also sort all the
distances – from the smallest to the largest – and consider in (2) the rank function instead of the
true distance function.
Looking at formula (1) one may see that the change of position of the i th neuron depends
on two factors: α, and value of the function G which depends on a further parameter λ. Both
the coefficient α and the parameter λ depend on k, the actual number of the iteration, and have
the following meaning:
α(k) - defines the learning coefficient; it prescribes how large the position change can be. The
coefficient α usually decreases with the number of iterations: with a start from an assumed
value α0 , decreasing gradually to the final value αmin achieved at the end of the iterations.
Usually the decay of α(k) is described by the function
α k/kmax
min
α(k) = α0 . (3)
α0
4
λ(k) - defines generally the diameter of the neighborhood area at the kth presentation. Usually
it decreases with k, the actual number of presentation: from an assumed value λ 0 at start,
decreasing gradually to the final value λmin at the end of presentations for k = k max
λ
min k/kmax

λ(k) = λ0 . (4)
λ0
One might say that the above formulae express adaptation of the winning neuron and its
neighbors in the direction to the exposed data vector x.
For our evaluations we have used the function neural gas from the package somtb2 [5].
The function needs two parameters: alpha0 and lambda0 with the meaning described by equa-
tions (3) and (4). When not supplied by the user, the parameters alpha0 and lambda0 are
given default values: alpha0=0.5 and lambda0=n/2 . The values of α(k) and G(.) appearing
in equation (1) decline in successive iterations according to formulae (3), (2) and (4). The val-
ues αmin and λmin appearing in equations (3) and (4) are assumed to have the default values:
αmin = 0.005, λmin = 0.01.
The function neural gas uses a modified version of formula (2) defining the neighborhood
of the winning neuron w in a slightly different way: instead of the Euclidean distances d(x, w i )
the ranking of all neurons with respect to their closeness to the exposed vector x(k) is considered
(the winning neuron has rank 1).
The results of calculations are shown in Table 2.
When considering neural gas there is no sense to consider the topological error. Therefore in
Table 2 we show only the quantization error q1. Let us remind, this is the average approximation
error calculated over all codebook vectors. Additionally we consider Rmax, the maximum
approximation error encountered when considering separately each Voronoi region (this is the
entourage of the given codebook in the data space). In Table 2 we show the both Rmax and q1.
One may state that these two kinds of errors depend on approximation of the codebook vectors
assumed at start of the algorithm.
First of all we show in Table 2 the respective errors obtained when running the classical
Kohonen’s SOM algorithm, used in its default version. This is for comparative purposes. We
have included, also for comparative purpose, results from Kohonen’s SOM initiated randomly.
Next we have put into Table 2 the Rmax and q1 statistics obtained by the neural gas algorithm
(NG). We distinguish here start from PCA, from codebook vectors yielded by the Kohonen’s
SOM algorithm and purely random start. Each variant was repeated with several values of the
learning coefficient alpha0.
Analyzing results shown in Table 2 we arrive to the conclusion, that the neural gas method –
judged by the magnitude of the errors Rmax and q1 – yields much better results as the classical
Kohonen’s SOM method. This happens especially when the initial learning coefficient alpha0
(denoted in Table 2 as a) is large (a=5.5 when standardizing the data by var and a=1.0 for
analogous standardization by range.
The coverage of the data space by the codebook vectors – obtained by neural gas method
– is shown in Figure 1. We show there two collections of codebook vectors: one counting
m = 285 (upper plots), the other m = 120 elements (bottom plot). One may observe that the
found codebook vectors are covering the data space quite reasonably. One may also observe,
that in areas where the original data points are much concentrated, also much more of codebook
vectors is located.
5
Table 1: Quantization errors Rmax and q1 obtained for the neural gas method.
For comparison also the same errors for Kohonen’s SOM are shown.
NG start PCA: starting points for the algorithm taken from the PCA plane,
NG start CB: starting with codebook vectors yielded by the corresponding SOM,
Constant a: value of parameter α0 from formula (3).
STANDARDIZATION by VAR
Map size: 19 × 15 12 × 10 24 × 12
Kind of error Rmax q1 Rmax q1 Rmax q1
Kohonen default
2.64 0.197 3.09 0.30 2.68 0.191
NG start PCA
a=5.5 stretched 1.57 0.132 1.7 0.185 1.0 0.124
a=5.5 1.7 0.124 1.5 0.186 0.9 0.122
a=0.5 2.15 0.136 1.74 0.191 2.05 0.134
0.1 2.48 0.152 2.41 0.198 2.27 0.148
0.01 2.69 0.182 2.79 0.22 2.87 0.185
NG start CB
a=5.5 stretched 1.0 0.123 1.7 0.184 0.94 0.122
a=5.5 0.9 0.123 1.7 0.186 1.5 0.122
a=0.5 2.33 0.135 2.16 0.192 2.3 0.136
0.1 2.2 0.15 2.43 0.205 2.31 0.147
0.01 2.8 0.183 2.84 0.218 2.77 0.183
run 1 2.94 0.219 3.35 0.364 2.94 0.223
run 2 2.88 0.22 3.13 0.397 2.87 0.235
run 3 3.01 0.243 3.09 0.351 2.87 0.223
run 4 2.76 0.226 2.97 0.345 2.58 0.227
NG start random
a=5.5 1.1 0.123 1.6 0.185 1.2 0.121
a=0.5 1.95 0.137 2.15 0.194 2.13 0.133
” 1.88 0.137 1.93 0.193 2.09 0.134
” 2.09 0.135 2.63 0.193 2.06 0.136
a= 0.1 2.44 0.15 2.67 0.202 2.22 0.15
” 2.52 0.149 2.47 0.199 2.25 0.148
” 2.56 0.151 2.21 0.2 2.52 0.148
a= 0.01 2.77 0.186 2.7 0.222 2.78 0.182
” 2.82 0.183 2.72 0.22 2.85 0.185
” 2.69 0.185 2.79 0.222 2.69 0.184
6
Table 2 continued.
STANDARDIZATION by RANGE
Map size 19 × 15 12 × 10 24 × 12
Error Rmax q1 Rmax q1 Rmax q1
Kohonen default
0.609 0.0453 0.0674 0.0701 0.544 0.0442
NG start PCA
a=1.0 stretched 0.39 0.0296 0.42 0.0425 0.417 0.0295
a=1.0 0.37 0.0296 0.4 0.0423 0.37 0.0294
a=0.5 0.371 0.0308 0.412 0.0429 0.366 0.0305
a=0.1 0.423 0.0339 0.441 0.0452 0.477 0.0334
a=0.01 0.552 0.0418 0.524 0.0497 0.518 0.0418
NG start CB
a=1.0 stretched 0.377 0.298 0.42 0.0427 0.44 0.0294
a=1.0 0.4 0.0295 0.42 0.0293 0.32 0.0293
a=0.5 0.441 0.0306 0.439 0.0434 0.447 0.0304
a=0.1 0.464 0.0339 0.474 0.0449 0.486 0.0334
a=0.01 0.559 0.042 0.547 0.05 0.531 0.0421
run 1 0.51 0.0498 0.576 0.0869 0.552 0.0529
run 2 0.528 0.0525 0.68 0.086 0.631 0.0514
run 3 0.523 0.051 0.7 0.0991 0.554 0.0498
run 4 0.606 0.0497 0.671 0.0916 0.493 0.0525
NG start random
a=1.0 0.35 0.0295 0.41 0.042 0.33 0.0295
a=0.5 0.322 0.0301 0.508 0.0433 0.418 0.0305
” 0.419 0.0307 0.478 0.0439 0.387 0.0302
” 0.355 0.0308 0.434 0.0435 0.317 0.0308
a=0.1 0.433 0.034 0.507 0.0457 0.487 0.0337
” 0.422 0.0339 0.44 0.0453 0.453 0.0337
” 0.447 0.0337 0.516 0.0454 0.484 0.0336
a=0.01 0.525 0.042 0.529 0.0507 0.562 0.0423
” 0.555 0.0421 0.566 0.0504 0.553 0.0428
” 0.544 0.042 0.54 0.0505 0.54 0.0419
7
4 Conclusions and closing remarks
We have investigated the neural gas algorithm under the aspects of its applicability to the prob-
lem of data reduction. We stated that the NG algorithm yields codebook vectors which cover
better the data space as codebook vectors obtained by using Kohonen’s maps. This statement
was obtained by analysing quantization errors for the Kefallinia data. A thorough graphical
analysis confirmed the enunciated statement. It has to be said, however, that Kohonen’s maps
are able to visualize also the topology of the data in the original data space. This valuable
property is not possessed by the neural gas method.
References
[1] Kohonen T., Self-Organizing Maps. Springer Series in Information Sciences, 30, Berlin
1995.
[2] Martinetz M., Berkovich S., Schulten K.: ’Neural-gas’ network for vector quantization
and its application to time series prediction. IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, V. 4, 1993,
558–569.
[3] Osowski S., Neural Networks, an algorithmic perspective (in Polish). WNT Warszawa,
1996, 2nd edition.
[4] Bartkowiak A., Evelpidou N., Vassilopoulos A., Choosing data vectors representing a
huge data set: Kohonen’s SOMs applied to the Kefallinia erosion data. Submitted.
[5] Vesanto J., Himberg J., Alhoniemi E., Parhankangas J., SOM Toolbox for Matlab 5. Som
Toolbox team, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland, Libella Oy, Espoo 2000, 1–54.
See also:
http://www.cis.hut.fi/projects/somtoolbox/ Version 0beta 2.0, November 2001.
[6] Walter J.A., Schulten K.J., Implementation of Self-organizing Neural Networks for Visuo-
motor Control of an Industrial robot. IEEE Trans. on Neural Network, 1993.
[7] Hammer B., Strickert M., Villman Th., Supervised neural gas for learning vector quan-
tization. In: D. Polani, J. Kim, T. Martinez (eds.), Fifth German Workshop on Artificial
Life, IOS Press, 9–18, 2002.
[8] Heinke D., Hamker F.H., Comparing neural network benchmarks on growing neural gas,
growing cell structure, and fuzzy ARTMAP. IEEE Trans. on Neural Network, 1998, pp.
1279–1291. Also by the same authors: Report Nr. 1/97, Technische Universität Ilmenau,
Facultät für Informatik and Automatisierung. D–98684 Ilmenau.
8
’var’ Neural gas map size 19x15 ’range’ Neural gas map size 19x15
100 100
slope
slope
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
10
drainage 10
drainage
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 5 10 0 5 10
10
drainage 10
drainage
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 50 100 0 50 100
slope slope
’var’ Neural gas map size 12x10 ’range’ Neural gas map size 12x10
100 100
slope
slope
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
10
drainage 10
drainage
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 5 10 0 5 10
10
drainage 10
drainage
vulnerability
vulnerability
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 50 100 0 50 100
slope slope
Figure 1. The neural gas method applied to data standardized by var (left) and by range (right).
The panels show scatterplots illustrating the coverage of the data space by the found codebook
vectors.
9
Data and 12x10 Neural gas codebooks
10
8
Vulnerability
4 10
age
3
Drain
5
2
0
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Slope
Data and 12x10 Neural gas codebooks
10
Vulnerability
2 10
100
80
60 5
40
20 Drainage
Slope 0 0
Figure 2. Three-dimensional plot of data and codebook vectors obtained by the neural gas
method. Two views of the plot are shown.
10
Data and 12x10 Kohonen’s codebook surface
10
8
Vulnerability
4 10
age
3
Drain
5
2
0
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Slope
Data and 12x10 Kohonen’s codebook surface
10
Vulnerability
2 10
100
80
60 5
40
20 Drainage
Slope 0 0
Figure 3. Surface plots illustrating the position of Kohonen’s map in the data space. One may
see clearly how the codebook vectors are bounded by neighboring relations imposed by the
map.
11
BASELINE DATA MANAGEMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ASSESSMENT OF A HIGHWAY PROJECT USING GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION SYSTEM
M.L.Agrawal* and A.K. Dikshit

Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur 721302 (W.B.), India.
Telephone: +91-3222-283422
Fax: +91-3222-255303
Email: mohanlalagrawal@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a procedure to identify, describe and assess the direct
and indirect effects of a developmental project on different environmental factors. Its main aim is to
include the environmental considerations in planning and decision-making phases for environmentally
compatible and sustainable development. In the process of preparing EIA of a project, baseline data
collection and its management is a very important step. Baseline data are the information about the
existing conditions and the state of environmental and socio-economic aspects of the area before
setting up of the proposed project. The results of all stages of EIA are highly dependent on the
baseline data. Most of the environmental data have spatial dimension, hence to understand and
manipulate these data, suitable spatial database management system is required. Geographical
Information System (GIS) provides the specific capabilities for manipulating and displaying spatial
data. The present paper describes the use of GIS for the baseline data management including the
difficulties faced pertaining to a typical highway project in India.
Keywords: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Geographical Information

System (GIS), Baseline Data, Highway project
INTRODUCTION
Infrastructure is the basic need and an indicator of the development of a country.

Roads are essential component of infrastructure. At present, the government of India
has concentrated on the road development by launching different schemes like
Golden Quadrilateral, North-South and East-West Corridors, Prime Minister Rural
Road Scheme etc (Sikdar et al., 2002). Road development is a major source of
damage to the environment including ecological destabilization, habitat disturbance
and damage to flora and fauna. Environmental protection and sustainable
development are the cornerstones of the policies and procedures governing the
developmental activities in India. One such initiative is the notification issued on 27
Jan. 1994, making EIA mandatory for 29 categories of developmental projects.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a pre decision tool with many different
purposes useful for different actors - planners, designers, project proponents, public
and decision makers. It provides plans to reduce the negative environmental effects
of a developmental project through alternative approaches, design modifications and
remedial measures. The main goal of EIA is to influence development decision-
making by providing sound information on environmental impacts and the means for
preventing or reducing those impacts.
*
ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, © 2003 Ars Docendi Publisher, Bucharest, Romania
573
Two main tasks involved in preparation of EIA are - (i) to manage huge and diverse
nature of database (spatial, non-spatial, discrete, continuous and temporal); and (ii)
to make final interpretation based on these data, which by most of the conventional
methods is very subjective. Due to the involvement of huge environmental data of
spatial nature in every stage of EIA procedure viz. project definition; screening;
scoping; baseline information; impact identification; impact prediction and evaluation;
and mitigation measures, Geographical Information System (GIS) can be of a
potential utility in all EIA stages. GIS has unique ability to capture, store and manage
spatially referenced data (Burrough, 1986). Moreover, GIS can act as an integrating
framework for generation, storage and display of the thematic information relative to
the sensitivity of the affected resources (Antunes et al., 2001); it can add to the
traditional map-based modelling and used for determining model-dependent
parameters (e.g. area computation, length measurement, nearest distance
determination etc.) (Li et al., 1999). The most important feature of GIS is its ability to
present analysis results in easy to use map forms. Baseline data are the information
about the existing conditions and the state of environmental and socio-economic
aspects of the area before setting up of the proposed project (Canter, 1996).
Baseline data collection and presentation is a very important step in the preparation
of EIA. It is as important as the foundation in a case of a structure. The results of all
stages of EIA are highly dependent on the baseline data. The present paper
describes the importance of baseline data; the requirement of baseline data; the
procedure to collect, manage and present these data using GIS; the advantages of
using GIS in baseline data management and the difficulties faced, with the help of a
case study for a typical highway project in India.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESS
To understand the relation between various activities, direct, indirect and cumulative
impacts on physical and social environment to evaluate the impacts and to provide
mitigation measures, it is important to know the general steps in EIA process (Sinha,
1998). Following are the steps involved in a systematic EIA of a highway project (as
shown in fig1).
Project definition:
The general description, importance and need of the project is defined here in this
section and its relation with regional and national developmental activity is mentioned
here.
Screening:
Screening is the process to decide over the requirement of EIA for a project.
Screening is done as per the statutory notification and requirements of regional or
local controlling authority, like in case of India it is according to central pollution
control board and state pollution control boards under MoEF and/or the financial
institutes, financing the project like, World bank, Asian Development bank etc.
Screening criteria may be based upon:
1. Scales of investment;
2. Type of development; and
3. Location of development.
574
Scoping:
In the scoping stage, impact identification, and deals with a more detailed plan of
study for the project to identify major concerns and key impacts, and to decide
assessment methods and models to be used with the level of analysis. Agencies and
public representatives concerned with the project or the project area are consulted.
Base line information:
Baseline data describes the existing environmental status of the identified study area.
These data are used for prediction and assessment of impacts of the proposed
action. The site-specific primary data is monitored for the identified parameters and
supplemented by secondary data if available.
Evaluation of impacts and alternative criteria:
For the proposed project possible alternatives are identified. The impacts are
evaluated using existing models and methodology and environmental attributes are
compared. These alternatives cover both project location and process technologies.
'No project' alternative is also considered (Fernandes, 2000). Best Alternatives is
selected in the light of least environmental damage and most of the socio-economic
benefits to the society.
Management plan:
Management plan covers the provision for the rehabilitation of the project displaced
and affected people and compensation to them. This will also include the mitigation
measures for reducing the negative effects of proposed project.
Public participation:
This is very important step of an EIA to include the view of public about the proposed
project before going for final decision, because ultimately public will be affected either
positive or negative by the project. In many countries public participation has been
made mandatory in EIA process. Public participation can be assured by- consulting
the directly affected people by the proposed project and the voluntary groups like
NGOs or pressure groups; conducting direct interviews with the sample from public
or by sending questionnaire to the people from public; publishing the summary of EIA
report for objections and suggestions from people.
Decision-making:
In Decision-making stage the acceptance, rejection or acceptable with some

modification is decided for the proposed project in the light of evaluation of impacts,
public perception and mitigation measures suggested. This process involves the en
the project proponent and the assessment authority.
Monitoring Plan:
This provides the details about the monitoring network both during construction and
operation phases of a project. Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review
575
the validity of predictions and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental

Management Plan.
Project Definition
Screening
Description of proposed project and alternatives

Scoping
Selection of Env.
Indicators
Already Baseline Data Field Survey

existing Data Collection and Sampling
Assess adequacy of Baseline

data
Finalize Baseline data

Transfer
information to
other team
members Evaluation of Impacts
Propose
Management Plan Mitigation
Public Measures
Participation
Decision Making
Preparation of
Environmental Impact Statement
Fig1: Interaction between different steps of EIA
576
IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTES
The main attributes of the study area that are likely to be affected due to Highway
Project are:
1.Air environment
2.Water environment
3. Noise level
4. Socio-economic changes
a. Employment
b. Education
c. Public utility
d. Trade and commerce
e. Travel time
f. Health facilities
g. Cultural heritage
h. Archeological monuments
5.Ecosystem
a. Flora
b. Fauna
c. Wildlife
d. Reserve forests
6.Soil erosion
Highway project will influence the above-mentioned areas in two stages:
(a) During construction

(b) During operation
DATA REQUIREMENT
Environmental Impact Assessment is very much data intensive. A variety of data is

required which covers spatial, non-spatial, discrete and continuous data of physical,
biological or socio-economic nature. The main data attributes identified are being
mentioned here.
Geographical data:
Topographical maps of the area

Satellite imagery
Soil Map
Land use map
Map of existing roads
Contour map
Environmental data: (Indian Road Congress, 1989)
Ambient air quality at different location

CO
NOx
HC
Suspended particles
577
SOx
Pb
Existing noise levels at different location
Day and night noise levels
Hourly traffic noise levels
Surface water
Existing surface water resources their type, location, and discharge
Water quality standards IS code
Water quality legislation
DO
pH
Turbidity
Solids
Hardness
Alkalinity
Heavy metal particularly Pb
Oil and grease
Ground water
Inventory ground water sources
With drawls
Permeability
PH
DO
Solids
Hardness
Alkalinity
Soil
Types of soils, their distribution and slopes
Rate of erosion for different type of soils
Flora
Types of species
Population of different species
Rare plant species in entire area
Fauna
Amphibians
Reptiles
Fishes
Birds
Mammals
Rare faunal species
Data related to socio-economic condition:
Population statistics
Demographic data
578
Migration trends of population

Literacy rate
Income data
Employment data
Details of family, religion and their social status
Demand for transportation system
Crowdedness
Schools and colleges types and numbers
Industrial activity in the area
Tourism and recreational potential
Land use pattern
Project affected people data:
The scheduled caste and scheduled tribes

Households below poverty line
Women-headed families
Handicapped persons
Rural and Urban people
Project affected assets data:
Land and their owners

Houses and shops and their tenants
Commercial establishment and their owners
Religious places
Historical monuments
Traffic related data: (Moragues and Alcaide, 1996)
Traffic volume
Traffic characteristics
Origination and destination data
Accident data
Design Speed
Width of existing and/ or proposed road
Type of road surface
Meteorological data:
Temperature
Wind direction and velocity
Humidity
Rainfall
BASELINE DATA MANAGEMENT
The basic steps involved in developing database on baseline information and data
have been shown in fig 2.
579
List the factors and Parameters to

be consider for the project EIA
List the organizations to be consulted for

already collected data
Set the monitoring Acquiring different Finalize the means

stations to collect kinds of maps and of collecting socio-
environmental and imagery of the study economic data if not
climatic data if it is not area available from other
available from other agencies
agencies
Collect data at Extracting the Collect socio-

required intervals over required information economic data
the specified period from maps and from total
imageries population
Preparing Baseline
information database using
Geographic Information
System
Different kind of data products:

• Coverages (Maps)
• Tables
• Graphs
Fig 2: Steps to develop a baseline information database for EIA
580
IMPORTANCE OF BASELINE DATA
Baseline data is very important information in EIA due to following reasons:
• To provide a basis of comparison by comparing the environmental impact of

proposed action and its alternatives, including no-action alternative.
• By defining current environmental status, it is possible to establish the basis

for the project need.
• To develop an understanding of the project and study area by defining the

environmental characteristics of the study area, its geographic location and
importance provides the decision maker and public agencies with sufficient
understanding.
• To identify the critical environmental factors and items by making a list of
environmental factors to be included and need not to be included.
ADVANTAGES OF GIS IN EIA (Agrawal and Dikshit, 2002)
• GIS are unique in its ability to capture, store and manage spatially referenced
data.
• GIS acts as an integrating framework for generation, storage and display of
the thematic information relative to the sensitivity of the affected resources.
• It produces cartographic quality maps, which are very effective in pursuing
environmental attributes.
LIMITATIONS OF GIS
• Availability of digital data is difficult.

• Cost of start up is high.
• System maintenance is high.
• Database construction is time consuming.
• Availability of hardware and software is costly.
CASE STUDY
Background:
The present case study is for national highway NH-60 from Balasore to Kharagpur
(as shown in fig 3), in India having a length of 116 Km. This highway is being
updated under Golden Quadrilateral scheme of government of India from two lane to
four lane highway.
Objectives of the project:
• To reduce the transport operating cost by improving the riding quality of the
road.
• To reduce journey time by minimizing congestion in urban centers.
• To minimize road accidents by increasing road widths, improving inter sections
and road geometry.
581
• To upgrade roads to function in all weathers, by improving drainage and

raising road levels.
• To provide route options to achieve better distribution of traffic.
• To minimize annual road maintenance costs.
• To minimize the environmental impact from road improvement works.
Interaction with GIS software ERDAS-IMAGINE AND ARC/INFO:
• Toposheets were scanned in *.tif format using full size scanner at 400 dpi and
line mode.
• These scanned toposheets were then rectified for geometric correction and
saved as *.img files. For rectification ERDAS-IMAGINE 8.3 was used with first
order polynomial projection and map unit as meter.
• From rectified toposheets selected the AOI (Area of Interest) and *.AOI files
were made. Then went for making the mosaic of the toposheets by going in
data preparation option and choosing mosaic image and it was saved as
*.mos and for viewing as *.img file.
• Now the rectified (geometrically corrected) mosaic of toposheet for whole area
of interest is ready. ARC/INFO software was used with ARCEDIT option for
dizitization of different line, point and area features by opening a new vector
layer from the mosaic and were saved as vector coverages.
• To make spatial database usable we go for build and clean lines and polygon
coverages, so that all the dangles and discontinuities will be eliminated and
the coverages are ready for manipulations.
• These dizitized coverages are now ready for input to GIS manipulations like
buffering, overlay etc.
• Different vector layers are given the attributes like fill colours to polygon;
boundary lines type and their thickness and colour, etc. similarly for line
features and point features. We can edit the attributes from LUT (Look Up
Tables) also and save.
• To generate a map as shown in fig 3, different layers of information are

overlaid and the resultant map is composed in map compose option of
ARC/INFO and saved output as *.evs file and ultimately to view this map store
as either *.tif or *.jpg file.
• Here in this paper the location map shown in fig 3 is a *.jpg file, because it
takes less memory.
Procedure for baseline data management:
• Toposheets of the relevant area on 1:50000 scale were procured and

scanned.
582
Fig 3: Location map showing study area, road network, and location of different
towns generated by GIS
583
• These scanned maps were rectified using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.3

software in polynomial projection and then mosaic of the relevant area
was made for further process.
• From the mosaic of toposheets different layers of information were

extracted like - boundary of the study area; existing road network;
steams and water bodies; public utilities such as schools, police
stations, post offices, rest houses; location of different villages; existing
rail network; protected forests and reserved forests; coast line etc. by
dizitizing from the mosaics of toposheets using ARC/INFO software and
thematic maps were made.
• Data from meteorological department related with temperature,

humidity and rainfall were plotted with respect to their locations to get
the thematic maps.
• Environmental data related to water environment, air environment,

noise levels, soil type and erosion, flora and fauna with respect to their
locations were plotted and different layers of environmental attributes of
the area were generated.
• From LISS III image of the study area after rectification, current land
use was extracted for the study area.
• Socio-economic and demographic data from national informatics center

and census were plotted to get different layers of information related to
study area.
• All the attributes (geographical, environmental, socio-economic,

meteorological) pertaining to a specific location were tabulated, so that
for a particular location all attributes can be seen together.
A sample of results is shown in fig 3 where location map of the study area is
generated using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.3 and ARC/INFO software by overlaying
different layers of district boundary, road network, road under consideration, study
area, location of different towns, district headquarters, coast line. Once the database
has been generated, it can be easily manipulated according to the needs. This
database gives the feel of the study area and its surroundings by showing their
relative positions prior to highway project.
CONCLUSIONS
• Though the presentation of baseline data using GIS is very time consuming
but once it is done, it becomes very easy and convenient to manipulate it.
584
• The baseline data management using GIS is capable of integrating and

updating the data and information from remote sensing.
• Use of GIS in baseline data management gives the real feel of spatial
distribution of different attributes by creating thematic maps.
• The GIS reduces the subjectivity in the process of interpretation of data and
provides transparency to decide over the possible alternatives.
• The GIS is very efficient and convenient to collect, manage and analyze the
data and visualize the result of assessment.
REFERENCES
Agrawal, M.L. and Dikshit, A.K. (2002). “Significance of Spatial Data and
Geographical Information System in Environmental Impact Assessment of Highway
Project”, XXII INCA International Congress on Convergence of Imagery, Information
& Maps, October 30-November 1, 2002, INCA Ahmedabad, India.
Antunes, P., Santos, R. and Jordao, L. (2001). “The Application of Geographical

Information System to Determine Environmental Impact Significance”, Environmental
Impact Assessment Review, 21, pp 511-535.
Burrough, P.A. (1986). Principles of Geographical Information System for Land

Resources Assessment, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Canter, L.W. (1996). Environmental Impact Assessment, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Fernandes, J.P. (2000). “Landscape Ecology and Conservation Management-

Evaluation of Alternatives in a Highway EIA Process”, Environmental Impact
Assessment Review, 20, pp 665-680.
Indian Roads Congress (1989). “Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of

Highway Project”, IRC: 104-1988.
Moragues, A. and Alcaide, T. (1996). “The Use of a Geographical Information

System to Assess the Effect of Traffic Pollution”, The Science of The Total
Environment, 189/190, pp 267-273.
Sikdar, P.K., Jain , P.K. and Jain, N. (2002). “ Trends of Road Transport in India”,
Proceedings of National Seminar on Road Transportation in India: Emerging Trends
and Techniques, IIT Kharagpur.
Sinha, S. (1998). “Environmental Impact Assessment: An Effective Management

Tool”, Teri Information Monitor on Environmental Science, 3(1), pp 1-7.
Li, X., Wang, W., Li, F., and Deng, X. (1999). “GIS Based Map Overlay Method for
Comprehensive Assessment of Road Environmental Impact”, Transportation
Research Part D, 4, pp 147-158.
585
FIRE DANGER INDEX USING SOFT COMPUTING APPROACH IN GIS

– WEB PLATFORM – A CASE STUDY FROM GREECE1
GOURNELOS, TH.*, VASSILOPOULOS, A.**, EVELPIDOU, N.***

* Associate Professor, University of Athens, Geology Department, Remote Sensing
Laboratory, Panepistimiopolis, Zografou, 157-84, E-mail: gournelos@geol.uoa.gr,
Tel./Fax:+3210 7274151
** Dr. Geologist, University of Athens, Geology Department, Physical Geography &
Climatology Sector, Panepistimiopolis, Zografou, 157-84. E-mail:
vassilopoulos@geol.uoa.gr, Tel/Fax: +3-210 7274297
*** Dr. Geologist, University of Athens, Geology Department, Physical Geography &
evelpidou@geol.uoa.gr, Tel/Fax: +3-210 7274297
ABSTRACT
The geomorphology of Greece is the result of multiphase tectonic movements of compressional and
extensional nature plus exogenous processes. In this complex relief a Mediterranean-type ecosystem
has been developed reflecting the prevailing climatic conditions. The frequent occurrence, especially
during summer, of strong winds and high temperatures are the main reasons for extensive fires.
The aim of this paper is to develop a methodology to face with this increasing danger using fuzzy set
theory in a Web-GIS platform.
As a case study of this work the two of the Ionian islands, Zakynthos and Kefallinia have been chosen,
which are characterized by a relatively well developed vegetative cover and frequently recurring fires.
It is widely accepted that the fire management is of primary importance for the environmental
protection and planning.
Keywords: Web-GIS, fire danger index, environmental protection and planning,

Greece
INTRODUCTION
The relief of Greece is the result of alpine tectonics, extensional neotectonics and
erosional processes. The principal characteristics of this geomorphology are the
Pindos mountainous area extending north – south in the continental Greece, the
neotectonic basins filled by the post – alpine sediments and the complex relief of the
islands and coastal areas result of the last transgressional stage.
In this landscape a Mediterranean type ecosystem has been developed reflecting the
dominant climatic conditions. Vegetation Species are related to soil physical and
chemical characteristics.
Greece is characterized climatically by its rainy and relatively mild winters and hot
summers (“Mediterranean climate”). The wind intensity and orientation especially in
summer time are very variable but the general pattern is characterized by the
dominance of the Etesians (Kotini-Zabaka, 1983).
In Greece the combination of the Mediterranean type ecosystems and climatological

conditions (low humidity, high summer temperatures, and occasional strong winds)
are favorable for frequent occurrence of forest fires.
1
586
These fires sometimes have a positive role for the whole ecosystem evolution in
reducing the accumulated fuel quantity and vegetation post – recovery is possible,
but when occurring frequently their consequence may become catastrophic for the
whole ecosystem and lead to land degradation.
Initiation of forest fires is due to climatic conditions (high temperature, strong winds,
and low humidity), characteristics and density of combustible materials and human
interference. Propagation of forest fires depends on existing winds, physical and
chemical characteristics and distribution of fuels and mechanisms of observing and
reacting to check fires. In addition, vegetation cover, which subject to frequent fires
during its evolution develop plants with extremely flammable properties (Margaris, et
al 1996).
It must be noted that fire danger risk in Mediterranean has already been very high
because of the special climatic conditions and vegetation types containing
inflammable oils (Le Honerou 1981, Kruger 1983, Clark, 1996). The main categories
of this Mediterranean ecosystem are: 1) Deciduous forests (e.g. Oaks), 2) Evergreen
forests (e.g. Pines), 3) Evergreen shrubs (e.g. maquis) 4) Seasonal dimorphics (e.g.
sub-shrubs, shrubs, phrygana, tomillares), (Margaris 1981, Margaris et al, 1996). The
frequency of fires is closely related to grazing and other human activities. It has been
observed that conifers and shrubs species are very susceptible to fires because of its
special physical and chemical composition (Clark, 1996). The aim of this paper is the
development of a methodology for mapping areas with high risk to fires using Web-
GIS technology. There are numerous papers concerning forest fires based either on
theoretical or empirical studies (Thomas, 1967, Rothermel, 1972, Albini, 1981,
Anderson et al, 1982, Chandler et al, 1983, Weber, 1990, 2001).
This spatial dynamic model can be used to prevent the rapid environmental
degradation caused by frequent forest fire events.
The main model has been developed as a pilot study for the island of Zakynthos and
Kefallinia (Fig. 1). It is noted that in the process of vegetation regeneration after fire,
plants with low demand of soil nutrients are more adaptive than ephemeral shrubs
outgrowing in highly nutritional environments (Clark, 1996).
METHODOLOGY
To map areas of high fire risk a multistep procedure has been developed (Fig. 2).
The first step in this methodology is to digitize the available data from various
sources such as field observations, air photos, satellite images, topographical maps,
vegetation and land use maps.
The next step was the selection of the input variables. The most important factors
influencing fires are: the intensity of the winds, the composition and density of
vegetation cover, the topography, the temperature, the humidity and the human
activity and structures.
The following step was the formulation of a number of empirical rules to establish a
fuzzy inference system to transform the input variables in the output variable (Zadeh,
1965 & 1987, Yager et al., 1987, Dubois and Prade, 1980, Zimmermann, 1991, Klir &
Yuan, 1995). The main input variables we have used are: the wind intensity, a factor
587
defining vegetation susceptibility to fire to fire, a factor related to human structures

and the morphological slope angle and aspect. The involved imprecision of the
values and the spatial boundaries of some of the above variables was the main
reason of treating these variables as fuzzy ones.
The final output variable was the fire risk index which derived using the fuzzy
inference system, and a defuzzification procedure.
All this methodology has been developed in a GIS web platform (MapInfo, 1999,
MapXtreme, 1999). The fuzzy inference system was programmed in a Mat-lab
software package (Matlab, 1999).
Altitude (m)
1616
1209
868
0
%5 10 488
Km
277
115
0
%4 8
0
% 25 50
Km
Km
Fi
Fig. 1: General location of the studied area, Zakynthos & Kefallinia,

Greece.
588
Flow Diagram
I
n
p Output
u Wind intensity
t Fire risk index
Vegetation MapInfo
vulnerable to fire MapXtreme Maps For
V
Topography Strong winds
a Fuzzy GIS Web
(slope-aspect)
r Rules Platform
Human structures Medium winds
i (roads) MAT - LAB
a
Surveillance
b mechanism
l
e
s
Fig. 2: Flow diagram of the followed methodology
CASE STUDY
The two Ionian islands, Zakynthos and Kefallnia, (Fig. 3a,b) were selected as a case
study for many reasons: firstly there is already a vast bibliography and much field
work of the present authors (Gournelos, et al , 1997, Vassilopoulos, 2001), secondly
in contrast to the Cycladic islands the above islands, preserve a developed
vegetation cover from small bushes to big trees (olives, pines, etc). Thirdly they are
very touristic places and consequently have been subjected to extensive human
intervention.
The morphology of Zakynthos island is dominated by Vrachionas mountain in the

western part (Fig.3a) and a central flat mountainous area. On the contrary the
topography of Kefallinia is characterized by a central mountainous area, the Enos
mountain and small interior and coastal depression (Fig. 3b).
Both islands have developed a rich vegetative cover dominated by small bushes,
olives, raisins and pine trees. This topography reflects the geological and
geomorphological evolution of these islands. A database has been created from fires
that have occurred during the last two decades (Fig. 4a,b).
The input variables we have used are:
-The wind intensity
- The Susceptibility to fire of the vegetative cover
589
- The morphological slope and aspect
- The human structures (roads, towns, villages)
- Surveillance mechanisms
The output Variable was the fire danger index which was also of a fuzzy nature. The
transformation of the input variables to produce the output variable was achieved by
developing a number of rules (Table I) based on expert and theoretical knowledge.
All this procedure was implemented using the Mat-lab software package (Matlab,
1999) and the Madami method (Madami & Assilian, 1975). The involved variables
take values of linguistic nature such as ‘Low’, ‘Medium’ or ‘High’. For example in the
case of ‘susceptible to fire’ it may take values from ‘low’ to ‘very high’ ones.
The final step of this procedure was the defuzzification of the values of the output
variable and its conversion to the crisp set values for medium and strong winds (Fig.
5a,b and Fig. 6a,b). This set of values was used to produce the final output map
showing the distribution (zonation) of the fire danger index values.
Table I: Example of the Rules
Susceptibility of vegetation Very Fire Very

If Strong Wind & Is Î Is
to fire High Risk High
& Human Is Close Fire Very
If Strong Wind & Human Structure Is Close Î Is
Structure Risk High
Fire
If Strong Wind & Surveillance Mechanism Exists Î Is Low
Risk
Susceptibility of vegetation Fire
If Medium Wind & Is Low Î Is Low
to fire Risk
590
Altitude (m)
754
528
VVrr
aacc
hhii
398
oonn
aass
287
161
51
0
0
%
3 6
Km
Fig. 3a
W
! S
E
0 4 8
Altitude (m)
Km
1628
KKaa
lloo
nn
OOrr
ooss
1200
900
oo
iiaa
aallii
rraakk
CChh
XXee
nnoo
Avgo
Avgo
XXee
500 rrool
igaa
liim
PPig
mb
baa
270 KKookk
kkin
inii
100
0
EEnn
oos
s
OOrr
ooss
Fig. 3b
591
CONCLUSIONS
The mapping of zones of high fire risk is necessary step to prevent environmental
degradation. The final output for the islands of Zakynthos and Kefallinia are very
compatible with the spatial distribution of the last fires. The proposed methodology
adopts a web-GIS platform and simple empirical rules, to produce fire risk maps
which can be easily accessed and updated.
Such maps can be used for local or regional planning and hazard assessments.
Fire
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
ΞΞ
Man made Factor
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
0
% 3 6
Km
Fig.4a: Spatial distribution of fires and the existent

man-made characteristics (road network & villages) of
Zakynthos island.
Ξ
Ξ N
Ξ
ΞΞ
Ξ
W
! E
S
Ξ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ Ξ 0 4 8
Ξ
Ξ Km
ΞΞ
Ξ
ΞΞΞ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ Ξ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ Ξ ΞΞ
ΞΞΞ Ξ
Ξ
ΞΞΞΞ
ΞΞ ΞΞ Ξ
Ξ ΞΞ
Ξ Ξ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ Ξ Ξ
ΞΞΞΞ
Ξ
ΞΞ
ΞΞΞΞ
ΞΞ
Ξ
ΞΞ
Ξ
ΞΞ
Ξ ΞΞ
ΞΞ
Ξ
Ξ ΞΞ Ξ Ξ
ΞΞΞΞ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞΞ ΞΞΞΞ ΞΞΞΞΞ
Ξ
Ξ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ Ξ ΞΞ
ΞΞΞ
Ξ Ξ ΞΞΞ Ξ
Ξ ΞΞ
Ξ ΞΞ
ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ
Ξ
Ξ
ΞΞΞ
ΞΞ
Ξ Ξ
Ξ ΞΞ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
ΞΞΞ
Ξ Ξ ΞΞ
Fires ΞΞ ΞΞ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ ΞΞΞ
Ξ
ΞΞ
ΞΞ ΞΞΞΞ Ξ
Ξ ΞΞ
Manmade Factor
Ξ
Ξ
Ξ
ΞΞ Ξ
Ξ
Fig.4b: Spatial distribution of fires and the

existent man-made characteristics (road
network & villages) of Kefallinia island.
592
Fire Risk
(medium wind)
High
Medium
Low
0
% 3 6
Km
Fig.5a: Fire risk index in Zakynthos island for medium winds
Fire Risk
(medium wind)
Very High
High
Medium
Low
0 5 10
Km
Fig.5b: Fire risk index in Kefallinia island for medium winds.

593
Fire Risk
(strong wind)
Very High
High
Medium
Low
0
% 3 6
Km
Fig.6a: Fire risk index in Zakynthos island for strong winds.
Fire Risk
(strong wind)
Very High
High
Medium
Low
0 5 10
Km
Fig.6b: Fire risk index in Kefallinia island for strong winds.
594
REFERENCES
Albini, F.A., 1981, A model for the wind-blown flame from a line fire, Combust,
Flame 43, p.155-174.
• Anderson, D.H., Catchpole, E.A., De Mestre, N.J. and Parkes, T., 1982,
Modeling the spread of grass fires, J. Aust. Math. Soc (Ser. B), 23, p. 451-466.
Anderson, D.H., Catchpole, E.A., De Mestre, N.J., and Parkes T., 1982,
Modeling the spread of grass fires, J. Aust. Math.Soc. (Ser. B), 23, p. 451-466.
Chandler, C., Cheney, N.P., Thomas, P.H. and Trabaud, L., 1983, Fire in
Forestry, Volume I, Forest Fire Behaviour and Effects, Wiley, New York.
• Clark, S.C., 1996, Mediterranean Ecology and Ecological Synthesis of the

Field Sites, Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use, Edited by C. Jane
Brandt & John B. Thornes, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, p. 258-301.
• Dubois, D. and Prade, H.: 1980, Fuzzy Sets and Systems Theory and
Applications, Academic Press, New York.
Gournellos, Th., Vassilopoulos, A., Evelpidou, N., 1997, Development of a

GIS-based methodology to analyze Geological, Geomorphological and
Environmental data of the island of Zakynthos, Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Engineering Geology and the Environment,
Athens, p.p. 1245-1251.
Klir, G.J. and Yuan, B.: 1995, Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic theory and
applications, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
Kotini-Zabaka, S.I., 1983, Contribution to Greece climate study, Normal

weather for each month, Doctoral Thesis, Thessaloniki.
Kruger, F.J., 1983, Plant community diversity and dynamics in relation to fire,
In Billings, W.D. (eds) Mediterranean – Type Ecosystems: The Role of
Nutrients, Springer – Verlag, Berlin, p. 446-472.
• Le Honerou, H.N., 1981, Impact of man and his animals on Mediterranean

vegetation, In di Castri, F. and Goodall, D.W. (eds), Ecosystems of the World
11 Mediterranean – Type Shrublands, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam, p. 479-521.
Mamdani, E.H. and Assilian, S.: 1975, An experiment in linguistic synthesis

with a fuzzy logic controler, International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, Vol.
7, No1, p.p. 1-13.
MapInfo Professional, 1999, MapInfo Corporation, Troy, New York.
MapXtreme, 1999, Developer’s guide for Window NT, p.279, MapInfo

Corporation New York.
595
• Margaris, N.S., 1981, Adaptive strategies in plants dominating Mediterranean

– type Ecosystems, In F. Di Castri et al (eds) Mediterranean – type Shrubland,
Elsevier, Netherlands, p.309-315.
• Margaris, N.S., Koutsidou, E., Giourga, Ch, 1996, Changes in Traditional

Mediterranean Land-Use systems, Mediterranean Desertification and Land
Use, Edited by C.Jane Brandt & John B. Thornes, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, p.
35-41.
Matlab, 1999, The Math works Inc.
Rothermel, R.C., 1972, A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in

wildland fuels, Res. Pap. INT-115, USDA Forest Service, Ogden.
Thomas, P.H., 1967, Some aspects of the growth and spread of fires in the
open. Forestry 40, p. 139-164.
Vassilopoulos, A., 2001, Analysis of geomorphological and geographical data

using GIS in Kefallinia island, Doctoral Thesis, University of Athens, p.p.222.
Weber, R.O., 1990, A model for fire propagation in arrays, Math. Comput.
Modeling 13, p. 95-102.
• Weber, R.O., 2001, Wildland Fire Spread Models, Forest Fires, Academic
Press, p. 151-169.
Yager, R.R., Ovchinnikov, S., Tong, R.M. and Nguyen, H.T.: 1987, Fuzzy Sets
and Applications, selected papers by L.A. Zadeh, Wiley, New York.
Zadeh, L.A.: 1965, Fuzzy sets, Information and Control, 8, p.p. 338-353.
Zadeh, L.A.: 1987, The concept of linguistic variable and its application to
approximate reasoning, R.R. Yager, S. Ovchinnikov, R.M. Tong, H.T. Nguyen
(eds), Fuzzy Sets and Applications, Wiley, New York, p.p.293-329.
• Zimmermann, H.J.: 1991, Fuzzy Set Theory and Its Application, 2nd ed.,
MA:Kluwer Academic.
596
DRAINAGE SYSTEM STUDY THROUGH REMOTE SENSING & GIS

ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES. CASE STUDY:
SOUTH PELOPONNESUS1
VAIOPOULOS, D.*, VASILOPOULOS, A.**, EVELPIDOU, N.***

* Associate Professor, University of Athens, Geology Department, Remote Sensing
Laboratory, Panepistimiopolis, Zografou, 157-84, E-mail: vaiopoulos@geol.uoa.gr,
Tel./Fax:+3210 7274299
** Dr. Geologist, University of Athens, Geology Department, Physical Geography &
vassilopoulos@geol.uoa.gr, Tel/Fax: +3-210 7274297
*** Dr. Geologist, University of Athens, Geology Department, Physical Geography &
evelpidou@geol.uoa.gr, Tel/Fax: +3-210 7274297
ABSTRACT
In this paper we examine methods of digital image processing, in order to extract drainage system
branches and import them into a GIS layer. Moreover, we have developed special algorithms on GIS
environment in order to analyse drainage system parameters.
In order to get the optimum detection of the drainage system characteristics, we applied on the
Landsat image and on aerial photos several filters. Using the aerial photos of the area, we created the
orthophotomosaic, which came out of the ortho-rectified aerial photos. Via stereoscopic observation
on the computer screen, we detected and digitized the drainage system branches.
Using special algorithms, developed under the MapBasic programming language, we evaluated the
drainage system and the faults directions, in order to analyse them quantitatively and geographically.
Keywords: Remote Sensing, Drainage System, GIS, south Peloponnese
INTRODUCTION
The possibility of the detection of drainage network using Remote Sensing methods,
and its recording in a Geographic Information System for further processing is
studied in this paper.
For this purpose the south part of the prefecture of Messinia was studied (Fig. 1a, b),
using of the corresponding Landsat image, and the aerial photos of the study area.
METHODOLOGY
For the optimum drainage system detection a series of filters was applied on the
Landsat Image, and the aerial photos, through Image Analyst software (Image
Analyst 1999). The satellite image was rectified and registered, aiming at its correct
territorial setting. For this purpose a series of fieldwork measurements with the use of
GPS (Global Positioning System) took place. The precise geographical coordinates
of certain significant spots – sites of the image were estimated and compared to
measurements taken with the GPS. Thus, there was in-situ inspection of the
accuracy of the measurements, in comparison with the deviations given by the
geographic information system during the register.
1
597
0
% 10 20
Km
Fig. 1a: The wider studied area.
0
%2,5 5
Km
Fig. 1b: The studied area as appears through the registered Landsat
image, from the MapInfo GIS.
598
After the satellite image was registered, all the visible drainage system branches
were digitized in GIS MapInfo (MapInfo Professional, 1999), and the results were
completed by aerial photos scaled 1:33.000 (H.A.G.S. 1988).
The ortho-photomosaic was created from the aerial photos of the study area. The
primary aerial photographs were converted into ortho-photographs, through
geometrical corrections which were applied through the Image Station software.
Stereoscopical observation of the ortho-photomosaic was made directly through the
computer screen, using Image Station Stereo Display software (Image Station, 1999)
and the accompanying special stereoscopical liquid crystal glasses. The
geomorphological features that were located were directly digitized in the Geographic
Information System. The above method offers the possibility of real -flying over the
virtual relief of the area. The flying over the relief of the area and the digitization on
Drainage System
0
% 2 4
Km
Fig.2: Drainage system localized and mapped through the satellite image and the aerial photos
of the studied area.
the photomosaic, minimized the declination caused by the data transference from the
aerial photographs into the GIS.
Numerous drainage system branches located using the aerial photographs had not
previously been traced through the satellite image, due to the analysis of the image
used. In any case the main drainage system branches were located and recorded
through the satellite Landsat image. The located and recorded drainage system
branches are displayed at figure 2.
599
Finally, the direction of the drainage system branches and the fault lines was
calculated using special algorithms ‘Geoline orientation Software’ (Evelpidou, N.,
2001, Evelpidou, N., et.al., 2002), developed under the MapBasic programming
language (MapBasic 1999).
DISCUSSION - CONCLUSIONS
The thematic map displayed at figure 3 was created through the outcoming database
that concerns the directions of the drainage system branches and the fault lines. In
this thematic map different colours are attributed to the drainage system branches,
according to the azimuth direction range they belong to: four ranges were created,
and the frequency of the branches that correspond to each of them is displayed at
table 1 and at diagram 1.
Azimuthal Direction
135 - 180
90 - 135
45 - 90
0 - 45
0
%2 4
Km
Fig. 3: Drainage system’s geographical distribution related to its direction.
600
Histogram of drainage system branches directions
2000
1800
1600
1400
Frequency
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180
Direction ranges
Diagram 1
Drainage system branches

Azimouthial
Frequency
direction ranges
0-45 1.468
45-90 1.966
90-135 1.771
135-180 1.223
Table 1
601
A corresponding, to drainage system branches direction, study took place regarding

the directions of the faults of the study area, the results of which are displayed at
table 2, diagram 2 and the map of figure 4, which presents a clearer picture of their
geographical distribution.
Histogram of faults direction
250
200
Frequency
150
100
50
0
0-45 45-90 90-135 135-180
Direction ranges
Diagram 2
Faults
Azimouthial Direction
Frequency
ranges
0-45 142
45-90 192
90-135 186
135-180 231
Table 2
602
Azimuthal Direction
135 - 180
90 - 135
45 - 90
0 - 45
0
% 2 4
Km
Fig. 4: Geographical distribution of faults by their direction
The correlation between the directions of the drainage system branches and the
faults indicated a relationship of perpendicularity, which is presented at figure 5. The
interpretence of the above data and the verification of the accuracy of the results will
be assisted by our intended future fieldwork.
The combination of Remote Sensing methods, geographic information systems and

special algorithm development under GIS programming languages, results to a most
precise recording, analysis and presentation of physical-geographical characteristics
and parameters. This can contribute to the best environmental management, the
comprehension of certain phenomena and the prediction of specific natural disasters,
such as erosion.
603
Azimuthal faults direction

135 - 180
90 - 135
45 - 90
0 - 45
Azimuthal drainage system
branches direction
135 - 180
90 - 135
45 - 90
0
% 2 4
Km
0 - 45
Fig. 5: Geographical distribution of drainage system and faults directions.
REFERENCES
1. Evelpidou, N., 2001, Geomorphological and Environmental study of Naxos island

using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques, Thesis, p. 226
2. Evelpidou, N., Vassilopoulos, A., Vaiopoulos, D., 2002, Creation and application
of ‘Grid Maker’ algorithm in localization of parallel faults in Sifnos island,
Proceedings of 2nd Pan Hellenic GIS conference, in CD.
3. H.A.G.S., Aerial Photographs of south Peloponnese, Scaled 1:33.000.
4. Image Analyst, 1999, Z/I Imaging Corporation, Huntsvill, USA.
5. Image Station, 1999, Z/I Imaging Corporation, Huntsvill, USA.
6. MapBasic, 1999, MapInfo Corporation, Troy, New York.
7. MapInfo Professional, 1999, MapInfo Corporation, Troy, New York.
604
FOREST AREA CHANGE DETECTION USING ETM+ DATA IN

NORTHERN FOREST OF IRAN1
O. Rafieyan, A.A. Darvishsefat, M. Namiranian

Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Iran
Phone: +98 261 2223044, Fax: +98 261 2227765
o_rafieyan@yahoo.ca, adarvish@chamran.ut.ac.ir, namirani@nrf.ut.ac.ir
ABSTRACT
The aims of this study are determining ETM+ data abilities in forest mapping and change detection of
the forest area in north of Iran between 1994 and 2001. This research has been performed in an area
covered by a sheet of 1:25000 topographic map (about 15000 ha) in Babol forests placed in
Mazandaran province in southeastern of Caspian sea.
The forest map of 1994 was extracted from existing 1:25000 digital map. Landsat7 ETM+ image dated
July 30, 2001 was used to prepare the forest map for the end of the period. First, the quality of the
image was evaluated. There were no obvious noticeable geometric and radiometric distortions.
Geometric orthorectification was implemented using digital elevation model and ground control points.
The geocoded image was checked for reliability in comparison with a digital topographic map. Then
suitable spectral transformations such as rationing, PCA, Tasseled cap transformation and image
fusion were performed on the ETM+ data. These images were classified in five classes include forest,
water, paddy, garden and man-made installations using maximum likelihood classifier. The last four
classes were merged to produce forest/non-forest map. In order to eliminate isolated classified pixels,
the results of classification filtered by means of mode filter. Accuracy assessment of resulted map was
done in western part of the study area covered half of the whole area. To do this, a sample ground
truth map (covered 3% of this area, 233 ha) was prepared through fieldwork and random systematic
method using GPS.
Accuracy assessment at the location of the plots showed overall accuracy and kappa coefficient equal
to 94.7% and 0.89 respectively. These results indicated high potential of ETM+ data in forest/non-
forest mapping. So with perfect confidence the classified image was compared with the 1994 map.
This comparison showed that 730 ha of the forest area (equal to 8% of prior forest area) have been
reduced in this period.
Keywords: ETM+, Change detection, Fusion, Tasseled cap, Orthorectification,

Sample ground truth.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental and commercial aspects of northern forests of Iran encourage

managers to provide accurate quantitative and qualitative information and detect
changes of them in short periods. To determine forest area changes, forest mapping
should be performed at the first and the end of a period. Traditional methods of forest
mapping (e.g. aerial photography and interpretation) in large areas are costly in term
of time and money spent. In against, satellite imagery is a more efficient, time saving
and cost effective alternative in this respect. According to these facilities, using ETM+
data has been considered as a suitable possibility. Because of including Pan band
(15 m spatial resolution) together with the other bands, new image processing
method such as data fusion can be perfectly performed.
1
605
In order to use these satellite data for forest change detection, it is necessary to
know their potential and accuracy of derived maps. In this regard it is necessary to
prepare a ground truth map.
The purposes of this study are to determine ETM+ data potential for forest area
mapping and change detection in north of Iran.
METHODOLOGY
1-Study area
The study area is situated in Mazandaran province, about 25 km south of Babol in

southeastern of Caspian sea (figure 1). It covers approximately 15000 ha (a sheet of
1:25000 topographic map). Elevation ranges from 60 to 760 m above sea level. This
region is flat at north and rugged mountains at south cover it. The most important
forest species are Carpinus betulus, Gleditshia caspica, Diospyrus lotus and Parrotia
persica. There are a lot of small settlements distributed in the study area. They seem
as light points on satellite imagery. Beside forest, there are different themes such as
water, paddy, garden and man-made installations. In addition, plenty of rural roads
(about 30 m/ha) can be detected in this region.
Figure 1. Location of the study area
2-Data
A Landsat7 ETM+ scene (163-35) acquired on July 30, 2001 was used in this study.
ETM 6 band was ignored because of its thermal characteristics and low spatial
resolution (60m).
Hardcopy and digital 2D & 3D topographic maps [NCCI, 1994], in scale of 1:25000
were provided. Forest area, surveyed 1994, was extracted from digital topographic
data set. This map was used also to provide a final DEM of the region.
606
3-Image qualification
The images were evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively after applying contrast
enhancement and zooming to find geometric distortions such as double scan lines,
sweep and radiometric distortions like noise and detector missing errors. Striping and
banding were calculated by selecting a subset of 400 by 250 pixels of homogenous
part of Caspian sea, located in northwestern of the scene. The average of DNs per
each line was calculated and its diagram was prepared for all spectral bands (figure
2).
Figure 2. The average of DNs per line in a subset of 400 by 200 pixels in homogenouse part of
Caspian sea (band2).
4-Geometric correction
The study area was placed at the left edge of the scene in a rugged place. Thus it
was necessary to perform orthorectification to remove relief displacement. The
resulted images can be used as an image-based map. PCI OrthoEngine software
was used for geometric correction [Toutin, 1995]. In this regard, after extracting
ephemeris data and using 24 ground control points along with a DEM (raster size =
30m) derived from 1:25000 topographic map, orthorectification was performed. In
order to use all of the spectral bands in data fusion process, the images were
orthorectified in a final size of 730 by 980 pixels with a spatial resolution of 15 m.
5-Image enhancement
In order to obtain more information from the images, digital image processing
operations such as ratioing, principal component analysis (PCA), tasseled cap
transformation and data fusion were accomplished.
Since ETM4 band was less correlated with the other spectral bands, selective PCA
procedure was applied on data [Chavez and Kwarteng, 1989]. This procedure
consists in grouping in two sets, The first three ETM bands and the two MIR bands
(ETM5, ETM7). Then PCA was performed on these two subsets, whereas the ETM4
band was left unprocessed. The two components of tasseled cap transformation
(brightness and greenness) were used.
Among various methods of data fusion, the method of spectral response and LHS
transformation [Darvishsefat, 2002] were applied.
6-Image classification
After defining training areas for 5 classes (forest, water, paddy, garden and man-
made installations) based on fieldwork information, image classification was done,
607
using maximum likelihood classifier. Bhattacharrya distance and transformed

divergence criteria were used as a measure of statistical separability between
signatures that were previously generated from training areas. The last four classes
were merged and a forest/non forest map was produced (figure 3(b)). In order to
eliminate isolated classified pixels, the results of the classification were filtered by
means of 3 by 3 mode filter.
7-Accuracy assessment
In pure research work, such as examining the capabilities of remotely sensed data in
small areas, a complete ground truth (covering the whole region) is used for
determining the accuracy of maps derived from these data [Itten, et al, 1992 and
Darvishsefat, 1996]. Since providing the complete ground truth demands very high
costs and takes a long time, the accuracy of thematic maps can be estimated. The
estimation of accuracy can be performed by designing and implementation a
sampling network, respect to continuity, homogeneity and pattern of thematic classes
[FallahShamsi, 2002], using random systematic technique in an area approximately
equal to 2% of the region [Darvishsefat, 1996].
In this research accuracy assessment of resulted map was done in western part of
the study area covered half of the whole area. In this regard, the sample ground truth
was prepared through a random systematic grid (1800 by 2400 m). In this grid the
boundary of forest was determined inside the plots measuring 360 by 360 m by
means of GPS.
In order to evaluate accuracy of the classification, all classified images were

compared pixel by pixel with ground truth map. Accuracy of map determined on the
basis of overall accuracy and kappa coefficient criteria [Story and Congalton, 1986].
8-Preparing the forest map dated 1994
A sheet of 1:25000 topographic map that had been derived from 1:20000 aerial
photos was used. Forest layers in this topographic map were extracted and then
rasterized. A digital road map was used to mask out areas along roads to avoid
mixed pixels (figure 3(a)).
9-Change detection
Based on the accuracy assessment results, the best map with overall accuracy equal
to 94.7 % was selected to use in change detection process. Therefore both of 1994
and 2001 created maps transformed into Boolean images (1 for forest & 0 for non-
forest). By subtracting these two images the rate of forest altering (increase and
decrease) was defined.
RESULTS
-Image qualification: The evaluation of the images quantitatively illustrated striping

distortion in ETM 2, 4 and 5 bands. It was less than 1 DN (figure 2), so it was
ignored. Banding was not observed in these images.
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-Geometric correction: The georeferenced images were checked for reliability in

comparison with a digital topographic map. Their perfect coincidence indicates
suitability of geometric correction.
-Classification: The best band set concluded an overall accuracy and kappa
coefficient equal to 94.7 % and 0.89 respectively.
-Change detection: The comparison of two forest/non-forest maps (1994 and 2001)
indicated an increasing and decreasing rate of 423 ha and 1153 ha in forest area
respectively (figure 3(c)). Totally 730 ha of forest area (equal to 8 % of prior forest
area) have been reduced in this period.
(a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 3. The forest map dated 1994 derived from digital topographic map (a). The forest map dated
2001 derived from ETM+ data (b). The forest change map in this period (c).
CONCLUSION
Since the study area is located in a mountainous region and the edge of the scene,
the coincidence of georeferenced image with digital topographic map, demonstrated
high capability of the orthorectification model suggested by Toutin in ETM+ data.
Using the methods of image processing such as ratioing, PCA, tasseled cap and
data fusion beside of the original spectral bands, improves accuracy of classification.
609
Forest area increasing mostly occurred in reforestation regions, while natural

regeneration had insufficient influence. In this manner, destroyed areas often situated
near the rural roads and small settlements. These regions are often converted into
paddy and man-made installations in plane areas, while changed to citrus and
mulberry gardens in rugged and mountainous areas.
Performing hybrid classification (on-screen digitizing) based on fieldwork information

and ancillary data, using various color composite and fused images is suggested to
improve the accuracy of the classification.
REFERENCES
Congalton, R.G., R.G. Oderwald and R.A. Mead., 1983. Assessing Landsat Classification
Accuracy Using Discrete Multivariate Analysis Statistical Techniques, Photogrammetric
Engineering & Remote Sensing, 49:1671-1678.
Chaves, P.S. and A.Y. Kwarterg, 1989. Extracting Spectral Contract in Landsat Thematic
Mapper Image Using Selective Principal Component Analysis, Photogrammetric
Engineering & Remote Sensing, 52:339-348.
Darvishsefat, A.A., 1996. Einsats urd Fusion Von Multisensoralan Satelleitendaten Zur
Erfassung der Walddinventuren, Proc. ISPRS 1996 Symposium, Commision VII,
Vienna, Austria, pp 186-191.
Darvishsefat, A.A., 2002. Data Fusion, Geomatic 81 conference, National Cartographic

Center of Iran.
Fallahshamsi, S.R., 2002. Using Sample Ground Truth to Accuracy Assessment of

Thematic Maps Derived from Remotely Sensed Data, 5th International Symposium on
Accuracy Assessment in Natural Resources and Environmental sciences, Melbourne,
Australia.
Itten, K., P. Meyer, T.K. ellenberger, R. leu, S.T. Standmeier, P. Bitter and K. Seidel,
1991. Correlation of the Impact of Topography and Atmosphere on Landsat-TM Forest
Mapping of Alpine Region, Department of Geography, University of Zurich.
National Cartographic Center of Iran, 1994. 1:25000 Topographic National Project.
Story, M. and R.G. Gongalton., 1986. Accuracy Assessment: A user’s Perspective,

Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 52:397-399.
Toutin, Th., 1995. Multi-Source Data Fusion with an Integrated and Unified Geometric
Modeling, EARSeL Journal – Advances in Remote Sensing, 4(2):118-129.
610
LESSONS FROM NATURAL CATASTROPHES FOR

HIGHER EDUCATION1
Prof. Ramiro A. Sofronie

Ecoland – UNESCO Chair, Bucharest, Romania ecoland@ecoland.ro
Tel/Fax: +40-21-224-2149; Mobile +40-722- 877- 889
ABSTRACT
The paper refers to the natural catastrophes caused by earthquakes, floods, landslides and storms. When
the damages exceed the ability of the hit region to help itself then the disaster classed as a great
catastrophe. According to the data published by the German Insurance Company ©Munich Re, REF/Geo–
January 2000 the number of great natural catastrophes is exponentially increasing. Proportionally, the
economic losses are increasing in the same disquieting rate. Some explanations could be found in the
vulnerability of modern societies to catastrophes. Further the paper presents an innovative solution for
seismic protection of masonry buildings and structures, the cultural heritage including. The population
developments and urban growth also increase the exposure at risk to natural catastrophes. Changes in
climate and environment with the trends for next decades are also discussed. Technological advances
entail higher risks and the people should be well prepared beginning with appropriate programs of the
higher education system.
Keywords: natural catastrophes, disquieting rate, vulnerability of modern societies,

higher education system
1. ECONOMIC LOSSES
According to the data published by the German Insurance Company ©Munich Re,
REF/Geo–January 2000 the number of great natural disasters earthquakes including is
exponentially increasing. Between 1950 and 1999 occurred 243 natural disasters of
which 20 in the first decade 1950-1959 and 86 in the fifth decade 1980-1999, the factor
90s: 50s = 4.3. Total economic losses in fifty years reached US$1045.1 billion of which
42.2 in the first decade 1950-1959 and 652.3 in the fifth decade 1980-1999, the factor
90s: 50s = 15.3 (Figs.1and 2). The great natural catastrophes consisted in windstorms –
38%, earthquakes – 29% and floods 27%. They claimed the lives of around 1.4 million
people, mostly as a result of earthquakes – 47% and windstorms - 45%. Economic
losses are due to the main hazards of earthquakes – 35%, floods – 30% and
windstorms – 28%. Reasons for the increase in natural catastrophes: population growth,
rising standards of living, concentration of population and values in metropolitan areas,
settlements and industrialization of very exposed regions, vulnerability of modern
societies and technologies and changes in environmental conditions. Only in Europe
during the year 1999 have occurred 6 great disasters concluded with 17,498 fatalities
and US$17.3 billion losses. Earthquakes, floods, landslides and storms are typical
disasters for Europe.
1
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Only last year 2001 about 700 great natural catastrophes have been recorded in the
world including the two major successive earthquakes in El Salvador on 13 January with
845 fatalities and US$1.5 billion losses and that in Gujarat, India, on 26 January with
14,000 fatalities and US$4.5 billion losses. In the countries with advanced technologies
more and more buildings are insured on the basis of technical reports prepared by
experts is seismic engineering. The buildings are classified according to seismic hazard
of their sites and the vulnerability of building structures. The immediate measures of
structural protection are also included. Nowadays, more than ever before, the old
principle according to which is much cheaper to prevent a danger than to repair after its
occurrence is applying. However, the funds spent for prevention of such natural
phenomena are still far too little. What are worse the remarkable advances made by
new technologies are not properly applied.
Figure 1: Number of natural disasters occurred during the second half of last century
Figure 2: Economic and insured losses in US$ during the second half of last century
612
Few regions benefit by the twenty-century technological discoveries. Although the

performances of composite materials and structures are well known they are still little
used for prevention of natural disasters. The relation between scientists and decision-
makers does not work well yet. There is still little confidence in the new discoveries as
well as some inertia in changing the traditional habits. Even the official provisions are
often behind the technological progress.
2. VULNERABILITY OF MODERN SOCIETIES TO CATASTROPHES
Within the interval of exactly one-year two major settlements, severe earthquakes hit
Kobe and Northridge/Los Angeles, in the largest industrialized countries, Japan and the
United States. Both quakes join ranks with the great urban natural catastrophes of the
20th century, like San Francisco in 1906, Tokyo in 1923, Tang Shan in 1976, and Mexico
City in 1985. The economic loses in Northridge –US$44bn and in Kobe – US$100bn set
new records and give an indication of the loss potential to be expected from future
earthquakes in large metropolis located in seismic areas. Both events produced new
and surprising insight into the vulnerability of highly developed modern societies. The
large material and indirect losses indicate that this vulnerability is as high as it ever has
been. As the level of a region’s development rises there is a shift from human losses to
propriety loses. But the increasing networking at all levels from the local to the global
scene also means that the scale of natural catastrophes is greater than ever before as a
result of indirect loses. The reason for this development may be found on quite different
levels. They can be traced along an entire chain of effects from the theoretical
understanding of natural hazards to the risk awareness of the parties affected, and
finally to the hardly existent conversion of this awareness into practical measures aimed
at risk minimization.
Every catastrophe teaches lessons that are new or have not yet properly learned.
Particularly, the Northridge earthquake occurred in one fault previously unknown, while
the Kobe earthquake in one little active but both were in countries with high levels of
research in seismic engineering. However the understanding of elementary physical
processes is still far from perfect in connection with natural hazards and is often based
on no more than working hypotheses. It is, for instance, still a mater of dispute as to
how earthquake start. According to Reid’s deterministic elastic rebound hypothesis due
to plate-tectonic processes long build-up of strains are developing and then by sudden
release of these strains an earthquake occur. The other hypothesis interprets
earthquakes as chaotic processes in which practically any small focus quake is able of
developing into a major quake in an unforeseeable fashion. Similarly, the origin and the
movement patterns of tropical cyclones are hardly understood at present although the
circumstances of their birth and development are well known.
A further example is the so-called “fault fling”. This expression is used to denote a short-
term burst of energy, which is very dangerous for high structures. This phenomenon is
held to be the cause of the unexpected damage to structures with moment-resisting
steel frames in Northridge. Fault fling played a role in Kobe too. It is not mentioned in
current seismic building codes, although it was known in essence since the San
Fernando quake in 1971, and only now is being incorporated in the modern seismic
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building codes in the form of a near-field factor. This example have been shown that the
modern societies do not necessarily have more advanced knowledge that would allow
them to be better prepared for the material loss dimension of natural catastrophes. In
fact the societies technologically developed have a great tendency to settle in
particularly exposed areas and used them for economic activities. This also applied in
highly developed ancient cultures, which in many cases developed and spread along
river courses with a correspondingly high exposure to flood. The earthquake exposure is
also particularly high in river valleys on account of the often deep-reaching, soft,
unconsolidated sediments that lead to an amplification of the ground motions when hit
by earthquake waves.
The quantitative and qualitative dynamism in the development of modern conurbations

leads to an over-proportionate increase in the vulnerability of highly developed societies.
One of the reasons for this is that in this dynamism there is often a preponderance of
short-term economic interests or there are social-political pressures that, for instance,
impede and possibly even prevent the implementation or observance of exposure
zoning in regional planning and building codes. For example the worldwide notorious
structural and commercial use of flood plains is comparable with the structural density of
conurbations like the concentrations of high-rise buildings in the particularly exposed
centre of Mexico City. It is this very construction of skyscrapers that has allowed an
earthquake risk to arise in areas that are removed from any earthquake focus, areas
where the exposure used to be negligible or marginal, such as Singapore, where
earthquakes of the coast of Sumatra threaten the skyscrapers. Another inherent
problem is the liberal and progressed-charged fundamental attitude of a market-oriented
society: Innovation is en vogue, assiduously worded regulations are out of fashion, and
if something is found to be attractive, then it is allowed. This may be demonstrated
clearly using the example of earthquake-resistant construction, with the inexorable trend
towards what is called “performance-based design.” All that is prescribed is the target
that is to be achieved, namely the stability of the structure. How the designing engineer
reaches this target is not defined by tried and tested regulations but is left entirely to his
imagination. This does not mean at all that structures perform less well, performance-
based design is an opportunity, but it is also a risk at the same time.
Risk awareness and particularly risk minimization by means of engineering measures,

like earthquake-resistant or windstorm-resistant design of structures, the erection of
embankment dams for flood control purposes, has two sides to it. On the credit side
there is firstly an undoubted reduction in human loss and secondly, though not at all
inevitably, in material losses too, especially when minor events are involved. On the
debit side there is a decline in exposure awareness due to the very lack of frequent
minor events, which would keep this awareness active. This means that when major
events occur in which the design values are exceeded, such as the earthquakes in
Kobe, Northridge, and in Mexico City in 1985, and the flooding of the Red River in the
north of the United States and the south of Canada in 1997, the population and
administration are sometimes in a completely inadequate state of preparedness.
The example of embankment dams stands for a general tendency to replace the
individual’s own responsibility with a system of directives. This kind of system may
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function for the everyday event or even for the 10-year and 50-year event, but the
vulnerability to uncommon major catastrophes is increased by the decline in exposure
awareness and the accompanying disregard of even the most elementary of
precautions. In addition, when a catastrophe occurs risk awareness is suddenly
activated and is expressed in exaggerated expectations of entitlement. The state is then
expected to pay for the losses when no precautions have been taken to avoid them.
New technologies entail new risks. Concrete is in historical terms a new construction
material even if it was used in building the Pantheon in Rome almost 2,000 years ago.
Further more the reinforced concrete is also a universal material just as English is a
universal language. It is used not only in high technology countries but it was spread
throughout the world by these countries. Numerous earthquakes have radically shaken
RC’s reputation of having great stability. The high quality of material that is actually
attainable is all too often put in question by the many possible errors that can be made
by composing the aggregates with steel reinforcement as well as by economic
circumstances and time of construction required. On a global scale the invention of RC
has certainly not led to a reduction in earthquake losses, although this is nearer the truth
as far as other hazards are concerned such as windstorms. Some surprises came also
from steel frames. Indeed, Northridge earthquake provided evidence of structural
damages to seismic resistant steel-framed buildings. Research into the causes of this
went on for several years and was made more difficult by the fact that a complex
network of contributory causes was involved so that the damage could not be attributed
to one specific and dominant cause. Before Northridge this type of structure has been
generally credited with above-average performance in earthquake. In Kobe too there
were numerous cases of damages to steel structures. The worst of them occurred in a
group of high-rise apartment buildings of a design that was quite unusual and had
therefore not stood the test in practice. Like in Northridge there were extreme cases in
which the massive steel supports completely shared off. Damage to steel structures is
not a specifically American or Japanese problem but one that is encountered throughout
of world. The damages in Northridge led to a suspension of the building codes for steel
structures for almost one year throughout the United States with corresponding delays in
construction projects that had already been launched or were still in the planning stage.
Base isolation and vibration damping is also a relatively new technology which has not
yet been subjected to the test of large earthquake or windstorm events. The aim of
these devices is to cut off the structure from the vibrations to which it is subjected or to
even actively combat these vibrations by electronically controlled dampers. The case of
such one building located about 30 km from the focus of Northridge quake has shown
that the installation have had the intended effect namely of reducing the induced ground
motion in the structure itself. However this case cannot be used as a basis for making
any conclusions on performance at short distances from the focus or in larger sized
earthquakes. Computer models show that in such cases there is a danger that the
building will hit against the foundation trough and be badly damaged as a result. Kobe
did not provide the profession with any examples of seismically isolated structures. The
high rates of ground acceleration recorded there would undoubtedly have been the
exacting test that Northridge was not in account of the distance involved. Such systems
are a classic example of the products of the inventive spirits of engineers whose
potential application is very promising in theory but whose performances under extreme
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loads has not yet been proven and is therefore still uncertain. This applies to the entire
complex of performance-based design of which damping systems are only one part. In
fact one of the immanent goals of engineering efforts is to “trick” nature, a goal that is to
a certain degree determined by the dominance of economic thinking in the choice of
location. New technologies create new and hitherto unimagined possibilities but also
new risk potential. Perhaps the best example are the bridges and tunnels that cross over
active faults like Akashi Bridge in Japan and the bridge that is planned to cross the
Straits of Messina.
Great burdens of the new technologies are the stocks of old buildings. Hardly any
earthquake has ever presented a loss pattern so distinctively dependent of the age of
structures as the earthquake in Kobe. Older structures like the many mid-rise buildings
in the business centre of Kobe reacted to the earthquake forces with brittle fractures and
consequently parts of the buildings and even entire storeys collapsed. In contrast, the
moderate damage to modern buildings erected after the revision of building code in
1971 and 1981 have shown that earthquake-resistant constructions are possible even
for very high seismic loads. This assumes, of course, that the relevant building
regulations are actually observed. But building codes mainly affect new stocks of
buildings. It may be assumed that the entire building stock of any area will be renewed
on average once in about 100 years. The earthquakes of Kobe and Northridge
demonstrated quite emphatically that in terms of the development of building regulations
the performance of the old and overage-building stocks represents a major problem,
which is particularly serious in countries with advanced earthquake technology. As
mentioned above, the main concern of earthquake-resistant constructions, namely the
safeguarding of human life has largely been attained as far as new buildings are
concerned in such countries. As far as the old building fabric is concerned, however, the
risk of mortality continues to be so high and the financial loss so gigantic that increased
efforts is needed to safeguard against earthquake and forces of nature.
Besides the risks involved by load bearing members the non-structural components and
parts of buildings form a primary source of earthquake losses. This was highlighted by
the Northridge earthquake and is typical for highly developed countries with a
corresponding of wealth. Non-structural elements of buildings and facilities like
freestanding garages, swimming pools, driveways, surrounding walls and the contents
are in this category. About a third of the damage to such living units in Northridge was
followed by non-structural damage to the building themselves. In the badly affected area
it was estimated that for each building that suffered structural damage there were at
least twelve and possible as many as forty that suffered non-structural damage. In the
more distant parts of the damage zone this ratio shifts even further towards purely non-
structural damage. On the basis of this rough estimate the structural damage, whose
avoidance is the main goal of building codes, accounted for no more than 10-15% of the
overall damage suffered in the Northridge quake. Such considerations make it clear that
non-structural damage is a relative simple and very promising area on which to focus in
terms of avoiding or reducing earthquake losses.
Particularly in high technology countries indirect losses come from infrastructures. The
Northridge earthquake was an impressive illustration of the vulnerability of infrastructure
616
in modern cities. In this case the main problem was the loss of the road network as the
main transportation route, which led to considerable disruption in commuter and goods
traffic for several months, in a similar way to what happened in the wake of Loma Prieta
quake in 1989 with the closure of the Bay Bridge. A study conducted at the University of
Southern California puts the indirect losses caused by damage to infrastructure and
damage to production firms at US$6bn, which is more than 10% of the pure propriety
damage. The Kobe quake confirmed the experience gained from Northridge in a more
emphatic way, both in terms of the damage to the city itself and in terms of the impact
on the surrounding economic region and on the whole of Japan and beyond. The
considerable disruption of transportation routes and infrastructure makes the Kobe
quake a prime example of indirect losses due to production stoppages and supply
problems. Apart from the stoppage at a steelworks, which suffered what is still by far the
largest ever earthquake loss involving an industrial risk amounting to US$1.3bn, the
most serious case was the interruption at a firm producing high-resolution screens for
portable computers, which lasted several weeks. Five well-known manufacturers of
computers throughout the world suffered the repercussions. The just-in-time supply
system was also hit severely at first in various production sectors like the automobile
industry, which took three weeks to get its business back to normal. Well-founded
quantitative estimates if indirect losses like those for Northridge quake are not available
for Kobe but these losses are likely to have accounted for roughly 50% of the property
losses. It remains to be seen whether Kobe with the harbour as the city’s main employer
will ever regain the economic significance within Japan as a whole that it enjoyed before
the earthquake.
Although the Kobe earthquake did not hit a really major metropolis its effects in the high-
tech sector were of global significance on account of the international network of trade
and economy. This would apply to a much degree if there were a major earthquake in
Greater Tokyo or San Francisco Bay with Silicon Valley. One of the goals of global
networking is to make production goods and information available at all times and in all
places. Nevertheless, as a result of increasing specialization on all levels monopolistic
or oligopolistic know-how and industrial production still exists and is even growing. Such
monopolies range from small suppliers to enormous global groups of companies. The
redundancy targeted by globalization then turns into a new form of dependence.
Increasing networking means less transparency and increasingly complex planning
process like the just-in-time supply system, which are extremely sensitive to any form of
interference, of which natural catastrophes are a prime example. Dependence on
computer technology and telecommunications is universal nowadays and a metropolis
like New York is crippled for days on end by a hundred-year blizzard. In Puerto Rico it
only took a moderate hurricane like Hugo in 1989 to cut off the supply of water and
electricity in the capital San Juan for a whole week. On the basis of recent calculations a
large earthquake in Tokyo would generate an economic loss in the order of
US$1,500bn. Given losses of these proportions, the possibility of the global economy
being affected can no longer rule out. This applies, on the one hand, to shifts in the
structure of production, since destroyed production facilities cannot simply be replaced
at short notice, and foreign competitors can take advantage of this factor. On the other
hand the liquidation of investment needed to pay compensation would induce a rapid
decline in the value of the invested capital, which in Japan is tied up to a large degree in
617
foreign countries, particularly in the United States. Finally, given such a scenario, much
will depend by the economic situation at the time of the catastrophe. The effects of a
natural catastrophe that go beyond the national framework are more probable in high
technology countries than in less developed countries, as evidenced by a comparison of
the Kobe quake and the Tang Shan one in 1976 in China, which was more stronger but
with a purely national impact. It may be tempting to regard scenarios like a major
earthquake in Tokyo or San Francisco as rather improbable “worst case”. But Kobe has
shown that worst case is not a theoretical abstraction but something that can become
reality at any time and at any place. In all its 1,000-year history such a destructive
earthquake has never hit Kobe as on 17th January 1995 [1].
3. MASONRY BUILDINGS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
After years of research, mostly supported by the European Commission, it was found
that a realistic solution would be to endow the modern masonry in building and
structures, cultural heritage including, with the ductility of original masonry [2]. At the
existing levels of both knowledge and technology the only solution immediately available
consists in reinforcing masonry with polymer grids. This innovative method is based on a
Romanian patent. Theoretically the method is based on Prandtl’s approach developed
since 1923 in his Mathematical Theory of Plasticity. One assumes that under
compressive forces, when the ductile mortar reaches its ultimate limit state, bricks
suddenly expel it. The polymer grids, with slender ribs and solid joints, inserted in bed
layers are preventing this ultimate “sandwich effect” and thus the masonry is reinforced.
More exactly the mortar, as the weakest component of masonry, by reinforcing with
polymer grids was strengthened while the existing mechanical qualities of bricks have
been preserved. Laboratory tests and numerical analyses validated this mechanism.
There are now available the results of static tests on 30 specimens of 1D and 2D,
pseudo-dynamic tests on 8 specimens of 2D, seismic tests on 10 models of 3D as well
as two study cases recently completed in Romania. The method is easily applied and
financially attractive while the existing database supports any conceptual design.
Naturally, when one speaks about synthetic reinforcement the first arousing question
refers to its durability. Therefore it should be mentioned that extruding high-density
polypropylene under controlled heating produces the proposed reinforcement for
masonry. During stretching, the randomly oriented long-chain polymer molecules are
drawn to an ordered and aligned state that dramatically increases the tensile strength
and stiffness of the grids. The orientation is maintained through both the ribs and
junctions. From this technique, structural performance is enhanced in three ways.
Firstly, a high modulus ensures mobilization of the high tensile strength at low strains.
Secondly, the tendency for polymers to deform under long-term sustained loading is
substantially reduced as confirmed by long-term testing. Thirdly, since the favourable
molecular orientation is maintained through the junctions, it creates integrated biaxial
grids with solid joints unlike the other types with woven or welded joints.
When placed in a continuous medium such as mortar, the ribs that are transverse to the
direction of primary loading act as a series of bearing surfaces or anchors. This is a
highly efficient mechanism for transferring stress that mobilizes the maximum benefit
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from the grid reinforcement and minimizes anchorage lengths. According to tests
performed at Drexel University, USA, junction strength is 91% to 100% of the tensile
strength of a single rib for integrated biaxial grids. This strength ratio is less than 10%
for non-integrated grids with melt bonded joints and 3% to 13% for non-integrated biaxial
grids with woven joints.
The ribs of the integrated biaxial grids are manufactured with near vertical faces, which
provide an excellent bearing surface for interlocking with aggregate particles of the
mortar. The interlocking mechanism between grid reinforcement and different matrices
has been demonstrated in both laboratory and on site pull out testing. Polarized light
has been used to view the rupture patterns during pull out testing of a grid in a bath
containing sintered glass and glycerine. This effective interlock mechanism combined
with high junction strength, sufficient constraining hoop bursting stress and high tensile
stiffness at low strains, accounts for the efficiency of the biaxial grids in strengthening
mortar and confining masonry.
In their planes the polymer grids are distinguished by two remarkable geometric
qualities. Firstly, they appear as multiple connected surfaces. All apertures are limited
only by continuous and closed curves. Geometric continuity of aperture outlines
guarantees the fluency of tension flows. Avoiding geometric and physic discontinuities
exclude any phenomena of local stress concentration or deviation, known in
Mathematics as “catastrophic”. Secondly, all grid apertures are small, of only several
centimetres, and rigorously equal between them. By this outstanding geometric quality
the grids are able to uniformly distribute, balance and keep under some level the
stresses concentrated around the integrated joints. It is a practical way to fulfil
Bernoulli’s assumption of uniformly stress distribution and reduction the frequency of
their local concentrations. When however the values of stresses are increasing over
some limits they are redistributed to the neighbour joints by a self-protection mechanism
called as mentioned above adaptation. Mechanically, it is a practical way of transferring
the actions of forces as vectors into effects of stresses as tensors.
The reinforcing approach with synthetic grids essentially differs from that used for steel
bars. Polymer grids are firmly fixed in mortar by interlocking of their solid joints. The
mechanism of stress transfer from mortar to grids is discontinuous and produces only
around the solid joints through normal stresses, without the contribution of tangential
stresses like reinforcing concrete. The type of reinforcing is passive that means the
synthetic reinforcement is engaged in service permanently, temporarily or accidentally
according to loading cases. As geogrids the same synthetic reinforcements are used for
more than twenty years to the infrastructures of railways, highways and runways. If
nowadays the distance Brussels-Paris is went through by train in less than two hours
and the transoceanic airplanes have no longer landing or take-off problems are due to
the geogrids. Finally, it should be mentioned that the polymer grids are well preserved in
both lime and lime-cement mortars. The producer guarantees the durability in service of
polymer grids with solid joints for 120 years [3].
Masonry is the oldest construction material with high content of knowledge and wisdom.
During centuries it resisted to severe trials. The glorious tradition of masonry is defied by
619
modern technologies with strange alterations without being properly protected by

legislation. There are strong scientific reasons and practical methods to formally restore
the philosophy of original masonry even forensically if necessary.
4. POPULATION DEVELOPMENTS AND URBAN GROWTH
There is a mathematical law of nature based on the link between climate and food that
leads to exponential growth of population until all resources have been used up and the
system collapses. Since the end of last ice age, about 15,000 years ago, the conditions
on earth have been stable and warm hence extremely favourable to the development of
mankind. This is why climatologists use to speak about the Paradise of Holocene
Epoch. However, what once used to be blessing is now becoming more and more a
danger. Some essential resources, particularly the basic necessity of potable water, are
already in short supply in many regions in the world, and in other cases, like fossil fuels,
it is even possible to calculate when the reserves will be completely exhausted. In spite
of this the population continues to grow almost without restraint and for the first time in
history it appears to be exerting a truly lasting influence on the state of the environment
as a whole. At the middle of the 21st the population is expected to reach 9 billions and due
to advances in medical care the growth will continue. The earth will still able to fed even
such a growing population, especially if agricultural conditions generally improve due to
warmer climate, but the distribution of food will become progressively more difficult
because many densely populated areas will suffer increasingly from dry conditions and
because an ever larger proportion of the people will move into the cities and will have to
be provided for a shrinking rural population.
Urbanization will be one of central problem of the future, also in terms of catastrophe
risk. Most of great natural catastrophes occur in cities or densely populated regions.
Catastrophes loses depend upon the coincidence of an extremely intensive natural
event and a high concentration of people or values. The catastrophe risk is hence
directly correlated with the number of cities that are exposed to hazards. The more
cities there are in the earth’s danger zones, the greater the probability of their being hit
by natural events. According to UN figures about the degree of urbanization in 1950 just
under 30% of the world’s population, i.e. about 2.5 billion lived in cities. In 2000 that
figure has risen to almost 50% of 6 billion and in 2025 it will be over 60% of 8.3 billion.
At the same time the number of cities with a million inhabitants has increased from 83 in
1950 to 360 in 2000, i.e. with a factor of more than four. This trend is particularly
pronounced in countries with a low per-capita income, where the number has increased
by a factor of seven. Even more pronounced is the trend towards mega cities with more
than 10 million inhabitants. In 1950 there was just one such megacity, namely New
York, whereas today there are more than 20, and only 4 of them are in industrialized
countries. In 1950 of 15 largest cities in the world only 4 were in the Third World while in
2015 the same ratio is expected to be 15:12.
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Table 1: The largest five cities in the world

1950 1970 1990 2015
1 New York 12.3 Tokyo 16.5 Tokyo 25.1 Tokyo 28.9
m m m m
2 London 8.7 New York 16.2 New York 16.1 Mumbai 26.2
m m m m
3 Tokyo 6.9 Shanghai 11.2 Mexico City 15.1 Lagos 24.6
m m m m
4 Moscow 5.4 Osaka 9.4 São Paulo 15.1 São Paulo 20.3
m m m m
5 Paris 5.4 Mexico City 9.1 Shanghai 13.3 Dhaka 19.5
m m m m
According to current estimations the possible extent of damage caused by extreme

natural catastrophes in one of the large metropolises and industrial centres of the world
has already attained a level that could result in the collapse of the economic system of
entire countries and may even be capable of affecting financial markets throughout the
world. In the light of experience gained from the Kobe earthquake occurred in 1995 the
loss estimated for an even bigger earthquake in the Great Tokyo would reach amounts
of US$ 1,000 – 3,000bn, and when such dimensions are involved it is difficult to predict
what global shock waves will emanate from an event of this scale. Large cities also tend
in themselves to considerably intensify the hazards emanating from nature. For example
during summers the concrete in buildings of large cities is heated up by the sun’s
radiation more than the surrounding areas so that the heat waves there are much more
unpleasant and sometimes even catastrophic. Summer ozone smog also puts a great
strain on the health of people in and around large cities. The same goes for thermal
inversion weather conditions in the winter when emissions and aerosols accumulate in
the cities [1].
5. CHANGES IN CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
The warming up of climate as a result of human activity was considered first by the
Swedish physicist Svante Arrenius. Since 1896 he has described how the temperature
is affected by higher concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere and the “little ice age” that
lasted for several centuries was coming to an end. The imprint of anthropogenic global
warming became increasingly visible since the beginning of the 20th century. At first the
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere had little impact. This “pollution
filter” of sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxides, aerosols and other trace gases reduced the
irradiation of the earth by the sun. It was only when air control began to improve in the
‘70s that the impact of the man-made greenhouse effect became more and more
evident. In 1979 the United Nations issued its first official call upon the nations to take
the question of climate change seriously. Since 1980 one warm year has been followed
by the next with dramatic records in the final years of the 20th century. The mean global
temperature has reached its highest level since temperature readings were first taken
worldwide almost 150 years ago. Beginning with 1995 the nations of the world has
organized various “climate summits” with the decisive question if the hitherto
uncontrolled experiment called “climate change” could be stopped or not?
621
The greenhouse phenomenon is based on the fact that only some of the short wave
radiation of the earth escapes into the space. The rest is absorbed by trace gases in the
atmosphere and radiated back to earth. These gases are carbon dioxide/CO2, water
vapour/H2O, methane/CH4, nitrous oxide/N2O, ozone/O3 and the
chlorofluorocarbons/CFCs. In their presence the air in atmosphere warms up just like in
a greenhouse. This temperature increase more then 30 degrees produces
temperatures without which life on earth would be impossible in its present form
because the mean global temperature without this natural greenhouse effect would be
about
-15ºC. Since the beginning of industrialization in the late 18th century there has been an
accumulation of trace gases in atmosphere. The main cause of this can only be the
increased release of these gases by mankind. This applies in particular to carbon
dioxide, which accounts for around 50% of the enhanced greenhouse effect caused by
anthropogenic activities. In the course of time the concentration of greenhouse gases
noticeably increased owing to their mostly having long lifetime in the atmosphere. Today
the first effects are clearly visible and scientific proof has been established with regard to
many alarming signs.
The mean global temperature has risen in the past 10 years by some 0.7ºC, which may
seem harmless at first. If we consider the fact that the differences between the ice ages
and the moderate periods in the recent history of our climate have been no more than 5
degrees on average, however, this value assumes a quite different weight. Ocean
temperatures emulate this increase in temperature in the atmosphere. Since the oceans
are capable of storing large amounts of heat, however, there are substantial time lags.
Nevertheless there is proof that the surface temperatures of the oceans in the tropics
have already increased. In the warm water pool of the West Pacific, which acts like a
gigantic weather kitchen, particularly significant temperature increases have been
observed.
High ocean temperatures lead to an exponentially higher rate of evaporation and to

correspondingly elevated water vapour content in the atmosphere. This promotes high
precipitation intensities and tropical cyclones. Studies carried out in the United States,
Europe and Australia show that rainfall intensities are increasing. In many regions of the
middle and high latitudes there has been a shift in rain distribution patterns both in
regional and seasonal terms. In Central Europe e.g. hot dry summers and warm wet
winters. Tropical cyclones can only be generated and sustained in areas where the
ocean surface temperature is at least 27ºC. They take in energy from the warm water
but quickly lose strength in colder areas or over the land. The warming of the oceans
extends the breeding areas for tropical cyclones so that they can occur in regions that
were once not exposed to the peril.
Extensive mountain glacier retreat may be observed throughout the world and has
already assumed dramatic proportions in some regions. This was the outcome of
investigations undertaken by the World Glacier Monitoring Service, UNEP and ETH
Zurich, which looked at more than a thousand glaciers throughout the world. The
glaciers in the Alps, for instance, have lost more than a third of their area and more than
622
half of their volume since their last peak in the middle of the 19th century. The melting of
glaciers contributes to the rise in sea levels. Another factor is the thermal expansion of
ocean waters when the water temperature rises. In global terms the rise in the 20th
century was more than 10 cm. That does not sound very much, but in actual fact for
countries that lie just above sea level, like Bangladesh and the small island states in the
Indian and Pacific Oceans, it constitutes a threat to their very existence.
Since global warming is by no means distributed evenly across the face of the earth, it
also stimulates windstorm activity outside the tropics. As a result there are many areas,
for instance in the North Atlantic, where the differences in temperature and air pressure
have increased. This has resulted in more stormy low-pressure systems and intense
low-pressure systems being observed in this area in recent decades. Changes in
temperature or precipitation patterns at certain times of the year have an impact not only
on ecosystems. They can also trigger or intensify extreme events and natural
catastrophes. In the late ‘80s and early ‘90s substantial windstorm damage was caused
in Europe by a series of mild winters like those that are also expected in warmer
climates. This was due to the fact that in winters with little snow the cold high-pressure
system over Eastern Europe is les pronounced and thus some of its blocking effect is
lost. In the end it allows the stormy low-pressure system coming in from the Atlantic to
penetrate far into the continent. This was exactly the situation that was exhibited by the
1990 series of windstorms, which generated damage costing many billions. A further
problem may arise in terms of flooding. In mild winters, when there is no snow, the rain
fills the pores in the soil with water.
Excess rain, from a winter low-pressure system for instance, cannot infiltrate the soil and
is forced to flow off on the surface. The rapid swelling of flood waves in rivers then leads
to flooding. Numerous catastrophes in Europe have already been caused by “natural
sealing”, as this phenomenon is called, e.g. the ruinous Christmas floods on the Rhine
and Mosel in 1993 and the Rhine floods of January 1995.
Many other changes have occurred on the earth. These include the hitherto
inadequately addressed problem of large-scale destruction of the soil through
deforestation, overgrazing and other anthropogenic activities. There are also noticeable
changing in fauna and flora, from the decrease of in variety of species to forest and even
the increase of tropical diseases outside their original areas of spread. Climate change
is just one of the many factors that are involved in these cases, but in many instances it
plays a fundamental role.
For the 21st century it is not possible to forecast with precision all the expected effects of
climate changes. However, in view of population development and the economic trends
to be expected in the most densely populated regions of the world, it is likely that the
emission of greenhouse gases will increase in the future at an even faster rate than in
the past. To this extent, then, a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide even in
the first half of the 21st century would appear to be quite realistic, namely from 280
parts/million in the pre-industrial period to 350 parts/million in 1990 and 560 parts/million
in 2030. By the end of 21st century the mean global temperature will have risen with
several degrees, namely with about 1-4 degrees. The .2-0.3 degree average increase
623
per decade that is responsible for this represents a massive acceleration compared with
the increase of 0.7 degrees every 100 years observed in the past. The speed is so high
that numerous ecosystems, many types of forest including, will probably not able to
adapt at an adequate rate. The thermal inertia of the oceans mentioned above and the
buffer effect of the increase in snowfall in the cold regions like Antarctica make difficult
to do precise forecasts. It is possible that sea levels will rise at a somewhat slower rate
than originally feared. A rise of about 50 cm is expected by the year 2100. If the worst
case were to occur, involving a rise of just less than one metre, numerous islands like
the Marshall and Maldives, heavily populated costal areas of Bangladesh and economic
areas the Nile and Niger Deltas would be confronted with a serious threat to their
existence.
The dramatic retreat of inland glaciers in the majority of earth’s mountain regions will
continue. If the current rates of retreat are maintained, all that will be left of the once so
mighty Alpine glaciers at the end of 21st century, for instance, will be a few meagre
remains, with the result that Europe will lose its largest drinking water reservoir. An
equally significant factor is the increase in humidity resulting from higher rates of
evaporation, as this exerts a decisive influence on al precipitation and convection
processes in the troposphere. Consequently, we will have to expect not only more
torrential rain, flash floods debris flows but also more thunderstorms, hailstorms and
lightening strokes as well as more tornados.
As far as tropical winds like hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones are concerned there will
probably be an increase not only in their intensity but also and to a distinct degree in the
length of their seasons and in the extent of the regions in which they occur. Winter
storms like extra-tropical stormy low-pressure systems could also become stronger and
could also penetrate further into continental zones.
Even if the rising CO2 content in the atmosphere improves the growing conditions for
many plants and at the same time reduces their need of water it will be in the long term
the negative agricultural effects that predominate in many countries, many on account of
the increased stress of heat and dryness.
The winners will be those countries that can adapt their agriculture to the changing
conditions quickly, and those will naturally be the highly developed countries, while the
less developed ones will fall even further behind as a result. Not all effects have to be
negative, however. In the middle and sub-polar latitudes many countries may find that
the cost of winter heating will be reduced and in the long term the frost hazard will
considerably decline. In the contrary, in some regions energy consumption will increase
for air conditioning during the summer and more heat waves will cause additional
damages. The extreme heat waves at the end of ‘90s have shown in many parts of the
world how dramatic these events can be in their effect on the economy and population.
As far as in terms of extreme events are concerned there is still a great need for
research. But the analysis of long term measurements and computer models have
already given numerous new indications that the occurrence probabilities for extreme
values of various meteorological parameters have already undergone or will undergo
624
significant change. And since neither ecosystems nor mankind itself are very well
prepared for extreme events, it is in these changes that the largest loss potentials are to
be found. The oceans must also be the subjects of more detailed research, especially as
far as their current patterns are concerned. Ocean circulation is a central distributor of
heat around the globe and exerts a decisive influence on the world’s climate. If the
complex circulation system is disturbed the effects to be expected are grave. At the end
of the ‘90s it was calculated that even small increases in temperature were capable of
changing the salt water content of the oceans, which is also driving force behind current.
Snowmelt and rain, for instance, could slow down or even switch of the warm Gulf
Stream protecting Europe from the icy polar air. As paradoxical as it may sound, global
warming could present Europe with a new ice age.
The results of recent research suggest that El Niño and La Niña may also be affected by
climate change. Global warming could generate more frequent El Niño events or could
intensify them or prolong them. Since these so called ENSO phenomena have a lasting
effect on the weather and on natural catastrophes in many regions of the world a further
deterioration in the risk situation must be expected. A number of attempts have been
made in the recent times to assess the cost of anthropogenic climate change worldwide.
The results of these analyses are unmistakable: in the long term the cost of preventive
strategies is much lowers the cost than the losses to be expected as a result of climate
change, which could easily be in the range of US$ 100 billion/year. This would be price
of the gigantic experiment on earth’s climate the mankind is in process of performing. As
yet it has hardly any control over this experiment and has no idea of the outcome.
However this experiment could have a dramatic effect on future conditions for human life
on this planet. Therefore every effort must be made to mitigate climatic change and to
restrict the impact as much as possible.
CONCLUSION
More the high techs are advancing more the risk of great natural catastrophes and
changes in climate are increasing. The lessons of this global and puzzling paradox are
of great interest for the programs of higher education. Conceptual conflicts maintained
by modern societies should cease [4]. Only together people of all professions could still
keep the phenomena developing on the Earth under control before is being too late.
AKNOWLEDGEMNTS
The financial support of the European Commission DGXII for Science, Research &
Development through the INCO Copernicus Project IC15-CT96-0203 Euroquake and
Ecoleader-Seriate Program is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to
RichterGard System, based in Blackburn UK, for supplying the polymer grids used in
testing programs as well as to Munich Re Group in Germany, particularly to Dr. Gerhard
Bertz, Dr. Anselm Smolka and Ms. Angelika Wirtz, for offering scientific documents
devoted to higher education programs.
REFERENCES
[1]. Munich Re Group Topics 2000. Special millennium issue. Munich 2000.
625
[2]. ICOMOS/ISCARSAH Recommendations for the analysis, conservation and

structural restoration of architectural heritage. Paris, 13 September 2001.
[3]. Sofronie, R., “Masonry and the defiance of technology”. Proceedings of the National
Convention on Engineering and Law: Forensic Engineering, Tasks and Responsibilities
in the Building Process. University of Architecture, Venice 5-6 December 2002.
[4]. Zumthor, P. Babel ou l’inachèvement, Édition du Seuil, Paris 1997.
626
ASSESSMENT BENEFITS IN ENVIRONMENT PROJECTS.

THE CONTINGENT VALUATION METHODa
Cristián González Becerra

Ph.D(c) in Econometrics, University of Geneva
Uni-Mail, 102 bd Carl-Vogt, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
Email: Cristian.Gonzalez@metri.unige.ch
Telephone: +41 (0) 22 7058218; Fax: +41 (0)22 7058299
ABSTRACT
The contingent valuation method (CVM) involves the use of sample surveys (questionnaires) to elicit
the willingness of respondents to pay for (generally) hypothetical projects or programs. The name of
the method refers to the fact that the values revealed by respondents are contingent upon the
constructed or simulated market presented in the survey. The method thus aims to translate their
willingness to pay (WTP) into a specific monetary value.
The objective of the study is to propose the maximum benefits for the willingness to pay that would
allow evaluating, from the social point of view, sewer and sanitary projects in Chile. Using this
methodology, combined with an interview process, one can determinate who will specifically benefit
from wastewater treatment and sewer projects and by how much. The interview process also reveals
the relative importance of these projects to individuals residing and visiting these cities. The project is
described and its benefits are outlined; a series of questions are designed for comprehension
purposes of the questionnaire and to ultimately fix a price that the individual would be willing to pay for
the project.
Keywords: contingent valuation, willingness to pay, non-market goods valuation,

cost-benefit analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The CVM is one of the standard approaches for valuing public goods and
nonmarketed resources, such as recreation and environmental quality. It circumvents
the absence of markets for public goods by presenting consumers with hypothetical
markets in which they have the opportunity to buy the good in question. The ultimate
aim, therefore, of a contingent valuation survey typically is to obtain an accurate
estimate of the benefits of a change in the level of provision of some public good,
which can then be used in a cost-benefit analysis.
The survey was classified according to the regions they represent and their location,
in terms of coastal (Tongoy, Pichilemu, and Calbuco) or continental areas
(Cauquenes, La Unión and Río Bueno). The geographical location is important
because watershed characteristics, such as drainage, have an impact on habitants’
willingness to pay for potential projects.
The proposed projects can be divided into two general categories, the installation of
sewer networks and secondly, providing for wastewater sanitary treatment.
Interviews were conducted in order to obtain residents’ interest for both sets of
projects. For localities where the tourism is important, additional questionnaire
surveys were designed for tourists to determine their willingness to pay for public
sanitary works.
a
627
The questionnaires used for the different types of projects and cities were thoroughly
designed by applying techniques that have been highly recommended and used
successfully in similar studies. These include the use of focal groups, intensive
interviews and pilot questionnaire. The study is applied to select cities whose diverse
characteristics make them representative of a broad range of Chilean cities, thereby
making the results more useful for future project evaluation. Additionally, an
emphasis was placed in the selection of the cities that have complete information
about projects and costs, so these could then be used in the evaluation procedure.
The study is summarized in the following table:
Region Area Sewer Wastewater Tourists

Network Treatment
North Coastal Tongoy Tongoy Tongoy
Continent - - -
al
Central Coastal Pichilemu Pichilemu Pichilemu
Continent Cauquene Cauquenes -
al s
South Coastal Calbuco Calbuco -
Continent - La Unión/Río -
al Bueno
1. METHODOLOGY
1.1 Econometric Models
In order to determine the benefits of this project we use the contingent valuation
method (CVM). This methodology applies a questionnaire designed to allow the
respondents to choose between the options of either accepting or rejecting the public
works project with given prices. This redundant is based on how much they are
willing to pay for it.
There is a range of 5 to 6 option values that were randomly chosen and placed in
each questionnaire prior to each interview. In those cases that the respondent gave
an affirmative response to accept the project, there was a second question (second
given price) available for them, which asked whether they were willing to pay more
than that indicated in the questionnaire. On the other hand, in the case that the
respondent did not accept the given price, another question was provided in the
questionnaire, which gave a lower price option for the willingness to pay for the
project.
The following presents the econometric analysis of the separate responses to the
first option offered. Thereafter, an analysis is conducted based on both options
together.
1.1.1. Single-Bounded Model
The econometric analysis attempts to predict a level of acceptance of a project by

formulating a model that associates the probability of obtaining a positive response
628
given the prices and other socioeconomic variables or preferences of a person being
interviewed. Theoretical elements and econometric aspects about single-bounded
model can be found in the works of Michael W. Hanemann [7], [8].
In practice, it is common to use the logistic distribution to determine the percentage

of acceptance, in which the probability of obtaining a positive response of the first
option is given by the following expression:
1
(1) P (Yes ) =
1 + exp( − α − β p )
In which α and β are parameters that can be interpreted as being part of an indirect
utility function that abides by the decision made by the person being interviewed. The
positive value of the parameter α can expand itself in order to represent a linear
combination of the socioeconomic characteristics or the interviewee’s preferences.
The parameter β is the coefficient of the price with a negative sign. The letter p is the
given price even though there are other models that used the natural logarithm of the
given price as the exogenous variable. It is important to highlight that the right hand
side of equation (1) can take values between 0 and 1, and thus, it can be interpreted
as the probability of accepting the project.
From the given price data and the option chosen by each individual, the econometric
analysis attempts to estimate parameters α and β in equation (1) by the maximum
likelihood method. In this method the parameters are estimated in order to maximize
the total probability of the sample from the responses observed. In the case of a
binary option, the maximizing function is the following1[6]:
(2) log L = ∑ (d y log P(YES ) + (1 − d y )(1 − log P (YES )) )

n
y =1
Where,
L: is the likelihood function to be maximized, and log L is a monotonic

transformation of that same function.
dy: is the dummy variable that is equal to 1 if the person interviewed

accepted the project, and equal to 0 if the respondent did not accept it.
P(YES): is the probability of accepting the project according to the logistic

equation (1).
Statistical programs like SPSS, LIMDEP and others have routines that are able to
solve this optimization and determine, at the same time, the variance and covariance
of the estimates of α and β. The final values are used to establish the significance
value for the t-test of the coefficients. The median value for the willingness to pay
(WTP) that is used in the evaluation of projects is obtained by solving in equation (1),
the value p, for which the probability of obtaining a positive response of acceptance
of the project is 50 %. Therefore, this equation corresponds to the following:
1
See an example in Greene, William H.: Econometric Analysis, Third Edition. Prentice Hall, 1997. Chapter 19.
629
α 
( 3 )WTP = −  
β 
It is important to highlight that this value is constant for each of the individuals in the
sample, when the simple model is used and has only the price as the exogenous
variable. In a more extended model, that also incorporates other exogenous
covariates that can vary for each individual, one obtains:
1  n
( 4 )WTPi = −   * ∑ α j X ij
β  j =1
Where,
Xij: represents the value of the variable j for the individual i.
αj: is the coefficient of the variable Xij in equation (1).
In this case, with covariates, the model permits to estimate the WTP of each
individual in the sample. In order to obtain the WTP of the population being studied,
one determines the average WTPi for all the individuals. In linear models like
equation (4), it is possible that the model predicts negative values of the WTPi for
some individuals. This does not make sense from the economic point of view, it is
common to designate a 0 as the minimum value of the WTPi.
In addition, in any linear or nonlinear model, it is probable that, for a certain number
of cases, the WTPi may predict excessively in relation to some indicator or reference
parameter. In these cases, we have the proportion of the WTP over the declared
family income of the person being interviewed as the upper limit of the WTPi. Setting
this a priori limit, which is the maximum percentage of the relation between the WTP
and the income, we can adjust the results in a manner that the WTPi does not
exceed that limit for any observation in the sample, in other words, a truncated limit
of 5% of the annual family income. Taking into account these adjustments, one can
proceed and obtain the average value for the sample of the all the WTPi.
In determining the WTP, one sets a quotient between α and β, or some other
transformation of this coefficient. Since these values are random values, it is
important to obtain the variance of the WTP that is a random variable. Unfortunately,
a direct exact expression does not exist, in order to obtain the variance of the
coefficient of the two random variables. Of the diverse methods available in the
literature, in this document, the variance of the WTP is determined by the Monte-
Carlo method.
The Monte-Carlo method extract from a multivariable normal distribution the mean
and variance obtained from the maximum likelihood function, a high level of iterations
(1,000) of α and β can calculate the value of WTP using equation (3). Then, the WTP
variance is the standard error from these iterations. Moreover, the WTP variance with
covariates is the mean value of the WTPi using equation (4).
630
1.1.2. Double-Bounded Model
In order to obtain the willingness to pay, the survey utilized the double-bounded
model. In this model, if the respondent answered affirmatively to the option of
accepting or not accepting the project according to the first given price, they were
then asked to indicate their willingness to pay a higher second given price. On the
contrary, if the person did not accept the first price, they were given the opportunity to
choose a lower second given price. Econometrically we can determine the maximum
willingness to pay, which results in considering both responses given for each
individual interviewed, the Hanemann, Loomis and Kanninen model is used [9]. This
model is briefly described below.
The responses to both price opinions in the sample can be classified into four
possible cases. These correspond to a: dyy, dyn, dny, dnn, whereby dij represents a
dummy variable equal to 1 if the case corresponds to situation i,j where i,j can take
the value of YES (y) or NO (n). For example, in the case that the response was YES
to the first option and NO to the following option, then dyn=1 and dij=0 in the other
case.
The log-likelihood function of the double-bounded model is given by:
∑ (d ln F yy + d yn ln F yn + d ny ln Fny + d nn ln Fnn )
n
(5) log L = yy
i =1
Where Fij represents the probability that one family corresponds to ij, and:
(6) F(p) = Prob(WTP < p) = Prob (response NO/p)

Where p is the given price and WTP is the maximum willingness to pay for the
individual interviewed. This is considered a random variable, which is not observed,
with a probability distribution F.
Thus, applying the basic rules of probability, one obtains:
(7) Fyy = 1-F(Pu)
Where Pu is the given price for the second option, if in the first option the individual
being interviewed answers affirmatively:
(8) Fyn = F(Pu) - F(Pa)
Where Pa is the given price in the first option.
(9) Fny = F(Pa) - F(Pd)
Where Pd is the given price in the second option, if in the first option the person
interviewed answers negatively.
(10) Fnn= F(Pd)
631
In empirical applications, it is common to use the logistic distribution to define the F

function, in which the:
(11) Prob (YES) = 1-F(p; α,β) = 1/(1+exp(-α-βp))

Where α can represent a linear combination of independent variables that are in
addition to the price. The price (p) can be substituted by its logarithm or by another
transformation.
Substituting specification (11) in (7), (8), (9) and (10) and all of these in equation (5),
one can obtain a parametric Log L expression in α and β. To solve the maximum Log
L, it is necessary to use non-linear optimization programs. In this study, the
MINIMIZE of LIMDEP 7.0 was used. This program permits to obtain a matrix of
second derivatives, which inversely corresponds asymptotically to the matrix of
covariance of the coefficients.
As in the case of the single-bounded model, one can establish the maximum
willingness to pay by solving in equation (11), the value of p, for which the probability
of obtaining a positive response is 50 %. In this manner, from the logistic model, the
maximum willingness to pay (WTP) is given by:
(12) WTP = -  α 

β
This model can be expanded to incorporate covariates in the case that the situation
in equation (4) occurs in the single-bounded model, with all the prior considerations
that were indicated for that case.
1.1.3. Aggregation
In order to have values that can be extrapolated to other cities in the country for
evaluating future projects, it is necessary to identify a set of variables or common
models for each application. It is also important to verify whether or not the results of
the model significantly differ from the results of the individual models applied.
To accomplish this, the following general econometric model is presented which

applies to pooling the data for each type of questionnaire. This idea is used in
Richard T. Carson and others [4]:
(13) P(YES) = 1/(1 + exp(-λi))

n n n n
(14) λi = α + β0P + ∑
j =1
βjXij + ∑
k =1
γkCik + ∑ ∑ δjk Xij Cijk
j=1 k =1
Where,
The equation (13) is the formula for the logistic distribution; -λi according to the
interpretation of Hanemann, is the measure of the level of change in the indirect
utility of the individual ith with and without the project. In this equation we have the
following variables and parameters:
632
α: Regression constant.
β0 : Price coefficient P, or its logarithm.
βj : Coefficients of the J independent variables Xj of socioeconomic

characteristic or preferences of each person interviewed.
γk : Coefficients of the K explicative variable Ck, where each one is a

dummy variable that represents each survey city. K + 1 is the number
of cities in the model.
δjk : Coefficient of the J*K interaction (products) coefficients between

variables Xj and Ck.
In order to obtain the median WTP, one proceeds to clear-up P in equation (14) in
the manner that λi = 0. That way, the WTP is a function of each of the variables and
parameters indicated in the equation. From the model discussed, one can test
several hypotheses in relation to the similarity of differences that exist between the
WTP estimated for each city. In the simplest case whereby the null hypothesis γk = δjk
= 0, ∀j,k, then one can conclude that there is a unique model that would explain the
WTP of all the cities; as well as the differences in the estimated values for each
locality only reflect variation in attributes Xi for each city.
If only the null hypothesis of δjk = 0, ∀j,k then that indicates that there are city effects
that displace the willingness to pay curve by factors that were not measured in the
questionnaire. On the other hand, a situation may arise that the null hypothesis γk =
0, ∀k, in this case, there would be differences between cities that would be explained
by the absence or presence of certain variables that are particularly important in this
city and are not in others. Either of these situations gives the opportunity to refuse
the unique model. It is necessary to analyze the “city effects” in order to suggest new
hypotheses that permit their grouping in some useful manner, thus making the results
applicable to other cities in Chile.
2. TOURIST SURVEY ANALYSIS
The analysis and conclusions obtained from the socioeconomic survey applied to
tourists that were vacationing in the cities of Tongoy and Pichilemu during the last
week of February of 1999 are presented. The exchange rate currency at February
26th 1999 is US$ 1 (American dollar) equals $ 478 (Chilean pesos).
2.1. Options Chosen by Price and Willingness to Pay
The following includes the first analysis of the responses given by those interviewed
relating to the acceptance or rejection of the project according to the given price. A
more detailed analysis will be presented later. This considers the inclusion of other
variables that affected the opinion given by the tourists and their willingness to pay
for the project. Tables II.1 indicate the distribution of responses according to the
given price for Tongoy. Additionally, the results are presented that deal with
determining the proper fit of the logistic curve to the responses in terms of the price
given and its logarithm.
633
Considering the total sample for Tongoy, the lowest price given is $500, which
represented 89% of the responses, this drops uniformly as the price given increases
reaching up to 12% for a price of $10,000 per stay day. The curve limit value of 50%
has an acceptance price of $3,960. This value is obtained by a simple linear
interpolation. Considering the neoclassical consumer theory, this value is associated
with the maximum willingness to pay that is usually used in projects of economic
evaluation.
Table II.1 First Option Response Tongoy (Total Sample)

Price 1 Yes Cases Total %Yes - P1 %PRED P1 %PRED LP1
(thous. $/day)
0.5 55 62 89% 83% 92%
2.5 38 59 64% 69% 58%
5.0 24 60 40% 44% 35%
7.5 14 62 23% 22% 24%
10.0 7 59 12% 9% 18%
3 138 302 46% 64% 52%
Price 1 in thousand $ , feb. 1999. ALPHA= 1.817 1.564
BETA= -0.410 -1.349
WTP= 4.431 3.187
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% %Yes - P1
% YES
%PRED P1
50% %PRED LP1
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
PRICE (thousand $/day)
The proper fit according to the logit equation permits to establish that the maximum
willingness to pay is $4,431 for the linear model and $3,187, for the log-price model.
The most detailed econometric analysis suggests that the linear model has
proportionately a better fit, hence it will be used here onward.
Table II.2 suggests that the estimated willingness to pay for Pichilemu and Tongoy
are notably different. For one, the WTP value varies between $20,091 for Pichilemu
and $41,021 for Tongoy. This reflects a discrepancy of 2:1 between both localities.
The variables (PRICE, NDAY, INCOME, and EVEPAY) in both models have very
different coefficients; it can also be observed that there are variables that are
significant in one locality and not in the other, which shows the presence of “city
effects”.
634
Table II.2 Second Option Responses Econometrics Results

S E C O N D O P T IO N
RESPONSES
TONGOY P IC H IL E M U
A v e ra g e A v e ra g e
V a ria b le s L in e a r In d e p . V a r. L in e a r In d e p . V a r.
C o n s ta n t 0 .8 1 8 3 1 .9 1 4 1
(t-s ta t) (1 ,8 3 6 ) (4 ,7 5 8 )
P R IC E -0 .5 2 0 3 5 .0 9 2 -0 .6 2 1 2 3 .9 4 4
(t-s ta t) (-1 1 ,9 2 8 ) (-1 2 ,4 2 3 )
NDAY -0 .0 4 4 6 1 2 .0 4 0 -0 .0 7 9 1 7 .0 6 8
(t-s ta t) (-2 ,3 9 1 ) (-2 ,9 1 8 )
IN C O M E 0 .0 0 0 2 4 7 0 1 ,3 3 0 0 .0 0 0 5 4 4 4 381
(t-s ta t) (1 ,9 9 1 ) (1 ,1 1 1 )
EVEPAY 1 .3 2 5 5 0 .6 3 7 6 0 .5 5 7 0 0 .5 2 0 0
(t-s ta t) (3 ,8 5 6 ) (2 ,2 0 1 )
M HEALTH 0 .8 1 8 6 0 .3 2 5 7 - -
(t-s ta t) (2 ,5 4 3 )
M BASEW 1 .9 6 2 3 0 .0 4 1 3 - -
(t-s ta t) (3 ,1 5 8 )
M CLEAN 0 .5 5 4 0 0 .3 1 1 9 - -
(t-s ta t) (1 ,6 2 7 )
DAYPAY - - 0 .0 2 1 0 1 3 .2 7
(t-s ta t) (1 ,4 5 0 )
M BSMELL - - -0 .7 4 9 6 0 .0 5 2
(t-s ta t) (-1 ,0 2 5 )
N 218 250
Log L -2 3 0 .4 6 -3 1 3 .3 5
Log Lo -2 9 1 .1 9 -3 4 1 .7 7
M o d e l C h i- s q 1 2 1 .4 7 5 6 .8 4
P se u d o -R 2 0 .2 1 0 .0 8
% h it p r e d ic tio n 5 4 .1 % 4 3 .6 %
W T P (th o u s a n d $ /d a y ) 1 /
M e d ia n 3 ,7 9 8 3 ,3 6 6
std W T P 0 .3 0 2 0 .2 2 1
c v W T P (% ) 7 .9 % 6 .6 %
W T P I (th o u s a n d $ /d a y ) 2 /
A v e ra g e 3 ,7 9 8 3 ,3 6 6
std W T P 0 .1 2 3 0 .0 6 1
c v W T P (% ) 3 .2 % 1 .8 %
W T P T O T A L (th o u s a n d $ ) 3 /
A v e ra g e 4 1 ,0 2 1 2 0 ,0 9 1
std W T P 2 .1 3 5 0 .5 9 5
c v W T P (% ) 5 .2 % 3 .0 %
W T P T R (th o u s a n d $ ) 4 /
A v e ra g e 3 ,8 1 0 3 ,3 6 9
std W T P 0 .1 2 1 0 .0 6 1
c v W T P (% ) 3 .2 % 1 .8 %
W T P T O T T R (th o u s a n d $ ) 5 /
A v e ra g e 4 1 ,3 9 1 2 0 ,1 7 8
std W T P 2 .0 9 3 0 .5 7 8
c v W T P (% ) 5 .1 % 2 .9 %
N o te :
1 / W T P M e d ia n f o r a n a v e ra g e f a m ily .
2 / A v e ra g e o f th e W T P fo r e a c h fa m ily .
3 / A v e ra g e o f th e W T P fo r e a c h fa m ily tim e s th e n u m b e rs o f d a y s o f s ta y .
4 / A v e ra g e o f th e W T P f o r e a c h f a m ily , w ith W T P = 0 f o r n e g a tiv e s v a lu e s a n d u p p e r b o u n d in o r d e r th a t
th e W T P m o re th e p a y m e n t p e r d a y tim e s th e n u m b e r o f d a y s o f s ta y d o n o t s u r p a s s th e 5 % o f th e a n n u a l in c o m e .
5 / A v e ra g e o f th e W T P T R tim e s th e n u m b e r o f d a y s o f s ta y .
With the target to analyze the significance of the differences, the data for both cities
has been processed together. To enable this, the final sample (that it does not have
inconsistent data) for each locality complete set of 468 cases has been used applied.
The analysis followed the identical steps used for defining the individual models. The
stepwise procedure is used for the entire data set of possible explained variables and
then, a reduced set is chosen based on the acceptance of 95% confidence in order
to estimate the first price acceptance. Once these variables are chosen, the model
with both prices is processed for the final sample.
The results are truncated in order to assure positive WTP values and also lower
values to the maximum criteria of acceptance (5% of the annual family income). For
this, only the linear function method is used because it is the most appropriate for
both individual models. For each case, all the interest statistics components are
635
obtained and the different options of the willingness to pay were determined. The
final results are shown in Table II.3.
Table II.3 Willingness to pay per Locality Model without city effects
Average Values to Independent Variables 1/ WTP Factor 3/ WTPTOTTR
LOCALITY NDAY INCOME EVEPAY CONSTANT $/fam/day $/fam/year
Tongoy 12.040 1'330 0.6400 1.00 3.636 9'772 35'531
Pichilemu 7.070 381 0.5200 1.00 3.492 5'651 19'734
Total cases 9.382 823 0.575 1.00 3.557 7'615 27'090
Coefficients logit model -0.0806 0.000377 0.9366 1.63540

Price coefficient -0.4857
Contribution to the WTP 2/ -0.1659 0.000776 1.9284 3.3671
Note:
1/ Econometric Model without city effects.
2/ Coefficient of each variable divided by the negative coefficient price.
3/ Coefficient in order to get a WTP value per day to year. It is 0.8 to the number of day average declared.
3. SEWAGE NETWORK SURVEY ANALYSIS
The analysis was placed in households of the localities mentioned that have existing
proposed sewage projects. The following localities had the following sample cases
obtained: 299 in Calbuco, 300 in Tongoy, 293 in Pichilemu and 299 in Cauquenes.
The fieldwork was placed in May 1999. The exchange rate currency at May 31st,
1999 is US$ 1 (American Dollar) equals to $487 (Chilean Pesos).
The WTP values using individual econometric model vary significantly among the
four cities surveyed; there is no evident relation among these values and
characteristics of the city. There are values that are relatively similar for the cities of
Calbuco and Pichilemu, both go over $7,000 per family a month and significantly
inferior values for Tongoy ($5,709) and Cauquenes ($3,707).
According to the total results as a pooled data Table III.1, eleven variables are
statistically significant. These explain the acceptance of the project for both prices.
These variables naturally include the log of the price, the log of the income and the
variable DCONNEC that can be observed in all of the individual models. Added to
these are variables related with the primary problems identified in the neighborhood
such as: the absence of sewage network (MSEWER), health problems (MHEALTH),
and the lack of hygiene (MLACKH); all the problems are relevant to the project.
Also, there are additional variables that measure specific problems because of the
absence of a sewage network: presence of bad odors (MBADODOR), the danger
children may encounter when they play in contaminated watersheds (MZDANGE)
and the age of the septic tank (DFUNSET). Finally; variables that indicate the
preferences of the respondents are the urgent need to be connected to the sewage
network (DURGSOL) and the preference to dispose of sewer water by using the
public network as a method to get rid of sewer water (DPUBSEW). It seems evident
that the pooled model has incorporated a series of variables that the individual
models do not always show as being significant.
636
Table III.1 Pooled Data First and Second Option Responses

Econometrics Results
FIRST SECOND Average Independent

OPTION RESPONSE OPTION RESPONSE Variable
Variables LINEAL LOGARITHMIC LINEAL LOGARITHMIC LINEAL LOGARITHMIC
Constant -2.7745 -6.8727 -1.1774 -4.5146

(t-stat) (-2,929) (-6,423) (-2,145) (-6,805)
PRICE / LNPRICE -0.2822 -1.9831 -0.3507 -2.3308 7.5480 1.7540
(t-stat) (-14,408) (14,446) (-25,931) (-25,868)
INCOME / LNINCOME 0.0036 1.3279 0.0033 1.0483 179.9613 4.8890
(t-stat) (5,760) (10,124) (13,348) (11,777)
DEDUC 0.4020 - 0.1590 - 0.3636 -
(t-stat) (2,450) (1,205)
MSEWER 2.8403 2.7991 1.7754 2.5138 0.8763 0.8763
(t-stat) (3,194) (3,515) (2,952) (4,630)
MLACKH 0.4538 0.3936 0.3956 0.2950 0.2212 0.2212
(t-stat) (2,434) (2,052) (2,841) (2,043)
DFUNSET -0.5024 -0.5682 -0.5747 -0.6755 0.3946 0.3946
(t-stat) (-3,154) (-3,337) (-4,429) (-5,149)
DCONNEC 0.8930 0.8005 0.7708 0.6605 0.7198 0.7198
(t-stat) (5,029) (4,236) (5,197) (4,465)
DURGSOL 2.5195 2.3220 1.5067 2.0931 0.1097 0.1097
(t-stat) (2,778) (2,852) (2,448) (3,725)
MBADODOR -0.5797 -0.5835 -0.2320 -0.2391 0.5127 0.5127
(t-stat) (-3,692) (-3,560) (-1,851) (-1,872)
DPUBSEW 1.1757 1.2937 0.9920 1.1311 0.9672 0.9672
(t-stat) (2,264) (2,364) (2,219) (2,914)
MZDANGE 2.1727 1.9490 1.4062 1.0398 0.0112 0.0112
(t-stat) (2,427) (2,289) (2,523) (1,623)
MHEALTH - -0.5869 - -0.8131 - 0.1396
(t-stat) (-2,415) (-4,490)
N 1067 1067 1067 1067

Log L -531.42 -488.20 -1327.89 -1212.79
Log Lo -739.07 -739.08 -1474.08 -1474.08
Model Chi-sq 415.29 501.75 292.38 522.59
Pseudo-R2 0.28 0.34 0.10 0.18
% hit prediction 75.4% 77.1% 43.6% 48.6%
WTP (thousand $) 2/
Median 7'826 6'325 7'056 6'026
std WTP 0.274 0.244 0.189 0.160
cv WTP (%) 3.5% 3.9% 2.7% 2.7%
WTPI (thousand $) 3/
Average 7'826 7'876 7'056 6'700
std WTP 0.120 0.181 0.080 0.096
cv WTP 1.5% 2.3% 1.1% 1.4%
WTPTR (thousand $) 4/
Average 6'433 6'953 5'980 6'089
std WTP 0.124 0.167 0.094 0.104
cv WTP 1.9% 2.4% 1.6% 1.7%
Average WTP/Income 4.19% 4.28% 4.11% 4.12%
WTPTR C1 (thousand $) 4/
Average 7'312 7'815 6'788 7'063
std WTP 0.182 0.271 0.136 0.180
cv WTP 2.5% 3.5% 2.0% 2.5%
Average 6'971 7'461 6'464 6'184
std WTP 0.293 0.381 0.220 0.215
cv WTP 4.2% 5.1% 3.4% 3.5%
Average 6'627 7'307 6'022 6'353
std WTP 0.254 0.353 0.191 0.219
cv WTP 3.8% 4.8% 3.2% 3.5%
Average 4'769 5'180 4'591 4'722
std WTP 0.215 0.294 0.168 0.188
cv WTP 4.5% 5.7% 3.7% 4.0%
By pooling all the sewage data, while ignoring the city effects, the maximum
willingness to pay reaches $6,089 per family per month. Part of the difference is
because the median values of the different explained variables differ among cites. In
637
order to detect this effect, the econometric model estimated is considered,

incorporating the average predetermined WTP from the individual data for each city.
The values are presented for each city in the second column of Table III.2.
Table III.2 Willingness to pay for sewage projects

($/fam/month, May 1999)
City Individual Pooled Model (2)/(1)

Model Without city effects
(1) (2)
Calbuco 7,719 7,063 -8.5%
Tongoy 5,709 6,184 +8.3%
Pichilemu 7,117 6,352 -10.8%
Cauquene 3,707 4,722 +27.4%
s
Total 6,089
(1) Model that considers each city independently.
(2) Model that considers as explained variables only the socioeconomic level
and the preferences of the people interviewed.
According to Table III.2, there is a difference among the cities of Calbuco, Tongoy
and Pichilemu with respect to the WTP values. This difference is explained by the
differences in the socioeconomic level and the preferences between Cauquenes and
the remaining cities.
As a final recommendation, the pooled model application is recommended but

without including the city effects. In order to evaluate it, a brief survey should be
used. The survey should be able to determine the mean values for the eleven
variables identified as relevant for each locality under study. The correct logistic
equation should be applied to establish the WTP that will be used in the project.
According to the results from this study, this procedure allows for an error of 10% of
what would be the “real” WTP value.
4. WATER TREATMENT SURVEY ANALYSIS

The public surveyed for the analysis comprised of cities’ residents that currently have
proposed water treatment plant projects. The sample consisted of 299 cases in
Calbuco, 296 in Tongoy, 301 in Pichilemu, 287 in Cauquenes, 298 in La Union and
297 in Rio Bueno. The fieldwork was placed in May 1999, which corresponds to the
date of reference for monetary values. The exchange rate currency at May 31st, 1999
is US$ 1 (American Dollar) equals to $487 (Chilean Pesos).
Regarding the results from the individual model, each city definitely is different from
another. Coastal cities have a WTP between $3,100 and $4,400 and the other
continental cities have a WTP between $1,400 and $1,800. There have few
explained variables in common among the localities even though the WTP results
may appear to be similar.
638
To verify this hypothesis, a detailed econometric analysis, that takes into account the
pooled data has been conducted for each city. The final sample to enable the
analysis consists of 1,679 useful cases that are free of any consistencies.
The analysis followed the exact steps taken as those used for the definition of the
individual models. This includes the application of the stepwise procedure to the
entire data set of the explained variables and then choosing a reduced data set
according to the acceptance criterion (95% confidence) in order to estimate the
acceptance of the first given price.
Once these variables were chosen, the model with two prices is processed for the
pooled sample. The results are then truncated in order to assure that the income
criteria is met for the positive and inferior WTP values to the maximum acceptance of
5% of the annual family income. Linear and logarithms forms are considered. For
each case, all the statistical aspects of interest and the different means of the
willingness to pay are obtained. Table IV.1 shows these results.
According to Table IV.1, are statistically significant twelve variables that explain the
acceptance of the project for both prices given. These variables include the logarithm
in the price, the logarithm in the income and the DEVEPAY variable that measures
whether or not the person only agreed very much with the ides that everybody should
pay to clean up the cities, this variable appear in the majority of the individual
models.
Moreover, other variables related to environment problems like: the presence of

rodents (MZPRROED), disease (MYSICK), need of a sewerage network
(MASEWER), if they blame industry (MAINDUST) or the sewerage (MAWATERT) as
the cause of the pollution that produce damage to the health. There are attitude
variables like not having any problems in relation to the polluted water (MYNOTHI)
and if consider important the problem of polluted water (DSURGPOL). Finally, the
age variable (AGE) is included and a dummy variable that equals to 1 if the city is
coastal, and equals to 0 if the city is a continental locality.
Table IV.1 First and Second Option Responses, Pooled Sample (coastal effect)
FIRST SECOND Average
OPTION OPTION Independent
Variables RESPONSE 1/ RESPONSE 1/ Variables
Constant -5.7785 -4.6305

(t-stat) (-9,712) (-10,717)
LNPRICE -1.5115 -1.7564 0.9786
(t-stat) (-19,017) (-32,386)
LNINCOME 1.1492 0.9398 5.00
(t-stat) (10,880) (12,494)
MZPRROED -0.6674 -0.1931 0.0590
(t-stat) (-2,283) (-0,893)
MYNOTHI -0.4472 -0.2196 0.1840
(t-stat) (-2,260) (-1,549)
MYSICK -0.3069 -0.2037 0.2877
(t-stat) (-1,896) (-1,662)
MASEWER 0.1825 0.3364 0.3758
(t-stat) (1,231) (2,986)
MAINDUST 0.5280 0.3454 0.3359
(t-stat) (3,587) (3,075)
MAWATERT 0.4919 0.2469 0.5563
(t-stat) (3,340) (2,244)
AGE -0.0194 -0.0118 45.92
(t-stat) (-3,992) (-3,292)
DEVEPAY 1.2167 1.0950 0.6278
(t-stat) (8,115) (9,921)
DSURGPOL 0.3312 0.1874 0.4747
(t-stat) (2,230) (1,653)
COASTAL 0.8531 0.8778 0.4890 639
(t-stat) (5,686) (8,012)
Table IV.1 First and Second Option Responses, Pooled Sample (coastal effect)
N 1679 1679
Log L -691.83 -1795.09
Log Lo -1125.12 -2250.78
Model Chi-sq 866.57 911.37
Pseudo-R2 0.39 0.20
% hit prediction 80.1% 51.76%
WTP (thousand $) 2/
Median 1'616 1'769
std WTP 0.078 0.052
cv WTP (%) 4.8% 2.9%
WTPI (thousand $) 3/
Average 2'570 2'257
std WTP 0.070 0.041
cv WTP 2.7% 1.8%
WTPTR (thousand $) 4/
Average 2'570 2'257
std WTP 0.070 0.041
cv WTP 2.7% 1.8%
Average WTP/Income 1.3% 1.4%
WTPTR Calbuco (thousand $) 4/

Average 3'830 3'045
std WTP 0.193 0.100
cv WTP 5.0% 3.3%
WTPTR Tongoy (thousand $) 4/

Average 3'722 3'255
std WTP 0.253 0.133
cv WTP 6.8% 4.1%
WTPTR Pichilemu (thousand $) 4/

Average 3'528 3'030
std WTP 0.190 0.109
cv WTP 5.4% 3.6%
WTPTR Coastal Cities (thousand $) 4/

Average 3'696 3'111
std WTP 0.124 0.066
cv WTP 3.3% 2.1%
WTPTR Cauquenes (thousand $) 4/

Average 1'273 1'266
std WTP 0.074 0.049
cv WTP 5.8% 3.8%
WTPTR La Union (thousand $) 4/

Average 1'741 1'571
std WTP 0.088 0.053
cv WTP 5.0% 3.4%
WTPTR Rio Bueno (thousand $) 4/

Average 1'460 1'479
std WTP 0.080 0.051
cv WTP 5.5% 3.5%
WTPTR Continental Cities (thousand $) 4/

Average 1'493 1'441
std WTP 0.047 0.030
cv WTP 3.2% 2.1%
Notes:
1/ Logarithmic Logit Model.
2/ Median of WTP for a average family.
3/ Average WTP for each family.
4/ Average WTP per family, with WTP=0 to negative values and limit of 5% annual income.
Table IV.2 highlights the results of the model in comparison with those of the
individual models. According to the figures of the pooled sample, the willingness to
pay reaches $2,257. This is an average for all the data in the sample. Naturally, this
640
average value differs very significantly form the values that highlight the models that
are adjusted to the individual questionnaires. Generally, the value underestimates the
WTP in the coastal cities and overestimates it in the continental localities.
Table IV.2 Willingness to pay for water treatment projects

($/fam/month, May 1999)
City Individual Coastal Effect (2)/(1)

Model Model
(1) (2)
Calbuco 4,415 3,045 -31,0%
Tongoy 3,137 3,255 +3,8%
Pichilemu 3,154 3,030 -3,9%
Cauquenes 1,473 1,266 -14,1%
La Unión 1,802 1,571 -12,8%
Rio Bueno 1,752 1,479 -15,6%
Total 2,257
Coastal 3,111
Continental 1,441
(1) Model that considers each city as independent.
(2) Model that considers only the socioeconomic level and the preferences of
the respondents as explained variables; it also considers a dummy
variable, which indicates if the city is coastal or continental.
According to Table IV.1, there is a difference between coastal cities and continental
cities. This is explained by the different values that are obtained for the independent
variables. Even though this occurred, there is still an important city effect in the
coastal cities that makes, ceteris paribus, the WTP of these cities, to be above
$1,670 compared to the continental localities. It is interesting to note that the WTP
values in this model are oscillate in 15% of the estimated values that are seen in the
individual models. The only exception is Calbuco -31%.
Finally, it should be highlighted that using a constant value for coastal cities of $3,111
and of $1,441 seems to give simple and clear results of this model. These values are
obtained by averaging the WTP for each person interviewed in each type of locality.
641
5. QUESTIONNAIRES
5.1 Questionnaires for Tourist
(Pichilemu Version)
Nº ........
Quota
( ) House/Apartment
( ) Bed/Hotel
(Eligibility: Men and women, self-defined as “heads of the household”, Chilean,

over 25 years of age, temporary residents of the coastal resort (3 days to 1
month), staying in hotels, bed and breakfast or houses/apartments/rented
cabins).
We are conducting a survey of vacationers in Pichilemu in order to obtain your

opinions.
1. Could you tell me how many total days your family plans to stay and vacation in
Pichilemu this year?
_____days
2. How many times have you visited Pichilemu in the last 5 years?
_____ times
3. Do you plan to return to Pichilemu?
( )1 Yes When? ______________________________

( )2 No Why?
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Why did you choose to vacation in Pichilemu this year?

(MULTIPLE RESPONSES; DO NOT READ)
( ) 1. Accustomed, it is a family tradition
( ) 2. Clean streets and beaches
( ) 3. tranquility (few people, no noise, etc.)
( ) 4. It is not contaminated
( ) 5. cheap
( ) 6. It is beautiful
( ) 7. Recommended by family and friends
( ) 8. It is handy
( ) 9. Other responses (specify) _______________________________
5. What problems have you encountered in Pichilemu during your vacation?

(MULTIPLE RESPONSES, DO NOT READ)
( ) 1 It is noisy
( ) 2 it is dirty (trash on the streets and at the beach)
642
( ) 3 there is dust (lack of pavement)

( ) 4 lack of drinkable water
( ) 5 It is too poor
( ) 6 it is polluted (ocean and rivers are contaminated)
( ) 7 it is crowded
( ) 8 delinquency (there are gangs)
( ) 9 too many insects
( ) 10. Other responses (specify)
___________________________________________________________________
________
6. (IF THEY ANSWERED OR NOT THE PROBLEMS MENTIONED ABOVE)

Do you think that this city has environmental problems?
( )1 Yes ( )2 No (GO TO QUESTION 9)

7. Which are the main environmental problems at this city? (MULTIPLE
RESPONSES, DO NOT READ)
( ) 1 Garbage, people that throw garbage
( ) 2 dust in the air, lack of pavement
( ) 3 the sea is contaminated
( ) 4 the river is contaminated
( ) 5 lakes, rivers and estuaries are contaminated
( ) 6 it is noisy
( ) 7 bad odors
( ) 8 there is a need of a sewerage network
( ) 9.other responses (specify)
___________________________________________________________________
________
8. In relation to the environment, do you think that problem in this city is? (CARD)
( ) 1 not urgent
( ) 2 a little urgent
( ) 3 urgent
( ) 4 very urgent
( ) 5 extremely urgent
( ) 0 I do not know
9. We would like to know if you very much agree, agree, do not agree or you very
much do not agree with the following. (CARD)
(a) We should all pay to clean up the environment

( )1 MA ( )2 A ( )3 I ( )4 NA ( )5 MNA ( )0 do not know
(b) In, we should solve social problems like delinquency, low wages and others
before worrying about the environment
( )1 MA ( )2 A ( )3 I ( )4 NA ( )5 MNA ( )0 do not know
10. The following is a project that is proposed for Pichilemu
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The current sewerage network in Pichilemu is located in the central part of the city
and covers 15% of the population. The sewerage water in this network is collected
and is dumped into the Petrel Lake without any prior treatment. This lakes outflow
leads into the San Antonio River. The lake is highly contaminated and thus, its
recreational use (swimming and fishing) is not promoted. The beaches in Pichilemu
do not seem to be contaminated and are apt for swimming, unless there are
outbreaks of contaminated water.
The Project: Sanitation Service Company of Libertador (ESSAL), will build a

sewerage network in the areas of the cities which are not currently connected (85%).
Once this occurs, the people will not need septic tanks and other sewerage services
mechanisms. Once the network is completed (100%), all the water will be collected
and will be sent to a water treatment plant that will be located outside the urban
areas of the city (near San Fernando road). The sewerage water will be treated,
cleaned and disinfected at this water treatment plant. Once the water is cleaned,
underground tubes will transport it and it will be discharged into the sea at a distance
of 1,400 meters from the coast (between Infiernillo and Puntilla). This project will
allow Petrel Lake to be cleaned and also the possible contamination that may be
found at the beach.
Do you clearly understand this project?
( ) 1 Yes ( ) 2 No (EXPLAIN AGAIN)
11. Would you say that this project is?

( ) 1 Very useful for you and your family
( ) 2 Somewhat useful for you and your family
( ) 3 Of little use for you and your family
( ) 4 Not useful at all for you and your family
12. Why? (SCAN: something else? ... something else?)

___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
13. How much do you pay per day to rent a house where you vacation (or per day
per family group at a hotel or bed and breakfast)?
$ per day ________
14. In order to carry out this project, it is necessary to charge property owners
(houses and hotels) in their water bill in order to pay for the sewerage network project
once it is built. Because of this, it is expected that the rent will somewhat increase for
tourists.
Are you willing to pay $500 more daily for the house that you rent?
(PERSON CONDUCTING THE SURVEY: IF THEY DO NOT RENT A HOME,
INDICATE THE DAILY FAMILY EXPENDITURE AT A HOTEL? in order to makes
this project?
( ) 1 Yes (ASK WHY AND GO TO QUESTION 16)
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( ) 2 No (GO TO QUESTION 17)

( ) 3 Do not know, it depends (GO TO QUESTION 17)
15. Why did you respond YES? (SCAN)

___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
16. (ONLY FOR THOSE WHO ANSWERED “YES” TO QUESTION 15)
If previous studies that deal with sewerage network and water treatment projects
show that they demand a greater cost, would you be willing to pay $2,500 per
vacation day instead of $500 in order for this project to be built?
( ) 1 Yes ( ) 2 No
(BOTH QUESTIONS GO TO QUESTION 19)
17. (ONLY FOR THOSE WHO ANSWERED “NO” OR “DO NOT KNOW” IN
QUESTION 14)
If this project (sewerage network and water treatment) could be built with less
investment, would you be willing to pay $250 per vacation day in order to make this
project?
( ) 1 Yes (GO TO QUESTION 19)

( ) 2 No (ASK WHY AND THEN GO TO QUESTION 18)
Why? (SCAN)
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
18. What would you have done this year if the house you rented (or hotel where you
stay) charged you an extra fee in the rent directly related to the proposed project?
( )1 I would have gone to another city
( )2 I would have come for fewer days
( )3 I would have paid the higher rent
( )4 Another response (specify)
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
19. PERSON DOING THE SURVEY: INDICATE THE DEGREE OF CONFIDENCE

IN THE RESPONSES GIVEN BY THE RESPONDENT
( ) 1 Very confident
( ) 2 Somewhat confident
( ) 3 Little confident
( ) 4 Not confident at all
Why?
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Classification Data:
Sex ( ) 1 Female ( ) 2 Male
Age _______
Family vacation group includes:

( ) Spouse
( ) Children, how many? _____
( ) Other family members, how many?_____
( ) Others, how many? ____
TOTAL (including respondent) ______
How much is your monthly family income? (of those that live with you permanently)
$ _____________ monthly
What is your last year of formal education?
Grade _____ Level __________
Place of residence ________________________________________________
Name of respondent____________________________________
Person conducts the survey______________________________
Date/Time____________________________________________
5.2 Sewage Network Questionnaire
Nº__________
City: ________
Version ______
1. Referring to the place where you reside: what public works projects are most
urgently needed in your city? (SCAN: others? ... others?)
ONCE YOU HAVE FINISHED THE LIST, (the first being the most urgently needed),
list the works that are mostly needed in your locality.
PUBLIC WORK PROJECTS NEEDED Priority
646
2. (ONLY FOR THOSE WHO DID NOT LIST A SEWAGE NETWORK, THOSE WHO
DID LIST IT MAY GO TO QUESTION 3)
Some of your neighbors have indicated that there are problems in relation to a
sewage network in your neighborhood or immediate area. In other words, they
indicate that there are problems because there is no underground sewage network
that picks up sewage from the homes. Do you think this problem requires an urgent
solution?
( ) 1 Yes ( ) 2. No
Why? _____________________________________________________
3. What problems do you and your family identify as being caused by a lack of a
sewage network in your neighborhood? (DO NOT READ; CODE AFTER A
RESPONSE IS OBTAINED) (SCAN, MULTIPLE QUESTIONS)
( ) 1 Money spent redoing the septic tank

( ) 2 Spill over of septic tanks
( ) 3 Infections/disease
( ) 4 Bad odors
( ) 5 Lack of Hygiene
( ) 6 Inconvenience of having a septic tank
( ) 7 Worry with kids
( ) 8 Problems of Environment
( ) 9 Insects and animal outbreaks
( ) 10 There are no problems
( ) Other (specify)....................................................
4. What type of sewage catching device do you currently have at your home?
( ) 1. Public Sewage Network (CLOSE AND ELIMINATE THE SURVEY)

( ) 2. Individual Septic Tank
( ) 3. Shared Septic tank
( ) 4. Cesspool
( ) 5. Other
5. Do you have potable water at your home (inside the house)?

( ) Yes ( ) 2. No (CLOSE AND ELIMINATE THE SURVEY)
6. How long has your septic tank (or other catch device) been working?
________ years
7. Have you had problems with your sewage catching (septic tank / cesspool) device
during the last 12 months?
( ) 1. Yes what problems? (DO NOT READ; CODE AFTER THE RESPONDENT
ANSWERS) (SCAN, MULTIPLE QUESTIONS)
647
( ) 1.1 Spill over of sewage water

( ) 1.2 Constant cleaning
( ) 1.3 Problems when it fills up
( ) 1.4 Rodents
( ) 1.5 Bad odors
( ) 1.6 It is dangerous for kids
( ) 1.7 Other (specify)____________________________________________
( ) 2. No
8. Have you spent money on repairing, maintaining or constructing your septic tank /
cesspool device during the last 12 months?
( ) 1. Yes how much? $ _________
( ) 2. No
9. Are you satisfied with your current sewage catching device?
( ) 1. Yes ( ) 2. No
10. What sewage catching device would you prefer? (READ)

( ) 1. Public Sewage Network
() 2. Individual Septic Tank
( ) 3. Shared Septic tank
( ) 4. Cesspool
11. If a public sewage network were built in your neighborhood, what would you do?
(HAND OUT CARD QUESTIONS 11 AND READ ALTERNATIVES)

( ) 1. I would probably want to be connected immediately
( ) 2. I would probably want to be connected in the future
( ) 3. Perhaps I would want to be connected immediately
( ) 4. Perhaps I would want to be connected in the future
( ) 5. I would never want to be connected to it
12. Do you have lakes, lagoons, rivers or other watersheds near your home that are
currently contaminated with sewage water?
( )1. Yes, how many blocks from your home? _______
( )2. No (GO TO QUESTION 16)
13. Does this cause your family any problems?
( ) Yes
( ) No (GO TO QUESTION 16)
14. What problems are caused? (DO NOT READ; CODE AFTER THE
RESPONDENT HAS ANSWERED) (SCAN, MULTIPLE QUESTIONS)
648
( ) 1. Bad odors
( ) 2. Rodents and flies
( ) 3. Infections
( ) 4. Bad odors
( ) 5. Trash
( ) 6. Spill over to the streets
( ) 7. Other (specify) ______________________________________________
15. Would you say that this problem is (GO TO CARD AND READ)
( ) 1 Very urgent
( ) 2.Somewhat urgent
( ) 3.A little urgent
( ) 4. Not urgent at all
16. What is the current state of your family residence?

( ) 1. Home owners
( ) 2. Rent property and home
( ) 3. Rent only the property
( ) 4. Have taken over the property without paying for it
( ) 5. It is a home owned by a family member who lives there
( ) 6. It is a home owned by a family member who does not live there
( ) 7. Are caretakers
( ) 8. Poor
( ) 9. Another situation _________________________________________________
17. How many adults live permanently at the house? ______

And, how many children and babies? ______
Total (CHECK) ______
18. Considering the total family income (of the people that live there): would you
please indicate what income you received during the month of February for:
For: N people $ total

(a)Regular or permanent wages
(b)Occasional work
(c)Family benefits
(d)Unique family subsidies
(e)Retirement funds
(f)Widow pensions
(g)Handicapped pensions
(h)Rental income
(i)Money borrowed (received)
(j)Food pensions (of legal spouse)
(k)Other (specify)..........................................
TOTAL
19. (a) How much was your last water (drinkable) bill? $ ________
649
(b) How much was your last electric bill? $ ________
(c) How much was your last telephone bill? $ ________ ( ) 0 do

not have
20. A project is underway to install in this neighborhood a public sewage network.

This consists of building underground tubes that are connected to homes and which
divert sewage away from homes. In order to make this project feasible, it is
necessary to charge you a continuous monthly fee (for as long as you live in your
house) in your water bill once your house is connected to the public sewage
network.
ESSAL (Sanitation Services Company of the Los Lagos Region) will conduct this
project. With the installation of the public sewage network, the bad odors originating
from septic tanks will decrease, health problems will be reduced and other problems
related to the absence of a sewage system will also diminish.
Additionally, once the public sewage network is installed, the household sewage,
plus the sewage of 21 industries in the area will be diverted to a water treatment
plant. Currently, the contaminated waters are dumped into the Reloncaví area and
Caicaén River. At the treatment plant, the water will be cleaned and disinfected prior
to being diverted to the sea. This illuminates the contamination that currently exists in
the Reloncaví area and the Caicaén River.
Do you have any questions about this project?
As you know, in order to make this project feasible, it is important to get an honest
opinion of the users (you) of the project. We would like to know if you want and can
make this project possible by paying a monthly fee in order to connect your home to
the public sewage system.
The payment would be a monthly charge of $xxxx added to your water bill. If the fee
is not paid during a three-month period, your potable water will be cut off. Is this
clear? What have you decided to do about this project? (READ BOTH
ALTERNATIVES)
( )1. The project should be built and $xxxx a month would be paid while you live in
that house (ASK QUESTIONS 21,22 AND 23)
( )2. The project should not be built and nothing would be paid (GO TO QUESTION
24)
21. What is the reason for your decision? (SCAN)

________________________________________________________________
22. Are you sure that you would be able to pay with no problems, the monthly fee?
(DO NOT READ)
( ) 1.Yes, I would have no problems (GO TO QUESTION 23)
650
( ) 2.I will have problems but I still want to pay (GO TO QUESTION 23)
( ) 3. I would have problems and I think that I could not pay for it (GO TO
QUESTION 24)
( ) 4. I do not know (GO TO QUESTION 24)
23. If studies that deal with the project determine that its cost is above than that
previously thought, and that you would have to pay more than $xxxx a month but
instead, $yyyy a month: would you be willing to pay this new fee in order to make this
project happen?
( ) 1.Yes ( ) 2. No
(BOTH QUESTIONS, GO TO CLASSIFICATION DATA)
24. And if studies that deal with the project determine that its cost is less than that
previously thought and that your monthly fee of $xxxx would instead be $zzzz : would
you be willing to accept this new monthly charge in order to carry out the project or
would you be willing not to pay anything and reject the project?
( ) 1. Yes, pay and make this project possible

(GO TO CLASSIFICATION DATA)
( ) 2. Not pay and not make this project happen (QUESTION 25)
25. Why are you not willing to pay this monthly fee in order to carry out the project?
(SCAN)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Classification Data
(a) Sex of person surveyed ( ) 1. Female ( ) 2. Male
(b) Age __________ years
(c) Education Grade________ Level _________
(d) Occupation (head of household interviewed) ___________________________
Person giving the interview _______________________

Supervisor _____________________
QUALIFY THE CONFIDENCE DEGREE OF THE RESPONSES GIVEN
( )1. Very confident

( ) 2. Somewhat confident
( ) 3. Little confident
( ) 4. Not at all confident
651
Why? _______________________________________________________
5.3 Environmental Sanitation Questionnaire
Nº ______
Version: _____
City: _________
1. Referring to your neighborhood: in your opinion, which are the public work projects
that are most urgent? (SCAN: any other)
(ONCE THE LIST HAS BEEN COMPLETED, ASK: well, you have given me your
opinion that and the urgent need in descending order (being the first most urgently
needed)
PUBLIC WORK PROJECT Priority
2. Many of your neighbors have indicated that in La Unión, there are contamination
problems at the Llollelhue River. Do you agree that this is a problem? (READ)
( )1 It is not an urgent problem
( )2 It is somewhat urgent
( ) 3 It is very urgent
3. Which do you think are the principal causes of the contamination at the Llollelhue
River? (DO NOT READ, CODE AFTER THE RESPONDENT ANSWERS) (SCAN,
MULTIPLE RESPONSES)
( ) 1. Industrial waste
( ) 2. Trash
( ) 3. Sewage
( ) 4. Hospital waste
( ) 5. Dead animals
( ) 6. Other (specify) ______________________________________________
4. How do you think the Llollelhue River is contaminated? (DO NOT READ, CODE
AFTER THE RESPONDENT ANSWERS) (SCAN, MULTIPLE RESPONSES)
( ) 1. Turbid water
( ) 2. Dead fish
( ) 3. Fecal matter
( ) 4. Trash and industrial residues
( ) 5. Bad odor
( ) 6. Slow flow of rivers
652
( ) 7. Sludge and mud formation /rotten vegetation

( ) 8. Rodents
( ) 9. Insects (flies and others)
( ) 10. People no longer swim there
( ) 11. White foam
( ) 12. Other (specify) ______________________________________
5. What problems arise for your family when knowing that the Llollelhue River is
contaminated? (DO NOT READ, CODE AFTER RESPONDENT ANSWERS) (SCAN,
MULTIPLE RESPONSES)
( ) 1. Rodent outbreaks
( ) 2. Bad odors
( ) 3. Disease
( ) 4. Lack of swimming areas
( ) 5. Insects
( ) 6. Loss of property value
( ) 7. No problems
( ) 8. Other (specify) _____________________________________
6. How far away do you live from the Llollelhue River?
_______ blocks
7. Do you use the river and other nearby creeks during the summer? (For picnic,
walks, swim or participate in other activities)
( ) 1 Yes, what activities do you do at the river? (DO NOT READ, CODE AFTER
RESPONDENT ANSWERS) (SCAN, MULTIPLE RESPNSES)
( ) 1.Picnic
( ) 2. Fishing
( ) 3. Swimming
( ) 4. Boat trips
( ) 5. Drink water
( ) 6. Camping
( ) 7. Wash clothes
( ) 8. Recreational area
( ) 9. Other (specify) ___________________________________________
( ) 2 No
8. In the past, do your remember if you used the river in any of the following ways?
( ) 1 Yes what activities do you do at the river? (DO NOT READ, CODE AFTER
RESPONDENT ANSWERS) (SCAN, MULTIPLE RESONSES)
( ) 1. Picnic
653
( ) 2. Fishing
( ) 3. Swimming
( ) 4. Boat trips
( ) 5. Drinking water
( ) 6. Camping
( ) 7. Washing clothes
( ) 8. Recreational area
( ) 9. Other (specify)
_______________________________________________
( ) 2 No
( ) 3 I reside for short time in La Unión
( ) 4 I do not remember
9. We have heard a few comments and we would like to know if you very much
agree, agree, disagree or very much disagree with them. (CARD)
(a) We should all pay to clean up the environment

( )1 MA ( )2 A ( )3 I ( )4 D ( )5 MD ( )0 do not know
(b) In Chile, we should first solve social problems like delinquency, low wages and
others before worrying about environmental problems
( )1 MA ( )2 A ( )3 I ( )4 D ( )5 MD ( )0 no answer
10.Which are your current family living conditions?
( ) 1. Property owners
( ) 2. Rent the land and the house
( ) 3. Only rent the property
( ) 4. Have taken over the property without paying
( ) 5. The house is owned by a family member that resides in the house
( ) 6. The house is owned by a family member that does not live at the house
( ) 7. Are caretakers
( ) 8. Are poor
( ) 9. Other _________________________________________________
11. How many adults live at your house? ______
How many children and babies are there? ______
Total (CHECK) ______
12. Considering the total family income (of all the people that live there): Could you
please tell me the income you received for the month of February for:
For: N of people $ total
(a)Temporary or permanent job
(b)Occasional work
(c)Work family benefits
(d)Unique family subsidy
(e)Retirement
654
(f)Widow pension
(g)Family work benefits
(h)Rent fees
(i)Loans (received)
(j)Other pensions
(k)Other (specify)..........................................
TOTAL
13. (a) How much was your last Water Bill $ ________
(b) Are you connected to the Public Sewage System? ( )1. Yes ( ) No
(c) How much was your last Electric Bill? $ ________
(d) How much was your last Telephone Bill? $ ______ ( ) 0 do not have one
14. Currently, the sewage network from the city dumps the sewage into the
Llollelhue River. There is a project proposed that would collect the sewage water and
transport it to a water treatment that is located outside the city. In this plant, the
sewage water would be cleaned and disinfected and later diverted into the Llollelhue
River. The current contamination problems around La Union and some kilometers
downriver would be eliminated. As a result, the waters in this river would be clean
and could be used to water gardens and there would be no health problems, bad
odors, among others.
Is this project clear to you? Do you have any questions?
In order to make this project happen, it is necessary that, once the water treatment
plant is built and is functioning, you would have to pay a monthly fee (in addition
to the sewage and water cost) added to your water bill.
ESSAL (Sanitation Services Company of the Los Lagos Region) would undertake
this project.
As you know, in order to make this project happen, it is important to gather the
honest opinion of the users (you). Because of this, we need to know if you want and
can make this project happen by paying the monthly fees in order to build the Water
Treatment Plant of La Union.
In order to pay for the project, a monthly fee of $ xxxx would be added to your water
bill in addition to the sewage network and potable water cost. In the case that you do
not pay this fee within 3 months, your potable water would be cut off. Is this clear?
What have you decided? (READ BOTH ALTERNATIVES)
( ) 1. Pay the monthly fee so that the project can be built (QUESTIONS 15 and 16 )
( ) 2. Not pay the monthly fee and reject the project (GO TO QUESTION 18)
15. Why did you make this decision? (SCAN)

_________________________________________________________________
655
_________________________________________________________________
16. Are you sure that you would have no problems in paying the fee each month?
(DO NOT READ)
( ) 1.Yes, I would not have problems paying (GO TO QUESTION 17)
( ) 2.I would have problems paying but I want to pay anyway (GO TO QUESTION 17)
( ) 3. I would have problems and I think I could not pay for it (GO TO QUESTION 18)
( ) 4. I do not know (GO TO QUESTION 18)
17. If studies that deal with the project determine that its cost is above than that
previously thought, and that you would have to pay more than $xxxx a month but
instead, $yyyy a month: would you be willing to pay this new fee in order to make this
project happen?
( ) 1.Yes ( ) 2. No
(BOTH QUESTIONS, GO TO CLASSIFICATION DATA)
18. If studies that deal with the project determine that its cost is less than that
previously thought and that your monthly fee of $xxxx would instead be $zzzz : would
you be willing to accept this new monthly charge in order to carry out the project or
would you be willing not to pay anything and reject the project?
( ) 1. Yes, pay and make this project possible
(GO TO CLASSIFICATION DATA)
( ) 2. Not pay and not make this project happen (QUESTION 19)
19. Why are you not willing to pay this monthly fee in order to carry out the project?
(SCAN)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Classification Data
(a) Sex of the respondent ( ) 1. Female ( ) 2. Male
(b) Age __________ years
(c) Education Grade________ Level _________
(d) Occupation (head of survey interviewed) ____________________________
Person conducting the survey _______________________

Supervisor _____________________
656
INDICATE THE DEGREE OF CONFIDENCE OF THE RESPONSES GIVEN

( )1. Very confident
( ) 2. Somewhat confident
( ) 3. little confident
( ) 4. Not at all confident
Why? _______________________________________________________
Day ____________ Hour started ________ Hour finished _________
6. REFERENCES
[1] Amemiya, Takeshi. “Qualitative Response Models: A Survey”. Journal of

Economics Literature 19 (1981): 1438-1536.
[2] Ardila, Sergio. “Manual of Econometrics Method in Applications to Contingent

Valuation”. (Dec. 1993) Work Document ENP-101, Inter-American Development
Bank. Washington D.C. USA.
[3] Arrow K., Solow R. and others. “Report of the NOOA Panel on Contingent
Valuation”, Federal Register, vol 58, n°10, pp. 4602-4614.
[4] Carson, T. Richard and others. “Temporal Reliability of Estimates from Contingent
Valuation”. Land Economics 73, no. 2 (1997): 151-63.
[5] Diamond, A. Peter and Jerry A. Hausman. “Contingent Valuation: Is Some

Number Better than No Number?” Journal of Economics Perspectives 8, no. 4
(Fall 1994): 45-64.
[6] Green, William H. “Econometrics Analysis”. Third Edition, Prentice Hall, (1997).
[7] Hanemann, W. Michael. “Welfare Evaluations in Contingent Valuation

Experiments with Discrete Responses”. American Journal of Agricultural
Economics 66 (1984): 332-41.
[8] Hanemann, W. Michael. ”Welfare Evaluation in Contingent Valuation Experiments

with Discrete Responses Data: Reply”. American Journal of Agricultural
Economics 71, no. 4 (1989): 1057-1061.
[9] Hanemann, W. M., J. Loomis, and B. Kanninen. “Statistical Efficiency of Double-

Bounded Dichotomous Choice Contingent Valuation”. American Journal of
Agricultural Economics 73 (1991): 1255-63.
[10] Hanemann, W. Michael. ”Valuing the Environment Through Contingent

Valuation”. Journal of Economics Perspectives 8, no. 4 (fall 1994): 19-43.
[11] Kriström, Bengt. ”A Non-Parametric Approach to the Estimation of Welfare

Measures in Discrete Response: Valuation Studies”. Land Economics 66, no.2
(May 1990): 135-39.
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[12] McConnell, E. Kenneth. ”Issues in Estimating Benefits with Non-Market

Methods”. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics. University of
Maryland. Working paper series 308. Washington D.C. USA.
[13] Mitchell, Robert and Richard T. Carson. ”Using Surveys to Value Public Goods:
The Contingent Valuation Method’. (1989) Resource for the Future, Washington
D.C.
[14] Vaughan, J. William, Russell Clifford, Diego Rodriguez and Arthur Darling.
“Willingness to Pay: Referendum Contingent Valuation and Uncertain Project
Benefits”. (June 1999) Sustainable Development Department. Technical papers
series; ENV-130. Inter-American Development Bank. Washington D.C. USA.
[15] Vaughan, J. William and Arthur H. Darling. “The Optimal Sample Size for
Contingent Valuation Surveys: Applications to Project Analysis”. (April 2000)
Sustainable Development Department. Technical papers series; ENV-136. Inter-
American Development Bank. Washington D.C. USA.
658
INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES IN

THE TEACHING OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN MALAYSIAN
UNIVERSITIES1
Norhayati Mahyuddin1 and S. P. Rao2

1
Lecturer, Department of Building Surveying
2
Assoc. Prof. Department of Architecture
Center for Equatorial Sustainable Development, Faculty of Built Environment,
University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-mail: 1 hayati@um.edu.my, 2 raosp@um.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The built environment is an integral and essential part of the infrastructure necessary for human
survival on planet earth. Current concerns over the environmental sustainability of our biosphere for
future generations are being scrutinized on the fringes of the higher education goals. What role does
higher education play in creating a more environmentally sustainable future? How much curriculum
focuses on these relationships, and therefore, how many of the graduates leave the universities
environmentally literate? How will they function when they leave and face the real world? What will
they take with them to teach their clients, colleagues, their own children and grandchildren about
environment sustainability? Having all these questions, it is seen that these relationships present a
challenge to the educationists and the students of Built Environment to reconcile the environmental
aspects as part of the built environment context. How then might we in the higher education address
these concerns?, The focus of this paper is on the teaching approaches of the universities in Malaysia,
specifically on the integration of environmental sustainability into subjects offered. The issue relates to
the development of student’s awareness, perceptions of environmental sustainability and the issues at
stake, with the intention to set a structured integration of environmental sustainability through subjects
related in the Built Environment curriculum.
Keywords: Environmental Education, Sustainability, Built Environment, Structured

Integration, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
As the world population increases, the energy and other resources found on earth will
be in short supply. Unwarranted energy wastage, global warming and green issues
are matters of serious environmental concern to all (In 1997, the Union of concerned
scientists initiated the “World Scientists Call for Action” at the Kyoto Climate Summit.
The statement urged all the government leaders to demonstrate a new commitment
to protecting the global environment and act immediately to prevent potentially
devastating consequences of human-induced global warming). Unfortunately,
negative impacts on the ecosystems now play a vital role in the decision making of
the Construction Industries. In nearly all environmental context found on earth, the
built environment is an essential part of the infrastructure necessary for human
survival. All buildings professionals viz., architects, planners, building surveyors civil
& structural engineers as well as mechanical & electrical engineers and others in the
building industry should be involved in issues relating to the environmental
sustainability.
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The activities of the various members of the building profession are both part of the
problem - encouraging premature product obsolescence, product proliferation,
material consumption & associated pollution, and part of the solution - proposing
more efficient products & services, community regeneration and individual
empowerment. While architects, in most areas have a crucial role in managing their
design process and phase by taking considerations all issues of environment and
how to respond to it [1,2,4,10]. Thus, the potential for the building professionals to
effect positive change is significant and widely acknowledged. Unfortunately, this
has remained largely untapped both within construction industry and education, with
students rarely introduced to environmental sustainability during their higher
education experience [1]. The common dilemma for us now is whether Malaysian
universities, are actually preparing the next generation of building professionals with
the required skills to deal with the new demand and how best they can manage to
balance the interconnections between ecological considerations and man-made
development? While information on design for environmental sustainability does
exist, it is in general, abstract, limited, dispersed and not in a language accessible to
the building professionals.
There are several areas of emphasis in most definitions of sustainability: long terms
views and a balance between environment, social justice and economy. However,
current concerns over the environmental sustainability of the built environment for
future generations of humans are being scrutinized on the extremes of the higher
education complex. How much of the education syllabus focuses on these
relationships, and therefore, how many of the graduates are environmentally literate?
What role does higher education play in creating a more environmentally sustainable
future? What responsibilities do educationists have for the current decline in
ecosystems around the globe? Like environmental issues, architectural education is
by nature interdisciplinary. When “interdisciplinary” studies exist they are frequently
among different disciplines within a larger field [5]. Therefore, those challenges
cannot be met by peering through the lens of any single discipline. How then can the
educationist in higher education address these concerns? Thus, through all questions
posses and the interrelationships, present a challenge to the educationist and the
students of building professional to reconcile the environmental aspects as part of the
built environment context.
SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
Sustainability suggests the achievement of balance, and a plan for long-term growth
and nurturing. The impact on the environment - what is used, taken away, or altered -
is equal to the rejuvenation-what is replaced, preserved, or enhanced. A sustainable
perspective requires the juxta-positioning of the needs of the present and future, and
a goal to leave adequate resources and environmental quality for future generations.
Realizing the environmental threats, real or potential, the quality of life, environmental
movements have begun in virtually all sectors of industrialized countries including the
construction industries.
Therefore, knowledge of the basics of architecture, sustainability and environmental

issues need to be instilled specifically to the students.
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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
It is estimated that construction, habitation, maintenance and demolition of buildings

accounts for almost 30 percent of all energy consumed in Malaysia. The ecological
health of our environment is profoundly affected by the design of our built
environment [15]. Despite the obvious need for more environmental education in the
schools, many building professional faculty simply do not care enough about the
issues or cannot find ways to integrate a new pedagogical focus into the education
syllabus. Students should start to develop their fundamental understanding about
sustainability on the environmental aspects in the early stage of education. Bringing
environmental education into the education syllabus cannot be fully accomplished
without a commitment to achieve an understanding of environmental sustainability
itself, what it is and how the educationist can contribute to it. The understanding of
environmental sustainability moves beyond merely training professionals to design
buildings, but to train the whole new groups of students as it were, from ground up
and examine the role of building professional education in the process. In other
words, the awareness of the environmental sustainability should be instilled and
inculcated to each and every student in order to achieve the best.
Table 1: Dimensions Of Sustainability

(Source: http://arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/sustain.htm)
Economic dimensions of Environmental Social dimensions of

sustainability: dimensions of sustainability
sustainability
• Creation of new • Reduced waste, • Worker health
markets and effluent and safety
opportunities for generation, • Impacts on local
sales growth emissions to communities,
• Cost reduction environment quality of life
through efficiency • Reduced impact • Benefits to
improvements and on human health disadvantaged
reduced energy and • Use of renewable groups e.g.
raw material inputs raw materials disabled
• Creation of • Elimination of toxic
additional added substances
value
Basically, the idea of environmental sustainability is to leave the Earth in as good or

in a better shape for future generations than we found it for ourselves. However, by
looking into Malaysian environmental picture, several incidents have clearly shown
that the catastrophic consequences of all the environmental problems due to the
imbalance development growth can cause devastation to the environment and
brought miseries for the people and landscape.
ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS DUE TO BUILDING ON SLOPES IN MALAYSIA
It is known that hilly area had been categorized as a high-risk area of landslides and
any earthwork should refrain from cutting the slope as it would expose the delicate
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soil to direct rainfall. Removal of vegetation cover would also increase the rate of
water infiltration. Yet, there are still indiscriminate developments on highlands.
Highland towers condominium collapse
On 11 December 1993, Block 1 of the Highland towers condominium in Hulu Klang,

Selangor, Malaysia suddenly toppled over and collapsed. A total of 48 people were
killed during the incident. Figure 1 shows Block 1 as it started to topple. According to
the report of the enquiry commission the most probable cause of the collapse was due
to the buckling and shearing of the rail piles foundation induced by the movement of
the soil.Figure 2 shows the original cross section through block 1 before the failure.
The failure has been attributed to improper design and lack of supervision during
construction. It is sad to note that this failure could have been prevented.
Another tragedy in 2002
In November 2002 there was another fatal landslide very near to the highland tower’s
site. The tragic landslides flattened the double-storey bungalow of Affin Bank
chairman Tan Sri Ismail Omar at Taman Hillview in Ampang, Malaysia. This resulted
in 8 deaths. The fact that it happened again in the same area was regretful and again
shows that people are still not aware of the environmental problems and the impacts
that is can cause. Alas, there will be many more deaths to come in future, if the
degree of environmental awareness of each and every students of building
professional is not being infused seriously and adequately now through the education
level.
Fig 1. HighLand Towers Fig 2. Original cross-section through

Block 1 starts to topple Block 1
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Figure 3: A pre-dawn landslide on 20 November 2002 destroyed the home of former

Armed Forces chief Tan Sri Ismail Omar in Taman Hillview killing 8 people.
Mitigating all these negative impacts on the environment has proven to be costly and
in some cases the damage was beyond repair and they became the hidden cost to
lost of productive time and a threat to general health of the residents. Therefore, it is
the educationist collective responsibility to instill awareness to all students with the
intention that they can preserve the environment, and therefore there can be a
balance and harmony between nature and human beings. This should be reasonable
enough for educationists, students and those outside who are involve in the
construction industries to be aware of the impact on our environment and health
brought on by the current practice of technology. Thus, change in human attitudes,
foreseen by the acceptance of the concept of environmental sustainability and
sustainable development, depends on a vast campaign of higher education for the
students of architecture.
INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY INTO THE BUILDING

PROFESSION EDUCATION.
Vision 2020, the ultimate dreams aiming for Malaysian to be a fully developed
country, puts emphasis on environmental sustainability requiring Malaysia to ensure
that valuable natural resources are not wasted. Nonetheless, Malaysia has strived for
a closer match between the needs of the environment and those of development.
Therefore, the integration of environment and considerations in development
planning must go beyond the rhetoric. Prone to this, the environmental
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considerations must increasingly be integrated with development planning and

design as well as with the building professional education syllabus planning.
However, to design a structured syllabus with these goals in mind is not an easy or
simple task. At this point of time, the students might not have the capability to truly
build sustainably, but they can begin to ask the right questions and to factor more
information into their decision-making process. To meet a structured architectural
education syllabus requirements and at the same time focus on a broad range of
environmental impacts, we need to think strategically (according to Esmond Reid.
(1988), “Complexity, circularity and diversity are three underlying essential features in
natural dynamically stable systems. Therefore, the education syllabus should be
based on these fundamental concepts. He then added that all education system with
syllabus that is partitioned, linear, fragmented and segregated cannot teach complex,
whole-systems thinking in environmentally sustainable terms).
Still, building professional education has often emphasized economy of means with
emphasis on elegance, beauty and balance. Now this approach must expand to
include design for living within means of understanding environmental aspects
mentality and ethic. For that reason, a studio base learning should not be the be-all
and end-all of an education system. The ultimate goal of the building professional
education system should not be to merely train the students, but to help students see
the vast potential for interrelations between ideas and disciplines, to encourage them
to confront all new problems of design, to generate a spirit of cooperation and
intellectual respect for others (environment, social and economy), that will ultimately
help them work in professions that require collective input [8]
Apart from that, the concept of educating is not just teaching and explaining, it is the
contents taught that is of utmost important The educationist need to educate design
students not only in the technical skills essential to the practice of their profession,
but also to induce an understanding of a greater goal that must eventually be shared
by the whole culture – that of creating an environmentally sustainable society.
Therefore doing ample research to gain in-depth knowledge before teaching is
important to give the best to students.
The educationist has to allow for such a mindset that it has to prepare younger
designers to accept the need to aim for environmental sustainability as a basic
design requirement for products and processes.
We now live almost totally in a designed environment [11]. As stewards of this

environment, architects [2, 4] are urgently needed as intellectual leaders who might
help formulate new visions of place, and clarity the actions that will preserve the
nation’s quality of life for generations to come.
Unfortunately, there are now only a few great architects and most of them are not
involve in the faculties of the higher institution in Malaysia. Lacking the dynamics of a
great school under a great leader, it should be imperative to create one or more
subjects that would introduce the beauty of architectural ideas in terms of
environment and the underlying philosophies that will later affect all their design work.
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TEACHING OF SUSTAINABILITY TO ARCHITECTURE STUDENTS IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA – PRESENT SCENARIO
The architectural curriculum in the University is based on Design as a vehicle for

integration of all the taught subjects. During the first three years of their course the
students are given inputs on environmental physics, building structures and building
services. The Faculty is implementing problem based learning in most of the
subjects. As part of this exercise, students are set to solve practical problems, which
would involve environmental sustainability issues. The students are encouraged to be
proactive in their research and presentations. In year 4, at present, an elective is
offered on sustainability issues and a typical assignment is shown in Appendix-1. The
students are taken on field trips as well as practicing architects are invited to the
studios to show how they tackle sustainability issues. The University is fortunate to
have Prof. Ken Yeang, who is world famous for his ecological and environmentally
sustainable buildings. The University’s research facility on renewable energy is to be
used as a test bed to test new ideas in the future. The facility is being used at present
to monitor the performance of some of the building integrated photovoltaics. The
students are encouraged to have meaningful discourses in the studio setting for
achieving an environmentally sustainable building.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Malaysian Higher Institutions need to prepare a "new" professional who is able to feel
comfortable in a multi-disciplinary framework. Such an approach would enable the
building professional graduates to apply their learning to the needs of real world
problems and real people. Cross-disciplinary education enlarges the student’s
awareness of issues and methods beyond their own disciplinary enquiry, enabling
them to explore the interrelations of these issues and methods, and encouraging
students to regard their own studies in a broader social and ecological perspective.
Therefore, it is important to make students aware that their profession is responsible

for some environmental problems and they can contribute to a healthy global
environment by practicing sustainable design. The critical moment for a student is the
first day of study, the time when the mind is open and receptive to new ideas, before
stagnation gets in. Therefore, the educationist should get to the students minds first
before anyone else, so that the student can be encouraged to developed their
creative imaginations and sensitivities. Note that it is much easier to instill an
environmental consciousness at the formative stage of education rather than in the
later stages.
The educationists too, need to create an understanding of how buildings can be

‘designed for the environment’. For this purpose, a building should be understood as
an ecosystem through which natural and manufactured resources continually flow. It
is important to understand that a building affects and pollutes the environment on
both the input side and the out put side.
Case studies of representative buildings, both successful and unsuccessful, can be

effective teaching tools to enrich students learning. For example, choose case
studies that illustrate:
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• A range of different building types designed under different

physical and social context
• The ways fundamentals principles of design have an impact on
the environment
• Original design concepts, procurements of building materials,
consideration given to the construction process and various
building performances during operation.
Apart from that, students should have the skills and knowledge bases to seek and
find sustainable design solution. It also introduces methods and techniques ranging
from site planning, building design and specification of materials to the recycling and
reuse of architectural resources in design. Rather than teaching a set of specific
skills, educators need to develop the student’s abilities to explore, assess and pursue
various alternatives for environmentally sustainable designs.
Therefore, environmental education should provide experiences of problem solving,
decision-making and participation, with considerations based on ecological, political,
economic, social, aesthetic and ethical aspects. It should also promote changes in
attitudes and behavior that might help solving existing problems relating to the
environment and to avoid generations of a new ones (Farmer J, 2000). The ultimate
aim is for students to have a responsible attitude towards the environmental
sustainability of the Earth, an appreciation of its resources and beauty and an
assumption of an environmental ethic. Furthermore, it has been suggested on a wide
global scale that in order to achieve this aim; every educational institution needs
adequate arrangements for planning and implementing coherent and progressive
programs of work with appropriate teaching and learning tasks.
CONCLUSIONS
Students from the built environment faculties live and work in a world where
information from several disciplines must be integrated. Therefore a new approach of
education system must prepare a student in multi-disciplinary thinking and application
to guarantee more sound problem-solving based upon an individuals ability to relate
multiple and related issues. The university has a responsibility to increase the
awareness, knowledge, technologies and tools to create a more environmentally
sustainable future. Undeniably, integrating environmental concerns into the building
professional education system is a difficult process, but awareness on the importance
of the environment is highly needed. Deliberately, no human activity can occur
without some connections to the environment. For that reason, the higher institution
must take a long-term view of thinking far into the future and environmental
consequences.
REFERENCES
[1] Ali Khan, S. 1996, Environmental Responsibility: The Rural Environment Report.
Pluto Press in association with WWF UK.
[2] Bay J H ,Philip, Sept 1998, Possible obstacles in Environmental Design, Journal
of the Southeast Asian Architecture, Vol 3, No.1, Singapore.
[3] Charles J. Kibert & Alex Wilson. Dec 2000. Reshaping the Built Environment:
Ecology, Ethics, and Economics. Island Press; ISBN: 1559637013; 1st edition.
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[4] Corominas, J and Fleming, P D., June 2002, Education on sustainable energy in
the EU, Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress, Ed. Prof. Ali
Sayigh, Cologne.
[5] Esmond Reid. April 1988. Understanding Building: A Multidisciplinary Approach.

MIT Press, Reprint Edition
[6] Farmer, J. April 2000. Green Shift: Changing attitudes in Architects to the Natural
World. Butterworth-Heinemann Publisher, 2nd Edition.
[7] Gue, S S and Tan, Y C. July 2002, Mitigating the risk of landslide on hill-site
development in Malaysia, 2nd World of Engineering Conference, Sarawak,
Malaysia, pp 1-10.
[8] James Wines. May 1997. The Architecture of Ecology. John Wiley & Son Ltd
Publisher.
[9] Kalpanis, S et al., June 2002, A European M.Sc course on Solar energy:
technology and management, Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy
Congress, Ed. Prof. Ali Sayigh, Cologne.
[10] Narayan Swamy, R. May 2001. Environment, Sustainability and Durability -

The triple challenges to the construction industry and the education of
civil/structural engineers, International Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, Vol 1, No. 1, pp 1 – 12, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
[11] Orr, D. September 1994. Earth in Mind: On Education, Environment, and the
Human Prospect. Island Press, Washington, DC.
[12] Riffat, S B and Smith, S.J, June 2002, Sustainable technology for the Built
Environment, Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress, Ed. Prof. Ali
Sayigh, Cologne.
[13] Sam C M Hui. August 2002. Sustainable Architecture and Building Design
(SABD). (Online) Available: http://arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/sustain.htm
[14] Tony Brown , Education for Sustainability-An operational model for teaching
sustainable design Prepared for the Second Nature conference, “How Can The
Architect Contribute To A Sustainable World”, August 24-26, 2001, Wingspread
Conference Center Racine, Wisconsin,USA
[15] Victor W. Olgyay, AIA. Dec 1998. Integrating Sustainable Design Into
Architectural Education. (Online) Available: http://egj.lib.uidaho.edu
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APPENDIX
BAE S 4329 Sustainable Energy Research (ELECTIVE)
ASSIGNMENT - 2 ( Maximum marks: 20 )
1. Sustainable development must involve all of us. We must ensure that proper
tools exist to allow us to set appropriate targets and monitor progress. What
we do will shape the existence of future generations of Malaysians.
2. As a concerned building designer, you are asked to design a so-called

“GREEN BUILDING” under the climate of Malaysia. This design could
incorporate environmental engineering approaches such as
• natural ventilation,
• passive solar techniques
• structure assisted cooling,
• day-lighting
• use of renewable energy sources etc.,
Discuss the implications the above might have on building design and occupant
comfort and which aspects of thermal comfort will need particular attention.
3. Briefly, describe the state-of-the-art development of any two of the following,
• Building integrated Photovoltaics

• Rain water harvesting in buildings
• Use of wind energy
• Solar hot water heating technology and applicability to buildings
• Bio-mass in Palm oil industry for energy generation in Malaysia
• Energy efficient design of commercial buildings
You can work in groups not exceeding 4 persons per group.

As far as possible your report should not exceed 25 typewritten pages.
(Font 10 Single spacing 25mm margins all-round) The page limitation would include
diagrams, photographs and appendices. Avoid copying from books and catalogues.
SUBMISSION:
Please submit the report to me on or before 31 January 2003, 10.30 a.m. in my office
Late submissions will not be accepted.
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ENVIRONMENTAL NEWS AND ICT IN LOWER SECONDARY LEVEL

SCHOOLS IN GREECE, SWEDEN AND FINLAND1
Stephanie Jackson1, Eila Jeronen2, Tiina Korkiakoski2

1
University of London, Institute of Education, MST School, 20 Bedford Way, London
WC1H OAL, United Kingdom, s.jackson@ioe.ac.uk
2
University of Oulu, Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher Education P.O.B.
2000, 90014 Oulu, Finland, Eila.Jeronen@oulu.fi
ABSTRACT
The presentation considers the development of Hero(dot)eNews, an initiative of the European Commission
SOCRATES Minerva Program (2001-2003). Constructivist pedagogy and a socio-cultural communicative
perspective form the basis of the eNews project. In preparation for the project we sent questionnaires to 27
Greek, 12 Swedish and 11 Finnish teachers in lower secondary level schools and asked a range of
questions about their use of environmental news in the classroom, as well as their use of ICT equipment.
From the responses we noticed differences in the ways in which teachers used environmental news and
different types of resources in the Greek, Swedish and Finnish schools. Based on the research findings, it
was determined that it would be invaluable for the Hero(dot)eNews project to focus on the use of ICT as a
means of bringing environmental news into the classroom.
Hero(dot)eNews aims to create a discussion forum for national and international environmental news by
creating a web-based environment that enables and supports the use of electronic news both in classrooms
and at home through distance learning. Due to the nature of environmental news, topics would inevitably
touch upon Geography, Biology, History, Chemistry and Citizenship as an integrated whole. The site will
require students and teachers to search and select news from mass media, solve problems, communicate
and evaluate processes and products with each other.
Keywords: IT, Geography, environmental news, lower secondary level schools
1. INTRODUCTION
The establishment of an eEurope Action Plan highlights the significance Europe has
placed on the use of mass media and the Internet for education and training (European
Commission, 2002). According to the European Commission (2001), 90% of schools in the
European Union have Internet access, and pupils have access in 80% of them. The
average number of students per computer with Internet access is 24, while the average
number of students per offline computer is 12 (ibid, 2001). However, the level of Internet
access in schools varies from country to country.
The number of students per online computer is between three and 50, and the number per
offline computer is between three and 25 (ibid, 2001). Half of the computers used for
education are less than three years old (ibid, 2001). The European Commission says the
provision of the Internet in schools is a priority in all Member States. (Donert, 2002.)
In preparation for the start of the project, Hero(dot)eNews (90199-CP-1-2001-1-FI-

Minerva-M) questionnaires were sent to 27 Greek, 12 Swedish and 11 Finnish lower
secondary level school teachers, which asked a range of questions about their use of
environmental news in the classroom, as well as their use of ICT equipment.
1
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In this presentation we will firstly interpret the questionnaire results, and then we will
describe our project and the processes that we have gone through in order to develop the
web-based forum for environmental news.
2. METHODS
Constructivist pedagogy and a socio-cultural communicative perspective form the basis of

the eNews project. The study belongs to the quantitative case studies. The questionnaire
was sent to Greek, Swedish and Finnish teachers who taught Biology, Chemistry and/or
Geography in lower secondary level schools (12-16 year old students). The teachers were
selected from both a list of Environmental Education educators in the Nordic countries and
through the researchers’ contacts. The questionnaire was written in Finnish and then
translated into English, Swedish, and Greek. The Greek version was translated by
professor Nikos Lambrinos from the University of Thessaloniki. The data analysis is based
on two research questions: How teachers use environmental news in teaching studying
and learning processes, and What are their sources of environmental news.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Results from a questionnaire
The teachers who participated in the research were very experienced. The mean number
of years they had been teaching was 10 in Greece, 12 in Sweden and 14 in Finland. Only
2 teachers in Greece, 3 teachers in Sweden and 4 teachers in Finland had been teaching
for less than 5 years. 36 % of the Greek teachers, 75 % of the Swedish teachers and 91 %
of the Finnish teachers had studied ICT education. All of the Swedish and Finnish
teachers, but only 25 % of Greek teachers, used computers, CD-roms and the Internet
during lessons. Figure 1 illustrates how frequently ICT was used in the classroom by those
teachers who stated that they used it. The majority of Greek and Swedish teachers who
used computers used them regularly, which was classified as daily, weekly, or at least
once or twice a month. On the other hand, most of the Finnish teachers only used them
occasionally or irregularly.
100%
80%
Per cents of answers
60%
Daily or weekly
Once or twice a month
Occasionally, irregularly
40%
20%
0%
Greece Sweden Finland
Fig. 1. The use of computers, CD-roms and Internet by teachers in Greece, Sweden and
Finland
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When asked about students’ usage of computers, we found that 10 % of the Greek, 100 %
of the Swedish and 88 % of the Finnish students used computers and the Internet for
school related tasks. The most popular ways that students used them were for e-mail,
searching for information and for playing games (Fig 2.).
14
12
10
Number of teachers
8
Greece
Sweden
Finland
6
0
E-mail Search for Games Doing tasks Peda.net-learning Writing reports
information environment
Fig. 2. Ways to use computers and the Internet by students for school related tasks based
on the answers from the Greek, Swedish and Finnish teachers
Figure 3 highlights the range of ways in which environmental themes are taught in the
three countries. The Greek teachers primarily used student centred methods (project
work), as did the Swedish teachers (e.g. project work and inquiry learning). It is interesting
to note that his method was the least popular with Finnish teachers. Nevertheless, co-
operative methods (e.g. problem-solving) were the favourite approach for the Finnish
teachers, and the second most popular approach for the Greek and Swedish teachers.
Finally, teacher-centred methods (e.g. teacher led presentations, questioning, and
discussions) were the second most popular for Finnish teachers, third most popular for
Swedish teachers, and not used by Greek teachers.
When asked if they used environmental news during lessons, 67% of the Greek teachers
and over 50 % of the Swedish and Finnish teachers said that they used environmental
news in teaching. However, it is interesting to note that all of the teachers were interested
in using it in the future.
The most popular sources of environmental news for all of the countries were television,
journals, newspapers and scientific journals (Fig 4). In addition, some teachers from each
country used scientific articles and the Internet; the Greek and Swedish teachers also
radio programmes, and Finnish teachers used environmental centres. All these materials
were mostly used for group work, inquiry learning and discussions.
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30
25
20
Number of answers
Teacher centred
15 Co-operative
Student centred
10
0
Greece Sweden Finland
Fig. 3. Teaching methods used in Environmental education in Greece, Sweden and

Finland (The columns have been made by summarising all the teaching ways in different
categories mentioned by the teachers)
25
20
Number of answers
15 Greece
Sw eden
10 Finland
0
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Fig 4. Sources of Environmental news mentioned by teachers in Greece, Sweden and

Finland
Figure 5 illustrates the environmental news themes that the teachers would like to
incorporate into lessons. The most common themes in all three countries were acidification
and the Greenhouse effect. In addition, pollution, endangered species and environmental
risks were also popular. The Greek teachers integrated environmental news mostly within
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the topics of Ecology and Environmental education, whereas the Swedish and Finnish
teachers classified them into the category of Environmental education.
25
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Fig. 5. Themes in environmental news used during lessons of Biology, Chemistry and
Geography
Finally, the teachers who said that they did use environmental news used them in Finland
every day or every week, whereas in Greece and in Sweden using was occasional or
irregular.
3.2. Description of the Hero(dot)eNews project and its development
The aim of the Hero(dot)eNews project is to create a European discussion forum for
environmental news, by creating an electronic web-based platform to facilitate
communication. The system will be an open platform that can be accessed from schools or
homes, and will aim to support and enhance co-operative learning about environmental
and economic issues, with an emphasis on current events. The project team is made up
of partners from Austria, Finland, Greece, Hungary, Romania and the United Kingdom,
and a select number of pilot schools in each country.
At the first project meeting in November 2001, the results of the questionnaire survey were
reviewed and discussed in order to initiate a discussion on the potential needs of the
audience who would use the Hero(dot)eNews web-site.
It was agreed that it would be more valuable to develop a platform to support students in
investigating and communicating with one another about environmental issues, rather than
developing a content-based web-site. At present it is planned that the main educational
area of the web-site will consist of the following six different ‘stages’, which we envisage
673
the classes/students could engage in to communicate with one another about

environmental issues that are important enough to them that they would like to discuss
them with other students (Fig. 6).
Information gathering – Information Processing

local research or Internet
research about a topic
Write an ‘article’ (video,

Publish an ‘article’ (video, image, text, etc.)
image, text, etc.)
Discuss an ‘article’
Publish
(video, image, text, etc.)
Figure 6. Outline of the Educational Section of the Hero(dot)eNews web-site
Each of the ‘stages’ will contain templates that could be used by students to support them
through the process / skill required by the ‘stage’. These templates could be in the format
of forms that they fill in, links to packages that they could use (e.g. to create a
presentation), or possibly cartoon tips to remind them of things to think about.
It is intended that teachers and students could use this part of the web-site in a linear
fashion (e.g. planning a series of lessons that follow each of the ‘stages’ in order, which
would provide a structure for students to conduct an investigation), or in a more ad hoc
fashion (e.g. only joining in on a discussion about an environmental topic such as acid
rain).
In order to assist in the development of the templates for each ‘stage’, our project team
and pilot schools planned out concrete ways in which they would planned use the site in
the pilot phase. In turn, these lessons or topic ideas will be available on the web-site in
order to provide other teachers with suggestions of ways in which to use it.
It is hoped that the flexible format of the web-site will allow teachers and students to use it
in the most practical and effective way for their teaching and learning needs and styles.
674
4. DISCUSSION
From the research it was possible to see that Swedish and Finnish teachers have a good
ICT literacy, and they are able to use computers and Internet in classes. In addition, their
students are quite skilful in their use of ICT. Although Greece has not achieved as high
level in ICT literacy as Sweden and Finland, the Greek educational system has
recognised that it has room for development and has taken on this challenge of enhancing
their ICT literacies. Nevertheless, it is recognised in all three countries that teachers and
students will continually need more ICT education in future because it evolves so quickly.
In all three countries television was an important source of environmental news. This is
understandble in the light that televisions are prevalent in homes and schools in each of
the countries. In 1999 there were 480 televisions per 1000 inhabitants in Greece, 531 in
Sweden and 643 in Finland (Tilastokeskus, 2002). It is interesting to consider that the
Finnish teachers’ use of newspapers and journals and other written materials during
lessons might have been a contributory factor to the result of Pisa, where it was
determined that Finnish students were the best readers in the OECD countries (Välijärvi et
al. 2002, 6).
The Greek teachers saw more clearly than the others that environmental news should
integrate with the topics of Ecology and Environmental education. Is the reason why they
think so that education in Greece is maybe more traditional than in Northern countries?
The opinions ware different also concerning content of useful news. The Greek teachers
valued more traditional environmental topics like pollution and endangered species than
their Nordic colleagues. The teachers in Finland and Sweden understood that
Environmental Education does not consist only of Ecolocy. Based on their answers it can
be seen to be a more complicated Ecological, Economic, Social and Ethical subject.
We can find environmental news in the media in all of the countries. During the research,
the teachers stressed that it is important to both increase the use of news in teaching and
learning and to study to evaluate how environmental news is being used in educational
systems.
Although this was a small-scaled study, the teachers who participated were selected from
a list of Environmental Education educators in the Nordic countries and through the
researchers’ contacts. Nevertheless, the results have been valuable for developing the
ideas for the Hero(dot)eNews web-site. Through this initial research and further meetings,
it has been determined that it would be valuable to create a forum for national and
international environmental news that would enable and support the use of electronic news
through distance learning both in classrooms and at home.
Due to the flexibility of the site, it is hoped that the teachers and students will use the
templates and communication tools in a variety of ways in order to support their individual
teaching and learning needs and styles. It is anticipated that the web-site will facilitate
discussions about environmental topics that are important to the teachers and students.
Due to the nature of environmental news, topics would inevitably touch upon Geography,
Biology, History, Chemistry and Citizenship as an integrated whole. The site will require
students and teachers to search and select news from mass media, solve problems,
communicate and evaluate processes and products with each other.
675
The site is still currently in the developmental stage. We plan to have it ready for pilot
testing by October 2003. Although we have a select number of pilot schools who will be
involved in the pilot testing, we would welcome visits and feedback from other schools
across Europe. So please visit our site in the autumn (www.e4news.net).
REFERENCES
Donert, K. (2002), ENews: User Needs Report: version 1 – UK.
European Commission (2001), EU schools embrace the Internet, but discrepancies

remain, http://dbs.cordis.lu/cgi-
bin/srchidadb?CALLER=NHP_EN_NEWS&ACTION=D&SESSION=&RCN=EN_RCN_I
D:17463 Oct 12 2001
European Commission (2002), eEurope Action Plan,

http://europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope
http://www.nua.net/surveys/how_many_online/index.html
http://www.tilastokeskus.fi/tk/tp/maailmanumeroina/maailmanumeroina_hakemisto.html#k.
(12.11.2001-14.3.2002)
Välijärvi, J., Linnakylä, P., Kupari, P., Reinikainen, P. and Arffman, I (2002),
The Finnish success in Pisa – and some reasons behind it, Pisa 2000.
OECD – Pisa. http://www.jyu.fi/ktl/pisa/publication1print.pdf
676
A HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE FOR MAKING SUSTAINABILITY

OPERATIONAL: DISCIPLINE AND INTER-VERTICAL
CONNECTIONS1
Dr. M.B. Neace

Mercer University, Macon, GA, U.S.A.
mbneace@msn.com, (T) 1.478.935.8968, (F) 1.478.935.9981
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development (SD) requires knowledge and application of that knowledge by a host of
scholars and professionals. Through their research and assessment of the natural world and its
biosphere it is necessary for ongoing communication and knowledge sharing amongst all stakeholders
for SD to become a reality. SD in Central and Eastern Europe at times seems a far-off dream
considering the injury inflicted upon the region and its biosphere by Homo sapiens. Some movement
toward SD in the region is visible. The scholarly and professional communities in the region are key
stakeholders in research, assessment, dissemination of knowledge and policy formation for achieving
SD. Two exhibits are presented and discussed, proposing: (1) a holistic schema of many disciplines
and (2) the role of local socio-cultural participation in inter-vertical connectedness, both crucial for the
attainment of SD.
Keywords: Sustainable development, socio-cultural participation in inter-vertical

connectedness, holistic schema of many disciplines
INTRODUCTION
Limitations of present environmental policies and programs are well-known: including

bureaucratic ineptness and lack of will [8]; short term economic-political “remedies” at
the sacrifice of long term biosphere reality [7, 12, 18, 22, 30]; application of
reductionist paradigms when increasing evidence points to holistic dynamic general
systems [4, 11, 15, 20, 24, 26, 27, 30]
Such limitations substantially detracts from other meaningful efforts attain SD. Two of
these limitations will be discussed: (1) the interconnectedness among scholarly
disciplines and (2) inter-vertical processes; both vital elements to a holistic
perspective of SD.
The issue is really not one of development. Human economic development has and
is going to occur. The issue is really one of sustainability, or, does Homo sapien have
the knowledge, the ability, and the desire to conduct his affairs in a manner -
sustainable - that will permit continued development (growth?) within the limits set by
Planet Earth and its biosphere [21]. Today there are a growing number of scholars
and scientists that recognize the holistic, interconnectedness, inter-vertical
dimensions necessary to attain SD. For example, Lackman notes that a sustainable
community consists of a long term integrated systems approach to the development
of healthy communities, jointly addressing the economic, environmental, and social
issues [9]. For this to occur requires a collaborative, holistic schema because
environmental problems are diffuse, multidisciplinary, multiagency, multi-lakeholder,
1
677
and multisector in character. The next section will briefly discuss the multidisciplinary
role of scholarly and scientific efforts, which in my view, is indispensable to a holistic,
dynamic, paradigm of Mother Nature to approach SD in a civil society.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN HOLISTIC: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY

PERSPECTIVE
SD is, unquestionably, multifarious in character. A growing number of scholars are

now calling for multidisciplinary, and I might add inter-disciplinary and
transdisciplinary, schemes to advance their research and policy programs [13, 14,
15, 19]. Today it is widely accepted that for SD to attain operational status and
become an integral ingredient to daily living will require inputs from many disciplines
within a civil society.
Exhibit I expresses this multidisciplinary holistic concept. It recognizes not only the
importance of continued development within each discipline, but also the necessity
for sharing and movement among the many bodies of knowledge, particularly in the
academic and scientific communities.
Exhibit I: Making Sustainability Operational:

Multi-disciplinary linkages
A. Basic Disciplines
1. Agriculture/Forestry
2. Biology
3. Chemistry
4. Ecology
5. Economics/Business
6. Geography
7. Physics
8. Political Science/Governance
B. Other Stakeholder Disciplines

1. Anthropology/Culture
2. Architecture
3. The Arts: Practicing/Performing
4. Engineering/Technology
5. History
6. Journalism
7. Philosophy/Ethics
8. Psychology
9. Religion/Mythology
10. Sociology
Certainly, no one expects to attain a level of maturity and harmony among these
many disciplines without disputation. In spite of our wranglings values among various
groups within, the academic community have shifted to become more inclusive, often
embracing a broader mission than their “normal” sphere of operation - if for no other
678
reason than self interest, and that self interest requires collaboration, a form of civil
society within the academic/research community.
Surely, all of us can, today, recount situations from our own academic departments
and research units when we developed and executed programs in collaboration with
other academics/researchers and organizations outside our reductionist disciplines
that included other disciplines. This kind of collaboration was rare indeed just a few
years ago. It yet, does not come easy to many of us, and many such efforts still fail,
due primarily to fear and turf struggles. But, civil society is coming to the campus! At
my own institution, Mercer University, the Engineering School collaborates with the
School of Medicine on several instructional courses; as well as joint research projects
with local organizations on health and environmental projects. Sociology professors
work with community health physicians from the School of Medicine in several
outreach community programs. For several years, I taught a number of cap-off
course to seniors from our College of Liberal Arts on the subject of Global
Environmental Issues - me, a professor of environmental management and
international management from the School of Business and Economics.
Values among academics and researchers from different disciplines are shifting to
become more inclusive, more holistic, often embracing a broader mission of their
traditional sphere of operations. The academic/scientific community plays a pivotal
role in the development and application of holistic sustainable initiatives, including
research and education, then participate in transforming this knowledge and
consciousness [2, 25] into good environmental programs and practices. Building on
Norgaard’s pleas for pluralism is essential for the intellectual community to recognize
and respect that different disciplines have unique approaches to their view of the
world, applying different assumptions and methodologies, resulting in different
models of the “same” phenomena [16]. It is this very diversity and the synergy it
creates that holds promise for progress toward a planetary system of SD. There is no
one unifying paradigm. Planet Earth is ever-evolving with many paradigms -
interacting, blending, competing, creating, dying - where Homo sapien is an integral,
and in fact, a dominant player in its evolutionary path at this point in its history.
For the academic/scientific community the above means decompartmentalizing

disciplines, and listening and working with fellow stakeholders both inside and
outside the “establishment” [1]. Problems of Planet Earth are so important, that the
larger society will not let any single constituency have sole responsibility for its
guidance and well being. The big picture, Plant Earth and its biosphere and eco-
systems, is as important (and often more so) as any single branch of study. Planet
Earth is truly multidisciplinary and behaves in an interdisciplinary manner. As the
sciences become more diverse and complex, we also become more interdependent.
Norgaard describes these relationships as linkages, not synthesis of unlike
paradigms, but symbioses, whereby each discipline is enriched because of these
differences [16]. No discipline is asked to forego its own search for truth. It will take a
staggering amount of science - reductionist, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and
transdisplinary - to support the attainment of SD. This can only happen by the
inclusion of fellow intellectuals from a broad range of relevant disciplines. Exhibit I is
a broad-brush suggestion of disciplines that are involved and have potential for
making significant contributions to making sustainability holistic, understandable,
acceptable, and operational. All of us are challenged to construct their own scenario
of fellow travelers on the road to sustainability. Different circumstances require
679
different blends of players. As conditions change over time, a reordering of

stakeholders is likely. Who among us would have proposed such a list just a few
years ago?
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IS HOLISTIC: AN INTER-VERTICAL

PERSPECTIVE
Many scholars have developed models of the natural environment. For example,
Norgaard, Rothschild, and Teilhard have developed models demonstrating the
interconnectedness of man to his larger environment, the biosphere, and then the
cosmos [16, 20, 27]. These essays have largely focused on a “horizontal” dynamic
using interdisciplinary research and the integration of national economic and political
policies. These efforts have led to significant progress in our understanding of this
beautiful but complex orb we call Earth. Also needed is a vertical dynamic that
encourages discussions of concepts and policies through all levels of society,
including the science/research community and units at the places where human
activities intermesh with the biosphere [29]. This vertical structure should be open,
dynamic, and interactive (two-way), much as the academic/research community is
transitioning from a singular discipline perspective to multidisciplinary modus
operandi. Networking must be vertical as well as horizontal to be holistic and for SD
to have any opportunity for success.
A growing number of governments (at all levels - from local, to national, to

international) have developed programs that focus us on environmental results rather
than activities, promoting inter-vertical process rather than horizontal structures [5, 6,
25, 28]. These initiatives require inter-vertical processes including strategic planning
and participation at all levels of decision making, but particularly at the level of
execution. Two such inter-vertical programs in Romania, including adjoining affected
countries, the Danube River [10] and the Black Sea [3]. Two of nature’s most
beautiful, natural resources, supplying all peoples within their eco-systems an
abundance of sustaining resources have been degraded by human activities to such
a degree as to be on the verge of dying - no longer usable by Homo sapiens. Several
inter-vertical programs are now in place and operating to remediate these glorious
natural resources. Inter-vertical processes must include local activists who have
equity in the outcomes to be successful [32]. Social capital (micro) and civil society
(macro) development were integral elements of these projects when they were
designed and implemented [19]. Social capital and civil society are crucial for the
creation of trust and inter-connectedness amongst diverse groups of people that
come together for common purposes [30].
No one is suggesting that a government abandon the responsibility of serving its

peoples. But a growing number of scholars are suggesting a gradual withdrawal of
central control. In most well educated communities with rising levels of human
consciousness and awareness of the connectedness of all life forms [27] central
control just doesn’t work. Randhir and Lee see the role of central government as an
external observer, supplier of technical know-how, nurturer of mutual trust among the
variety of stakeholders and assisting the development of well-structured incentive
systems [17]. Government intervention achieves very little in the absence of civil
society, social capital, and local participation.
680
Exhibit II: Making Sustainability Operational: Local Input Through

Vertical Interconnectedness and Local Socio-cultural
Participation
I. Vertical Interconnectedness
A. Responsibility to community/individual and away from
command and control (Civil Society)
B. Process-oriented
C. Results/Goal Drive (Strategic Planning)
D. Local Based Initiatives
1. Ecosystem Management
2. Placed-based Management
3. Community-based Environmental Protection
4. Watershed Management
5. Cross-media Management
II. Local Socio-cultural Participation
A. Power to Local Stakeholders (Social Capital)
1. Farmers/Ranchers
2. Small manufacturers
3. Community Leaders
4. Consumers
B. Gradual Withdrawal of Central Government
C. Freedom, Diversity, Tolerance
D. Risk/Strength/Creativity
E. More Decision Makers
F. Successful Ideas Increase
G. Self-interest/Creativity
CONCLUSION
There are many issues that need to be addressed as humankind moves sputteringly
toward some sense of balance with its underpinning life force - the biosphere. Two
proposals were discussed that have potential for making some progress toward
perceiving sustainability holistically: a holistic science/research transdisciplinary
perspective and vertical inter-connectedness using the creative synergy of local
stakeholders, who, in the end have the most to gain or lose. There is a thread that
runs through both proposals - collaboration within a civil society. The
science/research community is at the core of this struggle, providing knowledge,
learning and embracing a holistic view of man and his environment such that our
efforts moves us ever closer to a sustainable life style as an integral element of
everyday living.
REFERENCES
[1] Benson, William H. (1995). Better science makes for better decisions.
Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 4(11), 1811-1812.
[2] Berry, Thomas (1988). The dream of Earth. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books.
681
[3] Brief outline of Black See and environmental issues (1996).

<www.bseanetwork.org/blacks_descr.htm> (accessed 4 Nov. 2002).
[4] Burrows, Brian C., Alan J. Mayne, and Paul Newberry (1991). Into the 21st
century. Twickenham, U.K.: Adamantic Press Limited.
[5] Earth Council. Earth Council strategy, 1997-2000. Making sustainability work.
<www.ecouncil.ac.cr/about/strategy> (accessed 22 Jan. 1999).
[6] Environmental Protection Agency (ECOS) (1995). Memorandum of

understanding. Washington D.C.: EPA.
[7] Hawken, Paul (1993). The ecology of commerce. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers.
[8] Hess, Karl, Jr. (1992). Visions upon the land. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.
[9] Lachman, Beth E. (1997). Linking sustainable community activities to pollution

prevention: A source book. Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation.
[10] Lovatt, Catherine (13 Sept. 1999). Romania’s not-so-blue Danube. <www.ce-
review.org/99/12/lovatt12.html> (accessed 4 November 2002).
[11] Lovelock, James E. (1979). Gaia: A new look of life on Earth. New York: Oxford
University Press.
[12] Luca, Iona (1996). Promoting energy efficiency in Romania.

<www.rec.org/REC/Bulletin/Bull62/energy.html> (accessed 9 Jan. 2003).
[13] Meppem, Tony and Roderic Gill (1998). Planning for sustainability as learning
concept. Ecological economics, 26(2), 121-137.
[14] Musters, C.J.M., W.J. de Graaf, and W.J. ter Keurs (1998). Defining socio-
environmental systems for sustainable development. Ecological economics,
26(3), 243-258.
[15] Neace, M.B. (1998). Sustainable development: A critique and proposal.

Ecosystems and sustainable development, J.L. Uso (Ed), et al. Southampton,
U.K.: WIT Press, 105-113.
[16] Norgaard, Richard B. (1985, December). Environmental economics: An

evolutionary and a plea for pluralism. Journal of environmental economics and
management, 382-394.
[17] Randhir, Timothy O. and John G. Lee (1996). Managing local commons in
developing economics: An institutional approach. Ecological economics, 16(1),
1-12.
[18] Rees, William (1990). Sustainable development and the biosphere.

Chambersburg, PA: ANIMA Books.
682
[19] Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC).
Newsletters and Bulletins (various issues), <www.rec.org>
[20] Rothschild, Michael (1990). Bionomics. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
[21] Ruckelhaus, William O. (1989). Toward sustainable world. Scientific American,

261(3), 166-170.
[22] Schmidheiny, Stephan (1992). Changing course: A global business perspective

on development and the environment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[23] Social analysis sourcebook (2002).

<www.worldbank.org/socialanlaysissourcebank> (accessed 9 Jan. 2003).
[24] Stikker, Allerd (1992). The transformation factor. Rockport, MA: Element, Inc.
[25] Sustainable development capacity building initiatives at EDI/LLC (1998). World

Bank <www.worldbank.org/environmentalmatters>. (accessed 22 Jan. 1999).
[26] Tarnas, Richard (1991). The passion of western mind. New York: Harmon
Books.
[27] Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre (1959). The phenomenon of man. New York:
Harper.
[28] United States Agency for International Development (USAID). USAID’s

strategies for sustainable development. <www.info.usaid.environment>
(accessed 15 Jan. 1999).
[29] United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainability (1997).
National implementation of agenda 21: Romania, country profile.
<www.un.org/esa/earthsummit/
romn-cp.htm> (accessed 9 Jan. 2003).
[30] United States Energy Information Administration (2000). Romania:

Environmental issues. <www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/romaenv.html> (accessed
9 Jan. 2003).
[31] Vedeld, Paul O. (1994). The environmental and interdisciplinary ecological and
economical approaches to the use of natural resources. Ecological economics,
10(1), 1-13.
[32] World Bank supports forest development in Romania (December 2002).

<www.worldbank.org.ro/ECA/Romania.nsf/ECADocByLink/1ABC10> (accessed
9 Jan. 2003).
683
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION - NEEDS, PROBLEMS

AND SOLUTIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF SULTANATE OF OMAN1
R. Sathiskumar 1 , and Venkateswara Sarma Mallela 2

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Caledonian College of Engineering
2 Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering,
Caledonian College of Engineering,
CPO 2322, SEEB-111, SULTANATE OF OMAN
Ph: 00-968-536165,535522, Fax:535675
e-mail: sathis18@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
There has been a great awareness on environment in the Ministry of Sultanate of Oman as can be seen
by the projects undertaken towards providing a clean and green environment in the country. This paper
presents a brief overview of the environmental issues and challenges affecting Sultanate of Oman. The
global environmental issues in general are addressed and their applicability to hot and arid climate at
Sultanate of Oman are brought out. The efforts that have gone into handling environmental issues and
their efficacies are also included in this paper, based on the information obtained from the Ministry of
Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources. The factors to be considered in general (like,
water scarcity and pollution, oil pollution, air pollution, biodiversity, waste management etc) and their
relevance to Sultanate of Oman are also discussed in this paper. With the growing demand in
environmental engineering activities both in government and in private sector in Sultanate of Oman, there
is a genuine need to produce environmental engineers through education at local Universities /
Engineering Colleges. After a detailed study and analysis, the paper presents a curriculum at
undergraduate degree level in environmental engineering as sustainable solution to remedy the problems
and deficiencies. Research and Development activities to design, implement and test the curriculum in
EEE are also suggested towards the end, thus contributing towards formulating the global environmental
engineering curricula.
Keywords; Environmental Engineering Education (EEE), Curricula, Sustainable,

Undergraduate Degree, Environmental issues
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION
Environmental Engineering Education (EEE) has been in vogue since past five decades.
However awareness towards EEE has been seen during the past two decades or so.
There are several graduate, and research programs concurrently running at various
Universities around the world giving degrees in Environmental Engineering (EE). Apart
from these, in some Universities, undergraduate programs leading to a Bachelor’s
degree in EE have been introduced during the past decade.
The technological advancements and developments in various fields contributed to the

pollution of the environment as a direct impact of human actions on the environment. At
the same time, the need for designing systems that do not pollute the land, air, and
water; environmental management with an in-depth knowledge of relevant physical,
1
684
chemical and biological systems has been felt. The answer to this lies in EEE.
Environmental Engineering encompasses:
Identifying the sources of a pollution problem on the basis of a knowledge of

viable migration pathways in the environment
Evaluation, design and implementation of systems designed to prevent or control

or remediate contaminated components of Environment
Interacting with other engineering disciplines in the identification of a pollution

problem and the human or ecological response
Interacting with other engineering disciplines in the evaluation, design and

implementation of systems designated to control pollutants I industrial facilities
Protection of people from hazards caused by poor air or water quality, noise, and
radiation and developing environmental regulations
In addition to these technical issues, the legal, societal, political and economic issues
are also alluded to above (Danny D.Reible, 1999)
AWARENESS ON ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING IN

SULTANATE OF OMAN
The awareness on environmental science and engineering dates back to 1974 as a

direct vision of the ruling king, His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said. The Sultanate of
Oman, with all its’ natural wealth, is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of
its distinct geographical location, biological diversity and natural resources.
The Royal Directives issued to conserve the environment and preserve natural
resources include the following areas:
Environmental legislations and Regulations
Environmental Inspections and Control
Environmental Planning and Permits
Natural and Wild life conservation
Permit for visiting Nature Reserves
Wild Life rangers, Patrols, observations and field visits
The above directives resulted in initiating several major projects towards Environmental
protection and sustainable development. The years 2001 and 2002 were declared as
year of Environment, which demonstrates the strong will for good environment in
Sultanate of Oman. Fig 1 explains the major administrative steps undertaken in
685
achieving good environment in many sectors (Environment in the Sultanate of Oman,

2002).
2001 and 2002 –Year of Environment

& The Sultan Qaboos prize for
Environment preservation
1974-Tthe office of the 2001-Merging of

advisor for conservation Ministry of Environment
of the environment, and regional
Nature and wildlife, municipalities and Water
marine pollution law resources
1979Tthe Council for 1991-Merging of

the conservation of the Ministry of
environment and Environment and
prevention of pollution regional municipalities
1984-The Ministry of 1990-Royal Decree

Environment Issuing the
responsibility of the
department
Fig.1
The Environmental area and the major projects along with other activities undertaken in
Sultanate of Oman from 1979 till date are categorized and shown in Table 1.0 (The
National report on implementation of Agenda 21 on Sustainable Development, 2002).
686
Environmental Area Activities and projects

Atmospheric protection ¾ Online monitoring of air pollutants
¾ Study on Protection from radiation
¾ Study on Protection from ozone layer
¾ Studying climate change and the green house gases
Quality and supply of fresh ¾ Building of protective walls to protect soil from driftage
water resources ¾ Protection of traditional aflaj, springs and wells
¾ Planting of palm trees near dry river beds
¾ Construction of new Dams
Protection of oceans and ¾ National plan for coral reef management
coastal areas ¾ Monitoring of pollutants in the marine environment
¾ Mangrove cultivation and bay rehabilitation
¾ Routine inspection of beaches and Diving to monitor coral reef
Protection and management ¾ Building of protective walls to protect soil from driftage and
of land resources planting of palm trees near dry river beds
¾ Identifying and classifying agriculture lands
¾ To propagate palm trees
¾ To prohibit construction on agriculture land etc
Conservation of bio diversity ¾ Conservation of natural resources

¾ Terrestrial and fresh water resources
¾ Wild and marine plants
¾ Private sector participation
¾ Agricultural resources
Bio technology management ¾ Preparing programs and Environmental friendly projects
Solis waste and Hazardous ¾ Studying the economic and technical feasibility of Privatization
& chemical waste of the management of waste sites
management
Combating ¾ Strengthening reforestation and halting of desertification

Deforestation ¾ National action plan for combating desertification
¾ Establishment of nurseries to plant mangrove trees in the
coastal trees
¾ Establishing two nursery for transplanting endemic wildlife flora
species
687
Combating ¾ Strengthening reforestation and halting of

Deforestation desertification
¾ National action plan for combating desertification
¾ Establishment of nurseries to plant mangrove trees in
the coastal trees
¾ Establishing two nursery for transplanting endemic
wildlife flora species
Desertification and ¾ Desertification simulation project in Dhofar
drought ¾ National conservation strategy for drought
Sustainable mountain ¾ Regulations prohibiting logging and over exploitation

development of vegetation cover
¾ Granting aids to livestock owners to buy feeds
Combating ¾ Strengthening reforestation and halting of

Deforestation desertification
¾ National action plan for combating desertification
¾ Establishment of nurseries to plant mangrove trees in
the coastal trees
¾ Establishing two nursery for transplanting endemic
wildlife flora species
Desertification and ¾ Desertification simulation project in Dhofar
drought ¾ National conservation strategy for drought
Sustainable mountain ¾ Regulations prohibiting logging and over exploitation

development of vegetation cover
¾ Granting aids to livestock owners to buy feeds
Agriculture and rural ¾ Agriculture guidance program

development ¾ Pest control program
Waste water Reuse ¾ Study on HRTS system for treated waste water
¾ Planning for increase the number of treatment plants
Table 1
CURRENT STATUS IN SULTANATE OF OMAN (ENVIRONMENT IN THE

SULTANATE OF OMAN, 2002)
Environmental issues are dealt with by the Ministry of “Regional Municipalities,

Environment and Water Resources”. The Ministry is responsible for a range of services
including environmental health, pest control, air and water pollution monitoring. The
Ministry also issues decisions to empower the 43 municipalities within the Sultanate of
Oman to take action to protect and improve the environment. Sultanate of Oman, with
688
an arid climate has achieved the clean environment to a satisfactory level due to the
major projects undertaken in the areas of Air pollution, Water resources, Soil quality,
Marine environment, Solid waste and Hazardous waste management, Protection of
public health and Agriculture, etc
AIR QUALITY
The Air Quality in Oman has been very high as compared to the International standards,
as may be seen from the Table 2. The computerization and the network implemented
has greatly helped in regulating the legislation. Concentration of Air Pollutants in
2001measured in µm/cubic meter (Table 2)
Monitoring Area Ruwi Industrial Sur Salalah International

Estate Standard
Pollutants
Lead 0.169 0.498 0.084 0019 1.5

Suspended Particles 88.26 103.61 143.77 73.29 150
Hydro carbons 3.24 3.27 2.43 2.11 160
Water Resources and Deficit
Water Resources in Sultanate of Oman
5% 2%
Groundwater
Desalination
Treated
Fig 2
93%
Projected Water deficit in Oman

500
400
300 water deficit in MCM
200 417
336
100
0 Fig 3
1999 2002
689
As can be seen from Fig 2, ground water is the main source of water in Sultanate of
Oman. The overall water shortage estimated is shown in Fig 3. The problems may be
classified under:
¾ Decline of groundwater levels
¾ Water quality deterioration
¾ Dry out of many wells
¾ Sea water intrusion into coastal freshwater aquifer
¾ Well deepening
Due to the increase in demand of water resources in Oman, all efforts are streamlined
towards an efficient water management.
Oman’s annual production of soildwaste is about 909,040tons per year. There are over
350 disposal sites around Oman. There is a need to manage these waste disposal sites
in order to avoid environmental degradation and public health problems. The Fig 4
shows the breakdown of the major sources on non-hazardous solid waste in Sultanate
of Oman. More the organic fraction explores the options for eco friendly product like
compost etc using bio technical methods. An area of land has been allocated for the
development of a dedicated hazardous waste disposal site. As a signatory to the Basle
Convention, the Sultanate is keen to implement the new strategy, for the safe handling
and disposal of hazardous waste.
Solid wastes
Food and Organic waste
Glass
9%
13% Plastic
Metal
6% 54% paper & card board
12%
6% Construction waste
Fig 4
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ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Ministry is very conscious of the importance of sustainable development with

environmental impact assessment taking place before any new development is
permitted. Private companies are also encouraged to comply with ISO 14000.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan ensures that the rich flora and fauna
of the country is protected. Oman has many nature reserves, which are the natural
habitats for a host of rare animals including oryx, gazelle, taher and ibex.
SEA WATER INTRUSION
Problems have occurred with seawater intrusion and contamination of groundwater in

some rural areas. A master plan for the supply of water to the capital area until 2010
exists. A number of projects are underway including a wastewater treatment plant for the
capital.
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS
More than 75types of Coral reefs have been identified in the Gulf of Oman and Arabian
sea. There are unique types of coral reefs in the Oman waters and the Ministry of
Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources are making intense efforts
to protect the reefs.
MANGROVES
There are 90 different types of mangroves. Due to the severe climatic conditions in
conjunction with limited habitats and niches only one species, (Avicennia marina)
occurs. To improve the situation three nurseries have been established, with the main
one located in Al-Quram national park, and producing 42,000 per year. The Ministry is
working in co-operation with the Japanese International Co-operation Agency (JICA) on
a project to restore mangroves
SOIL QUALITY
Most Oman Soils have a high level of calcinations, which varies between neutral and
alkaline. The coastal dune soil is rough, with little mud components and a limited ability
to conserve water. Generally soil has a low level of organic and nitrogenous
components, and potassium requirements point out the low probability of interchange
between potassium and other elements. Moreover, the total magnesium reserve, which
may be interchanged, is intermediate.
OIL POLLUTION
Oil spills in the marine environment, petrol stations, oil drilling process and other
petroleum establishments are the primary sources of marine and water pollution.
691
Projects are being implemented for assessing environmental impacts and pollution
control.
PROTECTION OF PUBLIC HEALTH
WHO in its report annual report 2000 has ranked Sultanate of Oman as
¾ No 1 in terms of level of health
¾ No 8 in terms of best health care
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture, livestock and fisheries are an important basis of the Oman economy,
benefiting from the fact that Sultanate of Oman is one of the greenest countries in
Arabian Peninsula. Efforts are also made to restrict food imports as far as possible
through the following steps.
¾ Improvement of productivity per acre
¾ Increase in cultivated area and number of livestock
¾ Enhancement of research and agricultural extension
OVERVIEW OF EEE IN SULTANATE OF OMAN
The EEE in Oman was started at an early stage through the following programs:
¾ Several environmental awareness programs were conducted by the Ministry of

Education for targeted groups of school children
¾ Graduate level programs in EE under Civil Engineering department, a state

owned University, the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU).
¾ Undergraduate degree in Environmental Civil Engineering at Caledonian College

of Engineering (CCE), (degrees are awarded by Glasgow Caledonian University
(GCU), UK).
SQU through the department of civil engineering has started a program in 5 year
Undergraduate program in Environmental Engineering since May 2002 which is a
subdivision of Civil Engineering where students will be studying environmental subjects
starting from 7th semester to 10th semester leading to Bachelor of Engineering in Civil
Engineering (Environmental Engineering). This University also offers Postgraduate
programs in Water resources engineering and Environmental Engineering. The first
private University College in Sultanate of Oman, CCE also offers Two year University
Diploma, Three year BSc Environmental Civil Engineering (since 2000) and Four year
B.Eng in Environmental civil Engineering where the environmental subjects are taught at
level 3 and 4. The detailed degree plan of these courses are shown in Appendix 1.
692
NEED FOR THE UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM IN ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
After a detailed study and analysis of the various programs being run at present in
Sultanate of Oman, it is observed that a new undergraduate level course would comply
to the ever increasing needs of the country in Environmental engineering. Further, such
a full fledged undergraduate course would lead to potential academic growth in the field.
NECESSARY COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULA
A generic curriculum model with various components is shown in Fig 5.
Professional
Orientation
Core Courses Social Sciences
EE
Design Courses Humanities
Curriculum
Field Exercise Policy and Law

subjects Oriented Courses
Fundamental and applied

Mathematics & Sciences
Fig 5 (Reference 5, 6 & 8)
There has been a multitude of approaches to the development of curricula in EEE,

mostly with the lack of comprehensive coverage of environmental issues and the
integration of those issues with the engineering subject matter (Duyen Q. Nguyen.
2002). In the Context of Sultanate of Oman, It is necessary to make a balance between
the generic model components and the local project oriented thrust areas to formulate
the actual curriculum. However the professional areas need to be given equal thrust for
the future technological growth in this area of specialization Considering all the above
factors, the curriculum has been designed in this paper. The salient features of the and
Environmental Engineering profession (Danny D.Reible, 1999) and curriculum designed
is shown are in Fig 6&7.
693
Environmental Engineering Profession
Various Aspects EE Profession
Technical Societal Economic
Industrial Environmental Environmental

Profession Engineering Scientist
Civil Mechanical Chemical Computer Electrical Bio

Engineering Engineering Engineering Technology Engineering Technology
Environmental Process design Equipment Data Modeling Control Effective

Design of & design and simulations Systems treatment
Structures Materials
Fig 6
694
Certain Details on the curriculum

Semester 1 Semester II Semester III
Semester IV Semester V Semester VI
Engineering Engineering Probability and Numerical methods Environmental
Mathematics drawing/Computer statistics And Engineering Systems Analysis
graphics computation
Biological Principles Microbiology for Biotechnology for Solid and hazardous Air and noise
& Introductory of bio Environmental Environmental waste Engineering pollution and control
diversity Engineering Engineers
Engineering Environmental Hydraulics Introduction to Water and Waste

mechanics Chemistry Engineering Envi. Engineering & engineering
(Static and Dynamics) Unit processes
Technical Ecology and the Hydrogeology Geotechnical Environmental

Communications and Environment Engineering and Geotechnology
writings Analysis
Semester VII Semester VIII Legend
Elective from GIS & Remote

Public health Sensing Core Courses
Fundamentals
Design
Watershed and water
Elective from
Courses
resources Engineering
Humanities Fundamental
and Applied
Science &
Coastal & Irrigation Elective from
Engineering Social sciences Mathematics
Electives
Shadowed
Elective from
Design boxes
Policy & Law Project
Oriented Courses
showing half
modules
Study Project
Fig 7
696
SUMMARY OF THE SUGGESTED UNDERGRADUATE COURSE
Total number of years of study: 4
Total Credits: 700 (Details in Appendix 2)
Number of Semesters 8
Number of Electives offered 5 (Details in Appendix 3)
Core courses 6 (Details in Appendix 4)
CONCLUSION
The present status on Environmental engineering as applicable in Sultanate of Oman

are clearly brought out in this paper. Based on the studies carried out in this paper, a
curriculum for a 4 year undergraduate course in Environmental engineering has been
designed considering the global models and the present status. The work carried out in
this paper would act as a reference for implementation as and when applicable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge with thanks the support and cooperation given by the Ministry
of “Regional Municipalities, Water Resources and Environment”, Sultanate of Oman.
The authors express their profound gratitude to the Caledonian College of Engineering,
Sultanate of Oman for the encouragement and facilities provided in carrying out the
work.
REFERENCES
1. Danny D.Reible., (1999)., Fundamentals of Environmental Engineering, Springer

Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, USA-3,6.
2. Environment in the Sultanate of Oman (2002), Ministry of Regional Municipality,

Environment and Water Resources Sultanate of Oman,2002.14-42.
3. The National report on implementation of Agenda 21 on Sustainable

development, , (2002), Ministry of Regional Municipality, Environment and water
Resources Sultanate of Oman.22-43.
4. Duyen Q. Nguyen., (2002) Searching for a global model for environmental

engineering education, World Transactions on Engineering and Technology
Education Melbourne, Australia, Vol.1, No.1, 2002-1
5. Daniel W. Smith., Nihar Biswas., (2002), Environmental engineering education in

Canada.,Journal . Environ. Eng. Sci. on the NRC Research Press Web site,
Canada
6. www.cornell.edu/Academic/Courses/.
697
7. http://www.engineering.sdsu.edu/civil/
8. http://www.squ.edu.om/eng/ce/revised-Programsenvironment.html
698
APPENDIX 1
Subjects offered in SQU (Reference 8)
Semester 6 semester 7 Semester 8

Structures I Engineering Hydrology Structures II
Construction Materials Highway Engineering Hydraulics
Geotechnical
Concrete Design Water & Waste Water Management
Engineering I
Drawing II Environmental Engineering I Construction Management
Engineering Geology Numerical methods ELECTIVE I
Semester 9 Semester 10
Probability and Statistics for
Steelwork Design
Engineers,
Civil Engineering Design
Foundation Engineering
Project
Engineering Economy Project II
Environmental
ELECTIVE II
Engineering II
Project I ELECTIVE III
1. The students must select topics for Project I and Project II from the area of Environmental
Engineering.
2. The elective courses must be from the Environmental Engineering area.
Subjects offered in CCE

Level 3 Level 4
Ground Engineering Civil Engineering Design
Structural Engineering Environmental Protection
Water Engineering Water Quality & treatment
Construction Law and Management Solid Waste Management
Transportation Honours Project
Project
699
APPENDIX 2
Sl.No. Course Number of Credit Total

Subjects points Credit
Points
1 Mathematics and 6 20 120
Sciences
Without half modules
2 Mathematics and 2 20 40
Sciences
With half modules
3 Environmental 6 20 120
Engineering
Core Subjects
4 Design Subjects without 5 20 100
half modules
5 Design Subjects with half 5 30 150
modules
6 Public and environmental 1 20 20
health
7 Policy and Law Oriented 1 20 20
Courses
8 Social Sciences 1 20 20
9 Humanities 1 20 20
10 Professional Orientation 1 10 10
11 Pre Final Semester 1 30 30
Project
(Study Project)
12 Final Semester Project 1 50 50
(Design Project)
Total Credit points for the curriculum are 700.
700
APPENDIX 3
Elective Subjects
(Ref erence 5, 6 & 8)
Electives for Design and field visit oriented Courses
Case Studies in Environmental Fluid Mechanics
Experimental Methods in Fluid Dynamics
Risk Analysis and Management
Environmental Quality Systems and auditing
Experimental Methods in Fluid Dynamics
Advanced water and Waste water Treatment
Mixing, Transport, and Transformation
Industrial waste management
Ecological Engineering
Point and Nonpoint Source Models
Groundwater pollution
Environmental Impact assessment
Project methodology
Electives for Policy and Law Oriented Courses

Environmental Law
Natural Resources Management
Natural Resources Policy, Planning, & Politics
Social Sciences
Environmental Conservation
International Environmental Policy
Sustainability
Humanities
Ethics and the World Environment
Religion, Ethics, and the Environment
Public and Environmental Health

Water and wastewater quality
Environmental pollution and protection
Environmental planning/decision making
Environmental toxicology
Urban and rural sanitation
700
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE EMERGY THEORY ON THE

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES1
Ioan BITIR-ISTRATE, Olivier LE CORRE, Mohand TAZEROUT

Ecole des Mines de Nantes
Energy Systems and Environment Department
4, rue Alfred Kastler, La Chantrerie,
44307, Nantes, France
tel: 003325185829; fax: 0033251858299
ABSTRACT
The aim of the paper is to present a new method for deciding the best solution for reducing the
environmental impact of industrial activity. EPBP criterion is similarly to the financial analysis Payback
Period tool. The development of this method is based on the emergy theory. Main equations are
described and EPBP criterion is applied for the case of electricity production. As a result, a hydro plant
appears as the most ecological way to replace an oil power plant. The proposed method is useful for
regional and national authorities, in the context of sustainable development efforts.
Keywords: reducing the environmental impact, EPBP criterion, emergy theory, power
plant
INTRODUCTION
In the context of the sustainable development, the projects leading to the environmental
impact reduction are very important. During the last decades, several methods for
quantifying the ecological impact have been developed. The most used is LCA- Life
Cycle Analysis. For a given project, LCA identifies all kinds of emissions rejected by an
industrial process in the environment.
Usually, the regional and national authorities have to choose between different
ecological projects that could be implemented. These projects could have different
sizes, ecological effects and costs. LCA is not enough to establish a relation between
the positive effect of the projects and its costs.
For the economical analysis, the PBP – Payback Period – criteria is used for comparing
the projects. Annual benefits (expressed in monetary units) are analyzed in function of
investments. This method applied for an ecological project leads to negative results. It is
always very difficult to express the ecological benefit in term of money. Because of the
big investments, these solutions are often financial not feasible.
Starting from these considerations, the authors have developed a method for
investigating the “ecological feasibility” of an environmental friendly solution. The aim of
the paper is to present a new criteria EPBP – Ecological Payback Period – and the
results of its application.
1
701
EMERGY THEORY
As presented above, LCA is not able to make a general assessment of an industrial

project. Since 1982, Howard T. Odum from Florida University has been developing the
emergy analysis (EA) theory. The concept of “ecological feasibility” presented in this
paper is based on the emergy theory. By definition, emergy is the total amount of
resources used for making an industrial good [2].
LCA and EA are complementary; EA has two major contributions of the environmental
studies:
- it takes into account the indirect effort for eliminating the pollution effect and
- it works with different kinds of resources.
Making a general assessment of an environmental project supposes to discuss about

pollution, money, fuel, services, etc. Odum proposed this method that uses the
equivalence between different inputs. The solar energy is considered as the primary
energy resource for the human activity on the Earth. All derivate resources used for
making an industrial good can be expressed as solar energy equivalent. In this respect,
solar energy joule (sej) has been selected as unit for emergy.
The fundamental equation of the emergy analysis is [6]:
Em = τ s ⋅ Ψ s [sej] (1)
where, Em represents the emergy content (sej) of the Ψs resource expressed in specific
units (J, €, gr, etc).
The transformity τs (sej/unit) is the core of the emergy theory. By definition, τs represents
the solar energy equivalent used for obtaining one unit of fuel, money, services or
materials. This parameter takes different values in function of the resource concerned by
τs , but also in relation with the system in discussion. Table 1 gives the reference values
for the transformity according to the different emergy studies.
Using the transformity concept, any kind of resources could be expressed by its emergy
content. The most important application of this theory is the money tranformity. For a
country, it can estimate the sum of resources consumption for producing one unit of
GDP. This amount will be considered the money transformity for the analysed country.
EPBP METHOD
National and international authorities need a method for deciding which is the best
ecological project in the context of sustainable development. The authors propose EPBP
method based on the emergy theory. For each analysis of the project opportunity, it
needs to establish at least two solutions: the reference one and the proposed one. For
this case, the authors propose as a reference the case of a classic technology. There
are not direct measures for reducing the ecological impact of the industrial process. In
702
this case, an investment Iref is necessary for implementing the project (see figure 1).
During one year, an amount Cdref of resources is directly consumed for the process.
Table 1
Reference values for money, electricity and fuels transformity in different emergy
studies
Reference τ€ τel τf
sej/€ sej/J sej/J
Ulgiati and al. (1994) [8] 1.46- 2⋅105 -
2.5⋅1012
Nilson (1997) [5] 1.73⋅1012 2⋅105 6.6⋅104
Bastianoni and Marchettini (2000) 3⋅1012 2⋅105 6.6⋅104
[3]
Odum (2000) [7] 2⋅1012 - -
Bakshi (2000) [1] - - 6.6⋅104
Björklund (2001) [4] 2.19⋅1012 1.19⋅105 6.6⋅104
Ulgiati (2001) [9] - - 6.5⋅104
DIRECTLY INDIRECTLY
CONSUMED CONSUMED
INVESTMENT RESOURCES RESOURCES
Iref Cdref Cdref
POLLUTION
Pref
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT
PROCESS
POLLUTION
Pec
INVESTMENT DIRECTLY INDIRECTLY

Iec CONSUMED CONSUMED
RESOURCES RESOURCES
Cdec Cdec
Figure 1: Emergy diagram for the industrial process – environment relation description
703
An annual pollution Pref is rejected in the environment, because of the industrial activity.
For neutralising the ecological impact of the process, the authorities have to use another
amount of resources. This indirectly input is noted Ciref.
The ecological solution (a new technology, a better use of the renewable resources, etc)
supposes bigger investment Iec. The direct annual consumption is noted Cdec. In this
case, the pollution Pec rejected in environment is less than in the reference solution. It
results smaller contribution Ciec for of the authorities for the impact reduction. The
fundamental condition in this analysis is that the final effect for the environment is
identical for both cases.
For the economical analysis, PBP represents the period in time till the annual benefit will
cover the investment. Similarly, for the emergy analysis, it considers the EPBP criterion
– Ecological Payback Period. The ecological benefit of the project is given by equation
(2):
( ) (
EB = Cdref + Ciref − Cdec + Ciec ) [sej/yr] (2)
The difference of investment is given by:
∆Inv = I ec − I ref [sej] (3)
EPBP is calculated using equations (2) and (3):
∆Inv I ec − I ref
EPBP = = ref [years] (4)
EB ( ) (
Cd + Ciref − Cdec + Ciec )
EPBP represents the period in time till the difference of investment (as a resource
consumption for making a more ecological project) will be covered by the direct and
indirect resource consumption reduction (the environmental impact reduction). This
criterion can be used for studying the opportunity for an ecological project. The
authorities can impose a limit for EPBP. Any project having inferior value of EPBP can
be considered as “ecologically feasible”.
EPBP METHOD FOR ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION STUDIES
Producing electricity means one of the biggest ecological impacts of industrial

processes. The replacement of the classical power plants (coal, natural gas or nuclear
plants) with renewable resources conversion units is a priority of the moment. The most
difficult problem in this case is the level of the investment cost.
Financial studies prove that the renewable resources conversion units are not feasible
for the moment. By environmental consideration, the authorities have to encourage this
kind of projects. EPBP can give the solution for comparing different ecological proposals
for replacing classical electricity production.
704
As reference solution for this study, the electricity production in an oil power plant has
been considered. The ecological alternatives are: a geothermal plant, a windmills plant
and a hydro plant. The question is: which is the best solution from the emergy analysis
point of view? How can it produce one unit of electricity having the best ration
investment-benefit (in ecological terms)?
Table 2 presents the results of the emergy analysis for this study, starting by the
research made by Ulgiati and Brown [10]. All the data have been divided to the plants
capacity. First row shows the annual direct and indirect resources consumption for
producing one unit of electricity. The biggest value (corresponding to the oil plant) is
associated of a considerable non-renewables contribution for electricity production. For
geothermal plant, the emergy content is also big, but the contribution of renewables is
very important. Windmills plant and hydro plant are the most suitable for electricity
production.
The biggest specific reduction of the environmental impact is calculated for the
hydroplant at 42.1⋅1014 sej/kW⋅year. For the windmills, the value of the same parameter
is 41.9⋅1014 sej/kW⋅year. The difference on resources investment is also favourable to
the hydroplant with 22.5⋅1014 sej/kW⋅year. The EPBP for this example, calculated with
equation 4, is 2.1 years, for geothermal plant, 0.7 years for windmills and 0.5 years for
hydroplant. According to the EPBP theory, the electricity production in a hydroplant is
the best solution from the environmental point of view.
Table 2
Emergy analysis results for electricity production
Unit Oil Geothermal Windmills Hydro

(ref.)
Direct and indirect sej/kW⋅yr 45.2⋅1014 31.9⋅1014 3.3⋅1014 3.1⋅1014
resources
consumption
Environmental benefit sej/kW⋅yr - 13.3⋅1014 41.9⋅1014 42.1⋅101
4
Resources sej/kW 15⋅1014 43.5⋅1014 45⋅1014 37.5⋅101

investment*) 4
Difference on sej/kW - 28.5⋅1014 30⋅1014 22.5⋅101

4
resources investment
EPBP years - 2.1 0.7 0.5
*) – specific investment for the analysed cases are: 1,500 €/kW windmills, 1,450€/kW geothermal,
1,250 €/kW hydroplant, 500 €/kW oil plant; money transformity is τ = 3⋅1012 sej/€ for the case of Italy.
CONCLUSIONS
The emergy theory can be used for the study of the environmental impact of an
industrial process. Several projects for reducing the environmental stress are adapted
for a specific location. Ecological Payback Period criterion is a new method for
705
quantifying the positive effect of an ecological project, considering the resources

consumption assessment. Using the ratio investment – annual benefit, the authorities
are able to decide the best opportunity for the region between different ecological
proposals as CO2 emissions reduction measures, better waste management projects,
cleaner technologies, etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Bakshi, B.R., 2000, « A thermodynamic framework for ecologically conscious

process systems engineering », Computers and Chemical Engineering 24 (2000) 1767-
1773.
[2] Bastianoni, S. and Marchettini, N., 1997, « Emergy/exergy ratio as a measure of the
level of organisation of systems », Ecological Modelling 99 (1997), 33-40.
[3] Bastianoni, S. and Marchettini, N., 2000, « The problem of co-production in

environmental accounting by emergy analysis », Ecological Modelling 129 (2000), 187-
193.
[4] Björklund, J., Geber, U. and Rydberg, T, 2001, « Emergy analysis of municipal
wastewater treatment and generation of electricity by digestion of sewage sludge »,
Resources Conservation & Recycling 31 (2001), 293-316.
[5] Nilsson, D., 1997, « Energy, exergy and emergy analysis of using straw as fuel in
district heating plants », Biomass and Bioenergy, Vol.13 (1997), 63-73.
[6] Odum, H.T. and Peterson, N., 1996, « Simulation and evaluation with energy
systems blocks », Ecological Modelling 93 (1996), 155-173.
[7] Odum, H.T., 2000, « Emergy evaluation of an OTEC electrical power system »,
Energy 25 (2000), 389-393.
[8] Ulgiati, S., Odum, H.T. and Bastianoni, S., 1994, « Emergy use, environmental
loading and sustainability. An emergy analysis of Italy », Ecological Modelling 73 (1994),
215-268
[9] Ulgiati, S., 2001, « A comprehensive energy and economic assessment of biofuels:
when “green” is not enough », Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 20 (2001), 71-106.
[10] Ulgiati, S. and Brown, M.T., 2002, « Quantifying the environmental support for
dilution and abatement of process emissions. The case of electricity production»,
Journal of Cleaner Production 10 (2002), 335-348.
706
DEMOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR REPLICATION IN

THE QUALITY OF ENVIRONMENT IN WESTERN PART OF
VRANCEA COUNTY1
Cristian Ioja, Viorel Popescu

University of Bucharest
Center for Environmental Researches and Impact Studies
1 N Balcescu, 70111, Bucharest, Romania
tel/fax: +40+213103872, e-mail: cristi@portiledefier.ro
ABSTRACT
The project LIFE Nature „In Situ Conservation of the Large Carnivore in Vrancea County”
LIFE02/NAT/RO/8576 is coordinated by the Environmental Protection Inspectorate Vrancea and
aims the following objectives: to create a local management plan for large carnivores protection in
Vrancea County; to prevent conflicts between large carnivores and local inhabitants; to establish
an ecological network for large carnivores protection in Vrancea County. In order to accomplish
the project’s objectives, a main action is the social and economical evaluation of the localities
from the west of Vrancea County. This is necessary in order to accommodate the management
plan of the ecological network at the social and economical situation; to establish the focus group
for the raising awareness campaign; to assess the human activities impact on the environment,
especially on the large carnivores; to find the alternative for sustainable development of the
disadvantaged zones etc. The interpretation of the statistical data at commune level between
1966 and 2000, distinguished the demographical problems that the communes from the west of
Vrancea County are confronting with.
Keywords: depopulation, demographic ageing, employed population,

educational level, Vrancea county, Romania
INTRODUCTION
The social and economical evaluation of the commune from the west of Vrancea
County represent a scientifically study that is realize in project LIFE Nature 8576
„In Situ Conservation of the Large Carnivore in Vrancea County”. In this project,
coordinated by the Environmental Protection Inspectorate Vrancea, Centre for
Environmental Researches and Impacts Studies is partner.
This zone was analysed by many scientists, with different domains of studies
(historians, sociologists, ethnographers, philologists, geographers etc.). The
geographical issues debated are very different: delimitation of boundaries of
„Vrancea Country” and of the neighbouring regions (I. Ionescu de la Brad, 1869;
B.P.Hasdeu, 1875; I. Diaconu, 1930; N. Al Radulescu, 1937; D. Cantemir, 1961;
I. Bacanaru, 1968, F. Albu and I. Albu, 2002), villages’ social and territorial
organization in „Vrancea Country” (I. Ionescu de la Brad, 1869; N. Iorga, 1921;
H. H. Stahl, 1929, 1958; I. Diaconu, 1930; A. V. Sava, 1931; N. Al. Radulescu,
1937; I. Bacanaru, 1968), the villages’ origin, genesis and territorial distribution
(H. H. Stahl, 1929, 1959; A. V. Sava, 1929), toponymy (N. Iorga, 1921; N. Al.
1
707
Radulescu, 1937; I. Bacanaru, 1968; I. Conea, 1985, F. Albu and I. Albu, 2002),
settlements` economical analysis (N. Al. Radulescu, 1937; I. Bacanaru, 1968)
etc. In most of these studies, the isolation of the west of Vrancea County is
considered a positive process, that contributed to conservation of the traditional
aspects of settlements. The present economic realities argue against this theory.
The isolation, the limited access to public services and the high dimension of the
natural risks emphasise the demographical problems of this space.
The importance of these problems of national level is emphasised by the

inclusion of all communes in 4th Section of National Planning Plan – The Network
of Settlements, 6th Appendix (Areas with cities at more than 25-30 km distance,
that are priority for development of the localities with service role).
From a geomorphologic point of view, the west of Vrancea County is included in

mountainous (Vrancea Mountains) and in hilly (Curvature Subcarpathian Hills
and Depressions) units. Most of settlements is localised in Subcarpathian areas,
where the natural elements (topographical conditions, water resources, climate
etc.) permit the development of human communities. The irrational exploration of
the natural resources (especially forest resources) determined the increase of
natural risks (landslides, flood) in intensity and frequency. For this reason the
costs of living in human communities grows (Fig. no. 1).
In project LIFE Nature In Situ Conservation of the Large Carnivore in Vrancea

County, the knowledge of the demographical problems of the commune in west
of Vrancea County is necessary in order to:
-to adopt the management plan measures of ecological network for

protection of large carnivores;
-to establish the focus population for raising awareness campaign;
-to assess the human activities impacts on the environment, especially on

the large carnivores;
-to emphasise social, economical and environmental difficulties;
-to realise a scientifically support in order to assist the decisions of local

authorities.
708
Fig. no.1
DEMOGRAPHICAL ISSUES
1. Depopulation
After 1975, the west of Vrancea County was characterized by a very significant
decrease of the number of inhabitants. This was manifested due to the migratory
increase and the decrease of the natural increase.
In order to analyse the dynamic of population in west of Vrancea County, the

statistical data for years 1968, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1992, 1999 and 2000
was used. The big number of statistical data allows us to emphasise the variation
of the number of inhabitants and, also, to limit the „disadvantages zones” with
negative tendences of the number of inhabitants.
After 1968, in the west of Vrancea county we can limit two significant periods:
709
-1968-1977, when the number of inhabitants increased with about 4000

(from 59825 inhabitants in 1968 at 64051 in 1975), due to very high level of
natural increase;
-1977-present, when the inhabitant decreased with 6811 compared to

1968 (in 2000 the number of inhabitants was 53014) (Fig. no. 2).
Dynamic of inhabitants in the commons in west of Vrancea

County between 1968 and 2002
70000
60000
Num ber of inhabitants
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1968 1970 1975 1980 1992 1999 2000
Years
Fig.no.2
Between 1968 and 2000, the decrease of number of inhabitants with 6811 (11.38
%) emphasises the tendency of depopulation in the west of Vrancea County.
This was determined by: the natural resources low diversity; the land low
productivity; the natural risks with high frequency and intensity; the isolation; the
low access to services (water supply system, sewerage, medical assistance,
education, mass-media etc.).
In order to emphasise the dimension of the depopulation, between 1968-2000 in

west of Vrancea County the following categories of localities (Fig.no.3, 4) were
delimited:
a. Localities with increases in the number of inhabitants (Chiojdeni, Nereju,

Vintileasca). The biggest increase was registered in Nereju (1043 inhabitants).
For the other two communes, the population increase was not so high (less than
10 %), considering the fact that the number of inhabitants is lower (less than
2500 inhabitants).
710
The temporal dynamic of inhabitants between 1970 and 1992 in

west of Vrancea County
12000
Number of inhabitans
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
zi
ria
a
a- a
ti
ti
i
ti
ja
ltin
ra
ja
ju
ia
en
al nic
ai
es
ve
es
c
es
ve
ru
re
Jit
Sa
id
an as
io
jd
Pa
or
itr
Li
rs
Tu
Na
Ne
V
So
nc
io
tile
m
ea
st
Ba
Ch
ra
Du
Ni
te
in
V
V
V
iz
V
Com m ons
1970 1975 1980 1992
Fig. no. 3
Dynamic of inhabitants number between 1968 and 2000 in

the commons of Vrancea County
1500
1000
500
Number of inhabitants
0
Barsesti
Chiojdeni
Dumitresti
Jitia
Naruja
Nereju
Nistoresti
Paltin
Soveja
Tulnici
Valea Saria
Vidra
Vintileasca
Vizantea-Livezi
Vrancioaia
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
Com m uns
Fig.no.4
b. Localities with decreases in the number of inhabitants between 0-10 %

(Tulnici, Valea Sarii, Vizantea-Livezi)
c. Localities with decreases in the number of inhabitants between 10-20 %

(Barsesti, Dumitresti, Naruja, Nistoresti, Paltin, Soveja, Vidra).
d. Localities with decreases in the number of inhabitants higher than 20 % (Jitia,

Vrancioaia). In this case it is necessary to develop urgent demographic policies
711
in order to stop the negative trend of population numbers which might determine
unbalances in county economy.
Except for Soveja commune, in which significant changes appeared in the total
surface of the locality (commune territory decreased with 5481 ha), for the others
localities in western part of Vrancea County the variation was lower than 500 ha,
which has reduced impact on temporary dynamic of population.
After 1990, the evolution in population number followed a slightly decreasing

trend line, and in 2000 a 2% decrease of inhabitants number was registered.
The decrease of the population between 1966 and 1992 can be noticed also at
village level, where the phenomenon is more obvious. Thus, 70% of the villages
are affected by population loss, 25 of them with over 30 %, compared to the year
1966. Only 25 villages recorded an increase of the population, 9 of them being
communal residences (Fig. no. 5).
Procentual difference of the number of inhabitants in 1992 as

against with 1966 in the villages from west of Vrancea County
250
200
1992/1966 (%)
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Viilages
Tendence of decrease of inhabitants between 1966 and 1992
Fig.no.5
The causes of the population decrease:
a. low birth rate
In the west of Vrancea County, the general tendency recorded at commune level
is the rapidly decrease of this indicator; the main causes are the decrease of the
number of the population capable of reproduction, the reduction of economical
activities profitableness and the integration of the women in economic activities.
712
Although between 1966-1980 the birth rate was relatively high, after 1990 a
significant decrease was recorded, due to the economic transformations, specific
to the transition period and their reflections in the rural population incomes. The
average value of the birth rate decreased to 14.7 ‰ in 1999, compared to 23.4
‰ in 1970. Special measures for birth rate increasing and avoiding
demographical unbalance are necessary because of the presently low level and
the general negative tendency (Fig. no. 6).
Dynamic of natality, mortality and natural increase between 1970

and 1992 in the communs from the west of Vrancea County
25
20
15
‰
10
0
1970 1975 1980 1992 1999
Years
Natality Mortality Natural increase
Fig. no.6
Compared to this general situation, there are a few positive and negative
exceptions. In 1999, in Nereju (22.28 ‰), Chiojdeni (21.86 ‰) and Paltin (18.76
‰), the birth rates were high, recording a tendency of increase even after 1990
(Nereju and Chiojdeni communes). The negative examples are Soveja (7.2 ‰)
and Valea Sarii (9.79 ‰), where the demographical crisis is visible. The very low
values for Soveja commune are determined by the specific demographic
behaviour (the families have an average of less than 2 kids) and population
ageing.
b. mortality increase
The dynamic of this indicator between 1970 and 1999 shows an increase
determined by population ageing and low welfare. So, mortality values in the
west of Vrancea County increased from 7.67 ‰ in 1975 to 12.92 ‰ in 1999, this
tendency being distinguished after 1990, too. In 1999, low values were recorded
in Tulnici (8.88 ‰), Nereju (9.1 ‰), Vintileasca (9.94 ‰) and Jitia (9.96 ‰). High
713
values are recorded in Valea Sarii (20.85 ‰) and Soveja (19.85 ‰); the
demographic situation in these areas is critical (Fig. no.6).
Dynamic of total increase in the commons from

the west of Vrancea County
35
30
25
20
15
Total increase (%)
10
0
Chi
Dum
Jitia
Nar
Ner
Nis
Sov
Tul
Vid
Viza
Vra
Bar
Pal
Val
Vin
-5
nici
ra
ea
tilea
ncio
ojd
tore
tin
uja
eju
eja
ses
nte
itre
Sar
-10
eni
a-L
sti
ti
sca
aia
sti
ia
ivez
-15
i
-20
Com m ons
1970 1992 1999
Fig. no.7
c. negative migratory rate
Negative values recorded for all localities shows the poor interactivity that this
space is exerting, the migratory rate contributing to the decrease of number of
inhabitants between 1970 and 1999. Although the values are not very relevant,
the difficulties they create are obvious in the western part of Vrancea County.
There can be noticed a higher migratory rate after 1977 and a lower one after
1989, as for the population dynamics.
For 1999, very low migratory rates were recorded in Paltin (-1.32 ‰ /year) and
Valea Sarii (-1.43 ‰ /year). The negative values of the migratory rate emphasize
the poor economic interactivity of the localities from the western part of Vrancea
County.
2. Unbalanced population distribution
The very low values of inhabitants density are determined by natural

characteristics (the important weight of high slopes, large areas covered by
forests, high frequency and intensity of natural hazards - landslides, torrents,
714
earthquakes, low diversity of natural resources, low land productivity). Higher

concentrations of population are located along water courses and roads.
According to the population density in 1999, the communes from the western part
of Vrancea County were divided into (Fig. no.8):
1. Communes with low population density (under 30 inhabitants per km2)

include Nereju (22.88 inhabitants per km2), Nistoresti (9.36 inhabitants per km2),
Soveja (29.1 inhabitants per km2) and Tulnici (14.89 inhabitants per km2). These
communes have large perimeters and are situated in the mountainous area.
Thus, most of the mountainous area is characterised by low values of population
density, as the Sub-Carpathians and the lowlands along the main water courses
are characterised by higher values.
2. Communes with medium-inferior population density (30 – 50 inhabitants

per km2) include Chiojdeni (33.94 inhabitants per km2), Jitia (37.35 inhabitants
per km2), Vintileasca (34.97 inhabitants per km2), Valea Sarii (41.91 inhabitants
per km2) and Paltin (49.78 inhabitants per km2). In this category are included
most of the communes that are situated in the Sub-Carpathians area and have a
medium surface.
3. Communes with medium population density (50 – 70 inhabitants per km2)

include Barsesti (60.01 inhabitants per km2), Dumitresti (58.45 inhabitants per
km2), Naruja (56.83 inhabitants per km2), Vidra (60.57 inhabitants per km2),
Vizantea-Livezi (59.74 inhabitants per km2) and Vrancioaia (51.3 inhabitants per
km2). These localities have a small teritory (Naruja, Vrancioaia, Barsesti), or a
large number of inhabitants (Dumitresti, Vidra, Vizantea-Livezi).
Population density values are close to 0 in the mountainous area and over 200
inhabitants per km2 in most of the localities from the western part of Vrancea
County.
3. Demographical ageing
The demographical ageing phenomenon is most obvious in the communes from

the western part of Vrancea County, with 22.13% of the population over 60
years. Demographical ageing is very high in Soveja (34.41 %), Valea Sarii (25.49
%), Vrancioaia (24.78 %) and Vizantea-Livezi (24.6 %), where the young
population is very low (under 20 %) (Fig.no.9).
Also, for the adult population an important weight is represented by the

population over 50 years, the highest values being recorded in Soveja (53.45 %
of the adult population), Vrancioaia (42.77 %), Valea Sarii (42.39 %), Vizantea-
Livezi (40.96 %) and Dumitresti (40.31 %). Low percents are recorded in
demographical balanced communes: Nereju (22.98 %), Vintileasca (30.75 %),
Tulnici (32.17 %) and Paltin (32.28 %).
715
Fig.no.9
Population structure by age and sex

in the west of Vrancea County
peste85
80-84 years
75-79 years
70-74 years
65-69 years
60-64 years
55-59 years
50-54 years
45-49 years
40-44 years
35-39 years
30-34 years
25-29 years
20-24 years
15-19 years
10-14 years
5-9 years
0-4 years
-2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Inhabitants
Male Female
Fig.no.9
716
In the communes where the population over 60 years remains under 20 %

(Nereju, Chiojdeni, Paltin, Tulnici, Vintileasca), the young population (0-14 years)
is more numerous, up to 32.21 % in Nereju. In this category are included all the
communes with balanced demographical status.
Ageing index (the number of inhabitants between 0 and 14 years divided to the
number of inhabitants over 65 years) has high values (the average is 0.99 old
people to 1 young people), and shows the demographical ageing phenomenon.
Also, in some communes this ratio is over 1, up to 2.56 (Soveja), 1.33 (Valea
Sarii), 1.28 (Vrancioaia), 1.24 (Vizantea-Livezi), 1.15 (Barsesti).
4. Unbalanced sex ratio
The sex structure shows the higher rate of the female population (50.49 %),
although until 40 years, the male population is dominant due to the male superior
birth rate. The greatest difference between female and male population is
recorded for the 80-84 years interval; the male population represents only 38.04
%, emphasizing the male mortality phenomenon (Fig. no. 9).
Superior male birth rate is also emphasized by the fact that between all the 15
communes, in 13 male birth represent more than 50 % of the total births. The
maximum is recorded in Naruja (56.22 %), and the minimum Dumitresti (47.08
%). If regarding the adult population, the sex ratio is balanced, for the old
population, the female population is larger; only in Vizantea-Livezi the old male
population has a weight of 46.43 %.
5. Low rate of active population
The active population represented only 58.61 % of the total (1992), the highest
values being recorded in Barsesti (69.52 %), and the lowest in Soveja (42.61 %).
92.4 % of the total active population was involved in economic activities, and the
rest were searching for new jobs or joined the army (Fig. no. 10).
The rest of the population is inactive population. The number of inactive

population was in 1992 of 22289 inhabitants, which represents 41.39 % of the
total. Maximum values were recorded in Soveja (57.39 %) and Tulnici (59.94 %).
For Tulnici, this situation is caused by the large number of persons involved in
domestic activities, but for Soveja, the main cause is the large number of retired
people.
For the communes from the western part of Vrancea County, most of the inactive
population is represented by pupils, students and other supported persons, over
60 % of the total. High rates of retired people (19.37 %) and domestic persons
(15.19 %) are recorded too. This shows the reduced job offers and poor
integration of population in economic activities.
717
Distribution of employed population by economical activities in

the west of Vrancea County in 1992
2.0%
1.9% 2.4%
2.2%
3.7%
87.7%
A griculture Industry
Co nstructio n Trade, turrism
Transpo rt and co mmunicatio n Educatio n
Fig. no. 10
A great importance has the number of supported persons - pupils, students and
pensioners - because a large number can easily lead to the appearance of
poverty.
The demographic dependency index expresses the ratio between active and
inactive population. It is a necessary indicator in the estimation of the population
potential to be engaged in economic activities, in an administrative unit.
The high values of this indicator (over 650 ‰) emphasize the high rate of inactive
population.
6. Low rate of employed population
The employed population is an indicator that expresses the welfare of a

community. In the communes from the western part of Vrancea County, the
employed population was only 7.84 % in 1992 and reaching 5.4 % in 1999. The
highest number of employed persons was recorded in Naruja, Soveja, Vidra and
Tulnici, localities where the diversity of economic activities is more significant. In
the communes where agriculture prevails, the number of employed persons is
low (under 5 %); in this category are included Chiojdeni, Vrancioaia, Vintileasca,
Jitia, Paltin, Nistoresti, Valea Sarii and Vizantea-Livezi.
The number of employed population is continuously decreasing, as an effect of

the transition period. The most important decrease of the employed population
between 1992 and 1999 was recorded in Naruja and Vidra, and the less affected
were the communes based on agriculture.
718
Although all the communes are agriculture-based, the number of agriculture

employed people is very low (under 5 %). This shows that the population doesn't
benefit of free social and medical assistance or retirement funds (pensions).
Except for Tulnici, Vidra, Naruja and Soveja, that have a higher number of
industry employees, all the other communes have less than 1% of employed
population. Most of the employed population are concentrated in the educational
sector that was not affected by the restructuring processes.
7. Low educational level
The quality of the labour force is directly influenced by the general knowledge
and professional training. Both attributes are the expression of society and family
efforts in qualifying the individuals.
In order to approach this subject, the following were taken into consideration:
population distribution on training levels and the educational potential of each
commune, expressed through the number of schools and teachers. For this
approach, the 1970, 1975, 1980, 1992 and 1999 statistical data and the
population over 12 years were considered.
The population over 12 years represents 82.78 % of the total population.

Maximum values were recorded for the communes with a high rate of young
population (Nereju, Paltin, Tulnici, Chiojdeni), and minimum values for the
communes with demographically aged (Valea Sarii, Soveja, Vrancioaia).
Most of the population over 12 years graduated the primary school (35 %) and
secondary school (42.81 %), these high rates indicating a poor level of
professional training. Maximum values are recorded in Jitia, Nistoresti and
Vrancioaia, where the population with both primary and secondary school
exceeds 80 % of the population over 12 years. Lower values are recorded in
localities with diverse economic activities: Soveja, Tulnici, Vidra si Naruja.
Poor professional training is emphasized by the low number of high school and
professional institutions graduates (11.57 %). Higher values are recorded in
Vidra (16.9 %), Naruja (13.4 %) and Soveja (14.91 %). For Vidra, the value is
explained due to the presence of a theoretical high school.
The number of post-high school institutions and university graduates is very low
(1.1 % of the population over 12 years). The highest values are recorded in the
communes that have the greatest number of high school graduates: Vidra (2.05
%), Soveja (2.03 %) and Naruja (1.46 %).
Poor professional training is also emphasized by the high rate of illiteracy, of

almost 9.6 % of the population over 12 years. High values were recorded in
Chiojdeni – 16.93 %, Vintileasca – 14.2 % and Barsesti – 12.33 %.
719
POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS IN THE ENVIRONMENT STATUS
-excessive pressure on the easy-to-use natural resources (forests, pastures, hay

lands)
-abandoning risks affected areas
-soil degradation due to slope processes
-surface and ground waters degradation due to used water spills and landfills
-lack of preoccupation regarding the sustainable exploitation of natural resources
-difficulties in promoting new economic activities
REFERENCES
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Bucharest
Arbore, Al. (1930), Toponimie putneana, Milcovia, I
Bacanaru, I. (1968), Contributii la studiul geografic al deplasarilor de populatie si

al asezarilor rurale din Vrancea si Subcarpatii dintre Susita si Ramna, Studii si
cercetari de geografie, 11
Cantemir D. (1973), Descriptio moldaviae, Editura Academiei, Bucharest
Center for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, (2003), The social and
economic evaluation of the communes from the western part of Vrancea County,
internal rapport
Chiriac, I. (1973), Scurta privire asupra trecutului istoric al judetului Vrancea,

Coordonate culturale vrancene, Focsani
Conea I. (1993), Vrancea-geografie istorica, toponimie si terminologie

geografica, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucharest
Constantinescu-Mircesti, C. (1985), Vrancea arhaica. Evolutia si problemele ei,

Editura Litera, Bucharest
Diaconu, I. (1930), Tinutul Vrancei, Editura pentru literatura, Bucharest
Diaconu, I. (1930), Pastoritul in Vrancea, Grai si suflet, Bucharest, vol.IV, 2
Ghibanescu, Gh. (1910), Procesul Vrancei, Opinia, Iasi
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Giurascu, C.C. (1934), Despre Vrancea, Revista istorica romana, IV
Giurcaneanu, C. (1988), Populatia si asezarile din Carpatii Romanesti, Editura

Stiintifica si Enciclopedica, Bucharest
Giurea E. (1977), Vrancea-ghid turistic al judetului, Editura Sport-Turism,

Bucharest
Giurea E. (1980), Geneza si evolutia satelor vrancene reflectate in toponimie,

Studii si comunicari, Focsani
Grumazescu, H., Stefanescu, I. (1970), Judetul Vrancea, Editura Academiei,

Bucharest
Ionescu de la Brad, I. (1870), Agricultura romana in judetul Putna, Bucharest
Iorga, N. (1921), Vrancea si vrancenii, Bucharest
Muntele, I. (1998), Populatia Moldovei in ultimile doua secole, Editura CORSON,

Iasi
Otel, I. (1936), Cercetari asupra pastoritului in Vrancea, Bucharest
Primack, R., M. Patroescu, L.Rozylowicz, C.Ioja (2002), Conservarea diversitatii

biologice, Editura Tehnica, Bucharest
Radulescu, N.Al. (1937), Vrancea-geografie fizica si umana, Bucharest
Rey, R. (1979), Viitor in Carpati, Scrisul romanesc, Craiova
Rey, V., I. Ianos, M.Patroescu, O.Groza, (2002), Atlasul Romaniei, Editura RAO,
Bucharest
Ungureanu, Al., Groza, O., Muntele, I. (2002), Moldova – populatia, forta de

munca si asezarile umane in tranzitie, Editura CORSON, Iasi
Sava, Al. (1931), Documente putnene, Tipografia Bancii Centrale Cooperative,

Chisinau
Stanculescu, Al. (1972), Sistematizarea asezarilor pastorale din Vrancea – latura

a procesului de oprimizare a sistemului economic al zonei, Editura Stiintifica,
Bucharest
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Enciclopedica, Bucharest
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Part I nr. 408/24 july 2001
721
ASPECTS OF EUROPEAN CITIZENSHIP AND ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION THROUGH INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY1
Karl Donert
Liverpool Hope University College
Hope Park, Liverpool L16 9JD, UK
email: donertk@hope.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews some of the approaches and attitudes to environmental education as part of the
development of European citizenship and reports on research undertaken as part of the EURO.GEO
Minerva (Open and Distance Learning) Project. The role and significance of ICT is analysed and
teachers perceived needs and preferences presented. The survey indicates that Geographers do not
consider environmental education as a key component of their curriculum and that they are more
concerned with social, cultural and economic considerations related to location and place. Teachers
are not yet aware of the real ICT opportunities available to them, they still demand traditional
information sources rather than exploring the exciting communicative and collaborative features of the
Internet. The EURO.GEO Project thus will seek to provide an online handbook promoting the wider
range of opportunities available.
Keywords: citizenship, environmental education, open and distance learning,

information technology, Geography, schools, EUROGEO
INTRODUCTION: CITIZENSHIP IN EDUCATION
There are many definitions of citizenship in education (Albala-Bertrand, 1995; Beck,

1996). Most relate to the extension of knowledge, skills (social, intellectual,
technological), attitudes (respect for cultural and political diversity, respect for rational
argument, interest in community affairs) and values (justice, democracy, rule of law)
to stimulate participation (Kerr, 1999) in the democratic process of identity
(Huntington, 1991; Dekker and Portengen, 1996). So citizenship education focuses
on the relationships between the individual and society in terms of the legal, social,
economic and cultural dimensions, resulting in educational goals of knowledge, skills
training, participation, values and attitudes.
The significance of citizenship in school education is growing. Several countries now

include it as a compulsory component of their national curriculum. Citizenship in
school education is now usually described in a very broad sense, one in which
culturally-based aspects are prominent. This concept of citizenship deals with the
extent to which individuals and groups feel a sense of attachment to the society and
the community to which they belong (Donert and Bosschaart, 2002). It is therefore
closely related to the promotion of inclusion and cohesion, responsibility towards
society. This implies that learning to live positively with difference and diversity is a
core dimension in the practice of citizenship.
Andrews and Lewis (2000) distinguish four aspects of citizenship: active, cultural,
global and comprehensive citizenship. Active Citizenship encourages young people
1
722
to participate in their community (Institute for Citizenship, 2002). Thus citizenship

education will empower them with the knowledge and skills to effect change in their
community and in turn on their own lives. Active citizenship education enables people
to become informed and responsible members of society that are conscious of what
is happening around them. It allows them to participate in modern society and to
think critically, while cultural and global citizenship deal with the context and the
implications of this participation.
Cullingford (2000) comments on the complexities of citizenship as a subject,

especially as essential attitudes of the individual are established by the ways they
behave towards each other. The European dimension of citizenship provides further
complexity because of the enormous geographical diversity in Europe and the
intricate relationships between the EU and its members and future member
countries. European citizenship is characterised by learning to live positively and
work critically with diverse and overlapping values and identities. It is built upon the
development of a more considered awareness of local, regional, and national
identities (European Commission, 2000) giving (young) people an idea of their
responsibilities in an interdependent society (Donert and Bosschaart, 2002).
In principle, all areas of the school curriculum can make a contribution to European
citizenship. Research shows that young people are usually very interested in issues
associated with the environment (Roker, Player and Coleman, 1999). Embedding
studies of environmental citizenship in the curriculum can be accomplished by
encouraging an awareness of natural, social and economic features, the political and
social structures, the forces involved and the characteristic features and patterns
concerned (EURYDICE, 1998). This should help students establish their identity
while focussing on their global, national, regional and local responsibilities.
A further dimension is the nature of responsibility. Crick and Porter (1978) argue that
we should be looking towards fostering citizens who are equipped to be of some
influence and can understand and respect the values of others. For many this can
best be understood by seeing education for citizenship as having three distinct
strands: understanding, involvement and values (Maitles, 2000). Citizenship
education thus needs to be supported by a broad range of teaching and learning
approaches with structured opportunities for pupils to be actively involved in
discussion and debate on topical and contemporary issues (Janoski, 1998) through
case studies, projects and activities in school and in the local community.
CITIZENSHIP AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The state of the environment affects our quality of life. For that reason, environmental
education ought to be an essential part of the curriculum. Environmental education is
one interdisciplinary theme that holds the curriculum together. The National
Association for Environmental Education (NAEE, 2001) describe the development of
environment-based education as an effective way of helping young people become
lifelong learners and leaders through an emphasis on citizenship, problem solving,
and issues identification.
On the basis of European citizenship and the importance it has for education,
environmental education can creating citizens by establishing meaningful
approaches, raising an awareness of issues, encouraging motivation leading to
723
action, explaining the impact in a global context and providing a sense of

responsibility.
Teachers in different countries seem to adopt a number of different approaches to

environmental education based on the curriculum that is covered (Chevalier, 2000,
Bosler, Lehmann and Lehrker, 2003; Donert, 2003). In only a few cases is there
significant attention paid to the scientific aspects of environments. Often the way in
which environmental education is presented will be focused on problems or potential
difficulties like global warming or soil erosion. However, it ought to play an important
role in educating young people about actively being responsible citizens by involving
them in understanding their environment from local to global scales.
Monroe and Kaplan (1988) suggest adopting a problem-solving approach that

involves knowledge of the environment, familiarity with solutions and action
strategies that help resolve issues, empower citizens, establish positive attitudes and
values, teamwork, responsibility and commitment through problem identification,
interrelationships and alternatives. Ewert (1988) comments on the importance of
decision-making approach which can be viewed as a process involving needs
identification, option scanning, and selection of a course of action. Environmental
education should provide opportunities for using these steps in decision making,
especially to relate the meaning of individual action to larger issues.
Another approach well beyond the typical boundaries of scientific approaches to

environmental education is that of environmental literacy. Environmental literacy
focuses on the interrelationships between natural and social systems, the unity of
people with nature and the choices they make. So environmental literacy draws upon
environmental sensitivity, knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, personal
investment and responsibility, and active involvement (Simmonds, 1989). Roth
(1988) describes environmental literacy levels that seek to tackle problems by
understanding the issue, creating a step-by-step approach to dealing with the issue
and then measuring whether this approach works. So three levels of environmental
literacy could be:
• Basic, where there is cognitive awareness and some understanding,
• Functional, with focused application of useful knowledge and skills to specific

issues;
• Operational, with the application of environmental literacy knowledge and

skills to daily life.
Environmental education often occurs in settings that are less traditional than the
formal classroom and the traditional methods of classroom teaching (Rubba, 1987;
Heimlich and Norland, 1993). Environmental education is closely related to
experiential approaches (Kolb, 1984; Letiche, 1988) that include both the cognitive
and affective domains (Priest, 1986). In educating about the environment, learning
activities will often require the use of the physical or natural environment. These
teaching approaches are sometimes categorised as non-formal or non-traditional,
where the learning is learner centred (Mocker and Spear, 1982), community-oriented
(Roth and Lockwood, 1979) and with the use of local resources.
724
So, environmental education should include three main components, scientific,

experiential and critical approaches. Scientific approaches relate to measurable facts
and observable phenomena related to events in which relationships can be
discovered so that solutions or outcomes can be understood, predicted and
controlled. Eichelberger (1989) suggests that the experience needs also to be
studied. Thinking, feeling, and perceiving can be used to describe, interpret and
understand the environment. Such experiential approaches will often involve
individual and group reflections of outcomes or circumstances. Critical approaches
imply decision-making through understanding and actions in order to promote based
on values and attitudes.
ICT AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
ICT provides a liberating influence enable non-formal learning to take place at any
time and in any location. Virtual activities allows an active learning approach with an
emphasis on learning by doing (Luisoni, 1997). ICT also has the capacity to provide
the necessary information for pupils to understand the complexity and dynamics of a
given phenomenon which allows a reflective approach supported by problem-based
learning and critical thinking (Tardiff, 2000). Unfortunately this takes a lot of
curriculum time to achieve, which is rarely available (Chevalier, 2000).
In Europe most pupils now have Internet access at school (European Commission,
2001a). Internet use in school classrooms is growing, but surveys carried out as part
of the eEurope Action Plan benchmarking initiative point to significant differences
between member states (European Commission, 2001b). The provision of the
Internet in schools still remains a priority in all Member States. School connections
remain dominated by narrowband technologies, although high speed Internet has
made some breakthroughs in a few Member States with broadband emerging as the
way to deliver meaningful content (NGfL, 2002).
Environmental education is an excellent context for using ICT in schools. There are
opportunities to use ICT in most aspects including information research, data
handling, communicating, presenting and modelling information through enquiry and
problem solving approaches. Generic software can be used for word processing,
data presentation, analysis and multimedia presentations. There are also more
subject-specific applications which can be used such as GIS (Geographical
Information Systems), data recording in field studies and the use and manipulation of
satellite imagery. The global nature of ICT also means that pupils can communicate
directly and work collaboratively with pupils in other countries or with experts
(Dillenbourg, 1999). The concept of building virtual communities of learning, through
which students interact intensively using electronic communications is likely to be a
major future development through the following components:
i) information retrieval, allowing access, preparation and creation of information

to share with others
ii) experimentation, analysis and reflection, where consequences can be

explored in order to understand the complexity and dynamics of a given
situation and then to consider and interpret their attitudes and approaches
(Crozier, 1999)
725
iii) collaboration, establishing a learning dialogue between many learners using

multiple channels, extending studies beyond the traditional classroom, and
iv) communications, providing interaction, access to experts and support-on-

demand (Donert, 2002).
In order to incorporate all these components teachers will need to be able implement
appropriate learning situations. Crook and Webster (1997) suggest that we need to
consider how new information and communications technologies might enhance
rather than displace traditional learning practices (Carr et al., 1997). This implies a
learning process that not encourages the search for knowledge and understanding
but also one that will allow pupils to develop their own critical opinions and ideas
which can be communicated in order to express their views with others, where ICT is
an efficient and powerful tool for students to use in creating their own visions
(Connell, 1998; Clarke et al., 1998)). This should in turn allow a greater
understanding of the environment and promote the actions of responsible citizens.
The demand for change is today coming from society itself. Butler (1997) reflects on
changing student characteristics, many of them are exploring and using Internet
based resources at home, in the community and at school, both synchronously
(same place, same time) and in asynchronous mode (different places, different
times). They are exploring in exciting ways, thereby generating their own
opportunities for enhanced learning (Lamberson et al., 1997). Using ICT in these
circumstances can enable deeper learning processes that encourage higher order
thinking to allow conceptualisation, analysis and evaluation. Therefore ICT can
enhance learning by allowing learners to:
• create and use appropriate information
• present patterns and processes
• explore relationships
• predict and solve problems and to
• act as responsible citizens.
THE EURO.GEO PROJECT AND SURVEY
The EURO.GEO Project is partly supported under the EU Socrates Minerva Action
(Open and Distance Learning) to promote the European dimension of citizenship
through geographical education. It seeks to achieve this by improving access to
electronic resources for teaching in and about the countries of Europe (Boonen,
2000) while encouraging greater European awareness through the study of
Geography (Donert, 2002). It thus seeks to increase mutual knowledge and
understanding of the countries of Europe and their geography curricula.
In order to do this, the EURO.GEO Project will seek to support access to relevant,
high quality, on-line distance learning resources by establishing a Web site
(http://www.eurogeo.org) that will demonstrate some ways of integrating modern
information and communications technology in learning and teaching about Europe
through Geography.
726
Integrating ICT provides us with an interesting dilemma. As more homes go on-line,

ways that will channel the obvious interest of young people need to be explored if they
are to focus the out-of-school learning they are doing at home, in libraries, clubs, cyber
cafes and community centres. The overlap between the directed organised curriculum
and the informal cyber-culture needs to be supported. So, the EURO.GEO project has
sought to identify the needs of European teachers through the opinions of the national
professional Geography teacher associations in Europe concerning citizenship
education and the use of ICT.
Data was collected from European Geographical Associations between April and
October 2002. A total of 25 national European Associations representing 22 countries
responded to the questionnaire. In one-quarter of the countries, Citizenship has a
separate national curriculum. It is defined as a separate subject (36%), dealt with by all
curriculum subjects (68%), covered within Geography (92%), covered in other subjects
(72%), not taught as a subject in Slovenia and Germany. Aspects of environmental
issues are dealt with in Geography by 88% of countries. In schools surveyed,
Citizenship is defined as a separate subject in 32% of countries, dealt with by all
curriculum subjects in 50% of countries covered in Geography in 84% of countries, in
other subjects in 72% of schools, not taught in 1 country (Slovenia).
The Geographical Associations were asked to rank the relative importance to

Geography of a number of European Citizenship themes in their national curricula
(Table 1). Not surprisingly, the focus on places and location was most significant,
whereas the political and economic processes were considered less important.
Studying places and European enlargement were key themes when teaching about
Europe but the environment was not very important and the concept of responsibility
was considered to be of relatively minor importance.
.
Table 1: Themes for European citizenship in Geography
Theme Mean score (out of Rank
10)
European places 7.8 1
European enlargement 6.4 2
European identities 6.3 3
European cultural diversity 5.7 4
People in Europe 5.6 5
European regions 5.3 6
European environments 4.8 7
Europeanisation (European 4.6 8
development)
Responsibility as a European 4.1 9
Political and economic integration 3.4 10
Democracy in Europe 3.0 11
The Associations were also asked to rank the opportunities for Geography to deliver
different themes of European Citizenship (Table 2). Here, issues of democracy were
considered to be most important while comparative analyses least significant.
Surprisingly environmental issues was not considered to be as important as places,
727
heritage or cultures. Thus Geography, though ideally situated does not see itself as
being responsible for delivering education about European environments.
Table 2: Significant themes for teaching Geography in Europe

Rank Theme Mean Score (out of 10)
1 European democratic system 6.3
2 European interconnections 5.5
3 European places and heritage 5.2
4 European cultural citizenship 5.2
5 European economy and development 5.0
6 European people and social 4.5
citizenship
7 European values and identities 4.4
8 European environmental awareness 4.3
9 European environmental 4.0
responsibility
10 European similarities and differences 3.7
The needs of European teachers were outlined in terms of the importance of different
aspects of the European dimension (Figure 1). This indicated the importance of
citizenship studies in Geography and compares them with aspects of teaching about
Europe and the EU as a place. Environmental change was a substantial theme in
32% of countries and received some attention in all others. Regional aspects of
Europe were of great significance in Geography, but there appears to be a major gap
in the national curricula of most countries as the study of European environments is
rarely covered as a theme (Figure 2). The focus on local and global scale possibly
masks coverage of environments at a European level.
Figure 1: Study themes in Europe
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40% substantial attention
30% some attention
20% no attention or hardly any
10%
0%
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728
Figure 2: EU Study themes
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90%
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30%
20% some attention
10% no attention or hardly any
0%
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The Associations were then asked to rank the importance of different types of
Internet resources in terms of their importance in supporting the teaching of
European Citizenship (Table 3). They outlined the significant need for multimedia
resources, which were considered to be generally lacking. Most information was in
english and often provided from North American sources. Media associated with
current affairs and online games were also of high importance, whereas maps,
statistics and data were considered to be of least value. Possibly this is because they
are dealt with by using more traditional resources like atlases and textbooks.
Table 3: Most useful Internet resources

Resources Mean Score (out of Rank
10)
Audio interviews with people 7.00 1
Video clips 6.25 2
Online newspaper articles 6.05 3
Interactive Games 5.90 4
Discussion areas 5.26 5
Guided tours of places 4.85 6
Teacher guidance 4.32 7
Digital photographs 3.95 8
Country statistics and data 3.55 9
European Maps 3.22 10
The preferred use of the ICT in teaching European Citizenship through Geography
was also evaluated (Table 4). Communicating with others and sharing and gathering
information were considered to be the most important features. Collaboration and
linking were not considered as significant. The more active citizenship processes
729
involving reflection, analysis, understanding and responsibility were thought to be

much less useful in Geography teaching. This probably reflects the unawareness of
those concerned of the possibilities and potential that ICT offers and the value of
such processes in a mainly content-driven curriculum.
Table 4: How ICT can be used in delivering Score (out of rank

European citizenship in Geography 4)
communicate with others about Europe 3.5 1
share data and information about Europe 3.5 2
collect information about Europe 3.45 3
present information about Europe 3.45 3
establish links between European classes 3.45 4
collaborate with others about Europe 3.3 6
compare and contrast places in Europe 3.3 7
create European learning communities 3.15 8
collaborate with others in exploring European 3.05 9
diversity
understand diversity in Europe 3.05 10
understand other Europeans 3.05 10
reflect and speak out on European issues 2.85 12
explore European processes and relationships 2.84 13
create responsible European citizens 2.75 14
The types of Internet resources that are needed to support teaching Geography and
Citizenship were also contrasted (Table 5) in order to assess their potential
importance. Lists and links were considered most significant when they provide
access to reliable information sources. Advice, guidance and examples were also
much in demand, whereas establishing opportunities for online communication and
interaction were considered relatively less important. It seems that teachers in many
European countries are not yet considered ready to use ICT fully to support their
teaching and to benefit their own professional development.
Table 5: Relative importance of Internet resources and teacher needs

How important Mean score (out of 4) Rank
lists of useful resources 3.83 1
links to European maps 3.72 2
links to useful web sites 3.56 3
examples of good practice 3.44 4
links to European data (statistics) 3.44 5
downloadable teacher support 3.39 6
materials
case studies 3.28 7
links to information on European 3.22 8
places
opportunities to collaborate with 3.22 9
others
school partner search 3.22 9
730
regular newsletter (sent on email) 3.17 11

useful contacts list 3.17 11
country treasure chest – links to 3.17 13
resources
worksheets for classes 3.11 14
teaching ideas 3.06 15
curriculum information 3.06 15
ideas for using resources 3.06 17
details of important organisations 2.94 18
handy hints 2.94 18
guidelines for use of the Internet 2.94 20
frequently asked questions 2.94 20
Internet Chat to share ideas 2.89 22
discussion areas for teachers 2.89 23
competitions and quizzes 2.89 24
What’s new 2.88 25
analysis of skills and competences 2.78 26
advice from other teachers 2.78 26
lesson plans 2.72 28
homework ideas 2.67 29
hotline or helpdesk 2.50 30
The EURO.GEO Project will therefore plan to address these issues by developing,
evaluating and establishing an on-line handbook to support teachers in their use of
ICT in a more integrated way to teach aspects of European citizenship. The project
will also aim to enhance teaching about citizenship by providing access to valuable
information and resources on citizenship, useful Web sites and data on Europe and
European places. A set of multimedia case studies will seek to provide links to the
most useful and current affairs resources with examples of good practise, support
materials and case studies (Figure 3).
Figure 3: EURO.GEO Project Interface
731
CONCLUSIONS
Environmental education in Europe is mainly seen not as a separate discipline, but

as a holistic process that should be cross-curricular in nature. The implication
remains however that everyone should be doing it, but nobody takes responsibility for
it (Matache and Donert, 2002). However, environmental education needs to go
beyond merely describing environmental problems, it should address the
opportunities for personal and collective action. Rather than being too prescriptive,
the approach adopted should give young people opportunities to think about the
issues that they can relate to and possible responses they might have to them.
Butler (1997) believes that educational approaches will continue to evolve away from
today’s norm, and that the Internet will play an even more prominent role. Traditional
methods of teaching are already being challenged by hands-on, discovery learning,
interdisciplinary, problem-solving methods. The rapid development of information and
communication technologies brings further growing challenges at all levels. An
analysis and evaluation of environmental citizenship education materials, as part of
the eNews Project (http://www.e4news.net) has revealed the sparse level of online
resources available for most European countries (Donert, 2003) and the fact that
teachers are still counting more on traditional handbooks that on web-based
materials. These new technologies require a learning process before they can be
well used and thus targeted action in the form of teacher training, changing school
curricula and the establishment of access to high quality multimedia resources
remain necessary priorities (European Commission, 2002a). The World Wide Web
has had and will continue to have a significant effect upon dissemination of
educational material (Robin and McNeil, 1997). Meeting the real needs of the target
audience, the learners, is the prime concern (Browning and Williams, 1997).
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735
GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE VALUES IN THE

IRON GATES NATURAL PARK, ROMANIA1
Mihai E. POPA
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics,
Laboratory of Palaeontology,
1, N. Balcescu Ave., 70111, Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: mihaiep@xnet.ro, Phone: (021) 314-3508 ext. 128, Fax: (021) 211-3120
ABSTRACT
The South Carpathian Mountains are crossed by the Danube between Bazias and Schela Cladovei,
and along this transect, an important series of outcrops, geosites and Sites of Special Scientific
Interest (SSSI) are recorded and discussed in this paper, presented here as a preliminary report. An
important SSSI along the Danube Gorges is the paleontological reserve from Saraorschi Creek, with a
diverse and well preserved Middle Jurassic cephalopod fauna. Important geosites along the Danube
Gorges are recorded at Cozla (Early Jurassic plants), Munteana-Dumbravita (Lower and Middle
Jurassic invertebrate faunas and sedimentary structures, spectacular structural features, including the
famous “suspended fold” at Dumbravita), Trescovat (a Permian volcanic neck), Staristea (Permian
porphyry), Romanian Greben (various types of folds and faults, formerly described as the geological
“gothic” style, even more spectacular along the Serbian Greben shore), Zeliste and Veligan Peaks
(Lower Jurassic fanglomerates, with unique sedimentary and geomorphological features), Tri Cule
(geomorphological features, Lower Jurassic fanglomerates generating a spectacular cuesta), Selski
Creek (Permian red-beds and a post-Liassic dyke), Dubova (geomorphological features in Cretaceous
limestone), Cazanele Mici and Cazanele Mari Gorges (geomorphological sites) and the Ponicova
Cave (speleological site). Excepting the SSSI and the geosites, a long series of important outcrops
occurs, both along the Danube’s shore and within the Almaj Mountains, and these outcrops show
interesting geological features, discussed in this paper.
The Danube Gorges is not the only area with important geological heritage values, such values
occurring within the Almaj Mountains as well, in the central or eastern areas of the natural park. An
important preserved site is Bahna SSSI, in the eastern part of the park, with a very rich and well
preserved Miocene invertebrate and rare vertebrate fauna. Significant geosites are here recorded at
Baia Noua, Eibenthal, Cucuiova and Povalina (Late Carboniferous and Permian fossil plants), Bigar,
Stanca, Pietrele Albe, Buschmann (Early Jurassic fossil plants), together with interesting outcrops
along various valleys in Almaj Mountains.
The geological heritage of the Iron Gates Natural Park represents one of the most significant heritages
of this kind in Romania. Such values deserve a better and a more responsible protection, especially
when enforcing the new Romanian Law of Environment. Fortunately, as the natural park is now
reorganized, illegal collecting of fossils and the general loot of the geological heritage values will
receive a better, stronger institutional response.
Keywords: Geosites, geological heritage values, Sites of Special Scientific Interest

(SSSI), Iron Gates Natural Park, South Carpathians, Romania.
INTRODUCTION
The Iron Gates Natural Park is an important area for geoconservation in Romania, as
its geological heritage is among the richest in the South Carpathians. The series of
structural units, typical for the South Carpathians, crossed by the Danube, shows
unique features from paleontological, structural and morphological points of view,
1
742
making the Park one of the most interesting areas in Geosciences, for research and
education.
The Geology of the Iron Gates Natural Park is complicated and it is still a matter of
debates from many points of view, such as structural, tectonic, sedimentological and
paleontological perspectives. This paper is not intended to contribute new geological
data, but to emphasize the outstanding geological heritage and potential of the park.
The geology of the park represents the backbone for all the other natural aspects
representing the natural heritage in the area, as the geology is one of the most
important biotope aspects of the entire system, a true frame in which all the other
elements are included and related with.
The history of the geological research in the region is long and it begins with the first
papers of Austrian, Romanian and Hungarian geologists of the XIX-th Century.
Among the most important contributions to the Geology of the South Carpathians
must be cited those of Murgoci (1905), Streckeisen (1934), and Codarcea (1940).
For the area including the Iron Gates Natural Park, that of Raileanu (1953) is the
most important, a synthesis still valid today, 50 years after its publication. Later,
contributions of Pop (1988, 1996), and Stanoiu and Stan (1986), Berza et al. (1983),
Berza and Draganescu (1988), for tectonics and sedimentology, and of Bercia and
Bercia (1975), Maruntiu and Seghedi (1983), for the metamorphic basement,
detailed the knowledge in the area of the natural park. In Paleontology, important
contributions are those of Kudernatsch (1852), Semaka (1963, 1970), Antonescu and
Avram (1980). A series of field guidebooks were edited by Codarcea et al. (1961),
Nastaseanu et al. (1981), Berza et al. (1984) and Pop et al. (1997), the last title
detailing the geology of the Danube Gorges.
The Iron Gates Natural Park includes all tectonic units of the South Carpathians, from
west towards east: Supragetic Nappe, Sasca-Gornjak Nappe, Getic Nappe, Severin
Nappe, and Danubian Units. The Supragetic, Getic and Danubian Units include both
basement and sedimentary terranes, while the Sasca-Gornjak and Severin Nappes
lack basement elements. Within the natural park, two important basins are recorded:
Resita Basin (sedimentary cover of the Getic Nappe in the area) and Sirinia Basin
(sedimentary cover of the Danubian Units in the area). These basins record an Upper
Paleozoic sequence (Upper Carboniferous – Permian), a Mesozoic sequence (Lower
Jurassic – Middle Cretaceous) and a Tertiary post-tectonic cover (Miocene-Pliocene
and Quaternary). The southernmost parts of the Danubian Presacina and Cerna-Jiu
Basins are recorded north of Orsova, in the NE area of the park. Sediments
belonging to the Severin Nappe (such as the Sinaia beds), and to the Sasca-Gornjak
Nappe (Triassic carbonate sediments), are also well documented in the park.
The geological heritage in the Iron Gates Natural Park can be assigned to the
following categories: 1. Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs); 2. geosites; and 3.
important sites. SSSIs are strictly preserved paleontological areas of the park.
Geosites are defined in this paper as outcrops, road cuts, quarries or coal mine
sterile dumps, important for their fossil, mineral or structural content, or as
geomorphological elements, and they are not administered as SSSIs, although some
of them deserve such a status. Important sites are local quarries, roads or natural
outcrops showing an interesting structural, tectonic, lithological or paleontological
feature, making them useful for education, field trip stops, photographs or landscape
views.
743
SITES OF SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC INTEREST (SSSIS)
Saraorschi Creek SSSI (Text-fig. 1, point no. 1) is also known as Svinita

paleontological site, as its occurrence is close to Svinita village. This site is preserved
for its highly valuable paleontological content, and it is one of the most important
paleontological reserves in the South Carpathians. From a lithological point of view,
the site is represented by a sequence of Middle and Upper Jurassic red, nodular
limestone, very rich in ammonoids and brachiopods. The Aalenian limestone is less
fossiliferous, the Bajocian sequence has brachiopods and ammonoids, the Bathonian
– Lower Callovian, in Klaus facies, is rich in ammonoids and contains even a very
dense ammonitid lumachelle, 1-1.5m thick (with Oxycerites aspidoides,
Macrocephalites macrocephalus, Holcophylloceras mediterraneum, Lytoceras
adeloides, etc). The Middle Callovian-Oxfordian has also cephalopods, while the
Tithonian is again rich in ammonoids, the site having more than 60 taxa of
cephalopods (Bleahu et al., 1976). This site was first studied by Kudernatsch (1852),
making it widely known in the paleozoological scientific community, the fossil material
collected after 1852 being curated in Romania and abroad as well. Unfortunately, the
site was systematically sacked for many, long years, but in spite of all collecting
activities, legal or illegal, the site is still rich and well preserved.
Bahna SSSI (Text-fig. 1, point no. 2) occurs close to Bahna village, although the
preserved sites of Bahna SSSI are scattered between Ilovita and Bahna villages.
This SSSI preserves Miocene (Badenian) fauna, with bivalves, gastropods and
vertebrates, about 400 taxa totally (Bleahu et al., 1976). The facies is represented by
reef limestones, sandstones, sands and clays, the limestone sequences being the
richest in fossils. The Miocene Bahna basin had a short evolution as a marine
channel connecting the Pannonian and Dacian Basins. Ostreid assemblages are the
most impressive, accumulated in thick, large beds, very dense in fossils. Marinescu
(1965) studied in detail the paleofauna of the Bahna Basin. Bahna is an important
SSSI for several reasons: the fossil fauna is highly diverse and well preserved, the
paleoecological information is well preserved too, and the quality of the outcrops is
still good, in spite of successive looting and recent plant growth.
Both Saraorschi and Bahna SSSIs deserve a very attentive and careful protection.
First of all, this protection should be undertaken by continuous monitoring of the
sites. Local people were informed repeatedly with regard to the importance of these
sites, and they are aware of the sites value, but geological education is still very
necessary for the locals, as they should be the first keepers of the sites. Park rangers
represent today another warranty for the preservation of these unique SSSIs.
GEOSITES ALONG THE DANUBE GORGES
Cozla mine has a rich sterile dump along the Danube’s shore (Text-fig. 1, point. No.
3), although the main dump is in the Danube itself. At Cozla, within the Sirinia Basin,
Lower Jurassic coals are still extracted; in spite of numerous technical and financial
difficulties, the Cozla mine is still in function. The underground exploitation horizons
are well outcropped and the collecting possibilities are good, although not so
seducing like those at Anina, where the mine is ideal for detailed paleobotanical
research (north of the park, in Anina Mountains, in Popa, 2000a, b). The Lower
Jurassic coal measures are very rich in fossil plants within the Sirinia Basin, former
coal mines with rich sterile dumps being located at Ida (close to Cozla), but also
744
inland, within the Almaj Mountains, such as Camenita (Text-fig. 1, point no. 4), Bigar
(point no. 5) and Buschmann (point no. 6). They occur along the Sirinca Valley, at
Stanca (Point no. 7) and Pietrele Albe (point no. 8, all north of Cozla).
The paleoflora, mainly Hettangian-Sinemurian in age when generating coal (as there
is a rich drifted flora even within the Middle Jurassic marine sequences, with no coal
genesis potential), is a typical Mesophytic flora, with very diverse pteridophytes and
gymnosperms (Semaka, 1963, 1970, Popa, 1998). The pteridophytes are
represented by horse tails (Schizoneura carcinoides from Cozla, an effective coal
generator during Early Jurassic times), ferns (Dipteridaceae, such as Dictyophyllum
nilssoni, Thaumatopteris brauniana, Osmundaceae, Dicksoniaceae, Matoniaceae,
Incertae sedis such as Cladophlebis div. sp.). The gymnosperms include seed ferns
(Cycadopteris obtusifolia, Sagenopteris sp., Pachypteris sp.), Cycadopsids
(cycadaleans, such as Nilssonia cf. orientalis, or bennettites, like Otozamites cf.
molinianus), Ginkgopsids (Sphenobaiera sp., Ginkgoites sp.), Incertae sedis
(Czekanowskia rigida) and conifers (Pagiophyllum sp., Brachyphyllum sp.,
Podozamites distans). The Lower Jurassic flora of the Danubian Realm is not so well
preserved when compared to that of the Getic Nappe, but nevertheless, these fossils
represent important geological heritage values. Fossil plant collections from Sirinia
Basin are curated in Bucharest (University of Bucharest, Geological Institute of
Romania) or Cluj-Napoca (Babes-Bolyai University), but also abroad. These
paleobotanical sites deserve a SSSI statute in the park.
At Munteana-Dumbravita occurs one of the most beautiful sedimentary outcrops in

the Danube Gorges (Text-fig. 1, point. no. 9). The sequence begins with Lower
Permian red breccias, now covered by vegetation, unconformably overlain by Lower
Jurassic marine sandstones and limestones, and by Middle and Upper Jurassic
nodular limestones, generating a steep hill along the Danube’s shore. At Munteana,
the famous paleontologist U. Schloembach fell and died in 1870, while collecting
fossils.
Lower Jurassic deposits are assigned to the Glavcina (Hettangian-Sinemurian) and

Munteana (Plienbachian –Toarcian) Formations, represented by oolithic, ferruginous
limestones (Munteana facies, Hettangian-Sinemurian in age), and by marine
sandstones (Pliensbachian-Toarcian in age), both with a rich fossil content of
belemnites, bivalves, brachiopods and echinoderms. The belemnites generate the so
called belemnite battlefields, large accumulations of belemnite rostrums arranged
more or less parallely by marine paleocurrents. Liassic deposits represented by
oolithic, ferruginous limestones, are a rare facies for Lower Jurassic deposits in the
South Carpathians. The Lower Jurassic fauna is represented by foraminifers
(Textularia sp., Spiroloculina sp., Frondicularia sp.), bivalves (Plagiostoma gigantea,
Entolium liasinus, Uniocardium numismalis, Aequipecten aequivalvis, Gryphaea
cymbium, G. fasciata), brachiopods (Spiriferina tumida, Terebratulla grestenensis, T.
punctata), ammonites (Acanthopleuroceras rursicosta, Amblycoceras planicosta,
Lyparoceras beckei) and belemnites (Megateuthys sp.). The Middle and Upper
Jurassic deposits (Seretina, Zeliste, and Greben Formations) are represented by
nodular, red or white limestones with ammonites and belemnites, and these deposits
generate south of Munteana a beautiful fold, the so called “suspended fold” from
Dumbravita, best seen from the Serbian shore of the Danube. The Oxfordian is
represented by ammonites (Sowerbyceras tortisulcatum, Callyphylloceras
zignodianum) and belemnites (Hibolites hastatus). The Kimmeridgian has
745
Aspidoceras acanthicum, Taramelliceras strombecky, while the Tithonian is

represented by Lamellaptychus lamellosus, Streblites lithographycum, Lytoceras
montanum, Punctataptychus sp. (Codarcea et al., 1961, Nastaseanu et al., 1981).
The Jurassic sequence is conformably overlain by Hauterivian and Valanginian
deposits. This geosite deserves an attentive protection and the SSSI statute.
The Trescovat Peak (Text-fig. 1, point no. 10) is a remarkable Lower Permian
porphyry volcanic neck, very well expressed morphologically and well visible from
both shores of the Danube. This neck was one of the volcanic sources for many of
the terrigenous volcanites in the area of the natural park. The neck is partially
surrounded by Lower Jurassic sediments.
Permian quartzite porphyry outcrops very impressively along the Staristea Valley
(Text-fig. 1, point no. 11), with prominent peaks and high relief energy.
The Romanian Greben (Text-fig. 1, point no. 12), downstream from the last geosite,
between Vodinschi, Saraorschi and Povalina creeks, has exquisite Middle and Upper
Jurassic nodular limestones, with beautiful folds cut by various faults, outcropped
along the road cuts.
At Zeliste and Veligan Peaks (Text-fig. 1, point no. 13), uphill from the Svinita village,
outcropped by the Tiganului Creek, occurs an impressive amphitheater generated by
Lower Jurassic continental conglomerates. The conglomerates belong to the Cioaca
Borii Formation (Hettangian in age) and they are the first detritic sequence to overlay
unconformably the Lower Permian deposits, along a contact that is well expressed
morphologically. This amphitheater is one of the most spectacular outcrops along the
Danube Gorges, especially when climbed towards the two peaks, on the path to
Cucuiova and Povalina. The sedimentology of the continental conglomerates is also
very interesting, with very well outcropped cross-bedding at various scales, indicating
alluvial and fluviatile (with channel fills) depositional systems during the Hettangian,
in Svinita area.
At Tri Cule (Text-fig. 1, point no. 14), downstream from Svinita, the same Cioaca Borii
Formation generates a bold cuesta, as a result of the stratigraphic unconformity.
Here, the contact is even better expressed by a typical relief. The cuesta is also
home for a beautiful pine community.
Close to Selski (Red) Creek (Text-fig. 1, point no. 15), along the Danube’s shore,
outcrops the unconformable contact between the Danubian basement (gabbros
outcropping well at Iuti) and the sedimentary cover (Lower Permian basal breccias
and red beds). Also, a basaltic dyke crosses both the basement and the cover. This
outcrop is valuable for education and research.
Cazanele Mari (Text-fig. 1, point no. 16) are represented by Upper Jurassic
(Tithonian-Neocomian), and Lower Cretaceous (Barremian – Lower Aptian, in
Urgonian facies, and Albian-Cenomanian) limestones with a high relief energy.
Together with Cazanele Mici (Text-fig. 1, point no. 17), they represent some of the
most impressive landscapes in the Danube Gorges, especially when they are seen
from the Serbian shore or from boat. At Dubova, at the SE end of the Cazanele Mici
gorges, beautiful Urgonian limestone pillars occur (point no. 18).
746
INLAND GEOSITES
Excepting the former mines extracting Lower Jurassic coals in the Sirinia Basin,
several inland geosites are important as they yield a rich Late Paleozoic flora. These
geosites are located at Baia Noua (Text-fig. 1, point no. 19), Eibenthal (point no. 20),
Cucuiova (point. no. 21) and Povalina (point no. 22). Baia Noua is the only coal mine
still open, extracting Upper Carboniferous (Late Westphalian – Stephanian)
anthracite. All sterile dumps of these mines yield a rich compressive paleoflora and
they certainly deserve a SSSI statute. The Late Paleozoic flora of the Sirinia Basin
(Semaka, 1963, Maxim, 1969, Dragastan et al., 1997) is a rich compressive flora,
represented by Sphenopsids (Calamites div. sp.), Lycopsids (Lepidodendron div.
sp.), pteridophylls (Neuropteris div. sp., Linopteris div. sp., Pecopteris div. sp.) or
Cordaitaleans (Cordaites div. sp.). Collections with such material are curated in
Bucharest (University of Bucharest) and Cluj-Napoca (Babes-Bolyai University).
These geosites certainly deserve the SSSI statute.
IMPORTANT SITES
These types of sites are recorded along the Danube Gorges and also inland. They
are significant sites as they reflect an interesting geological aspect, becoming very
useful from scientific, educational or esthetic points of view.
Between Staristea and Jeliseva Valleys occurs a thick continental Permian

sequence, represented by tuffs and red beds. These tuffs, overlying the Staristea
porphyry, generated the Tachtalia waterfalls (Text-fig. 1, point. no. 23). Along the
Jeliseva Valley, the Permian volcanoclastic sequence is very well outcropped,
showing excellent volcano – sedimentary structures (point no. 24). Few kilometers
upstream occur the ruins of the Jeliseva “Sovrom Uranium” mine (point no. 25), a
former mine exploiting the Lower Permian sequences, for Uranium. Although this is
not a typical “geosite”, former mine galleries still give good outcrops in red beds and
in volcanoclastic sequences.
On Povalina Valley, Permian tuffs are also very well outcropped (Text-fig. 1, point no.
26). From Povalina, the Serbian Greben is best viewed, with its exquisite folds and
faults in Middle and Upper Jurassic nodular limestones.
Sirinia Valley is important for its Middle and Upper Jurassic limestone outcrops with
folds and faults (Text-fig. 1, point no. 27). Close to the Bigar village, fossiliferous
Middle Jurassic marls outcrop (the so called Bigar beds), a lateral facies of the usual
Dogger nodular limestones (point no. 28). Along the Sirinca Valley, beautiful, cross
bedded, channel fills outcrop, Lower Jurassic in age (point no. 29).
Between Bostita Mare Valley and Svinita (Iardumovacia) Valley occurs the complete
succession of Lower Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous deposits, outcropping along the
road (point no. 30). At Svinita outcrops the Barremian fossiliferous marls, with
Phylloceras tethys, Silesites seranonis, Macroscaphites yvani, etc (ammonites, point
no. 31). Between Iuti and Selski Valleys, few continental Miocene outcrops occur,
with well preserved sedimentary structures (point no. 32).
At Iuti (Text-fig. 1, point no. 33), the gabbros quarry is still in good condition, while
along the Tisovita Valley (point no. 34), massive serpentinite deposits outcrop (with
747
dunites and serpentines). At Virciorova, the contact between Severin Nappe and the
Danubian Realm can be well observed (Text-fig. 1, point no. 35). This is a historical
point, where Alexandru Codarcea understood the position of the Sinaia beds over the
Danubian Realm deposits. Between Gura Vaii (Jidostita Valley, point no. 36) and
Schela Cladovei, Neogene (Pontian) continental deposits are well preserved along
the road. These deposits are opened by the Schela Cladovei quarry.
CONCLUSIONS
The Iron Gates Natural Park represents one of the geologically richest areas in the
South Carpathians. Unique preserved sites (Saraorschi and Bahna SSSIs), together
with extremely valuable geosites (paleontological, some of them deserving the SSSI
statute, mineralogical, structural, stratigraphical), and with important sites (sites
interesting for research and education), make the Iron Gates Natural Park one of the
most geologically important natural parks in Europe. The geology of the area
represents the backbone of the entire ecosystem in the park, and the preservation of
its heritage values has to be a priority for all conservation activities in the area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is dedicated to Grigore Raileanu, prominent Romanian geoscientist,

celebrating 50 years since the publication of his work “Geological researches in the
Svinita-Fata Mare region” (1953).
CAPTION OF TEXT-FIGURE 1
Distribution of SSSIs and geosites in the Iron Gates Natural Park. Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSIs): 1. Saraorschi SSSI; 2. Bahna SSSI. Geosites: 3. Cozla
mine; 4. Camenita pit; 5. Bigar coal mines (2 galleries); 6. Buschmann gallery; 7.
Stanca gallery; 8. Pietrele Albe gallery; 9. Munteana-Dumbravita outcrops and
“suspended” fold; 10. Trescovat Peak; 11. Staristea Valley; 12. Romanian Greben;
13. Zeliste and Veligan Peaks; 14. Tri Cule cuesta; 15. Selski Creek; 16. Cazanele
Mari; 17. Cazanele Mici; 18. Cazanele Mici (Urgonian pillars); 19. Baia Noua; 20.
Eibenthal; 21. Cucuiova; 22. Povalina. Important sites: 23. Between Staristea and
Jeliseva Valleys; 24. Jeliseva Valley; 25. Jeliseva “Sovrom Uranium” mine; 26.
Povalina Valley; 27. Sirinia Valley; 28. Bigar beds; 29. Sirinca Valley; 30. Between
Bostita Mare and Svinita (Iardumovacia) Valleys; 31. Svinita; 32. Between Iuti Valley
and Selski Creek; 33. Iuti; 34. Tisovita Valley; 35. Virciorova; 36. Between Gura Vaii
(Jidostita) and Schela Cladovei.
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751
DYNAMICS OF LEAD, ZINC AND CADMIUM TRANSFORMATION

IN SODDY-PODZOLIC SOIL1
O.A. Vysotenko, L.V. Kononenko, G.N. Bondarenko

Institute of Environmental Geochemistry of National Academy of Science
Paladin Av. 34a, Kiev 03680, Ukraine
e-mail: CENTER@radgeo.freenet.kiev.ua, tel./fax (38-044) 451-02-36, 444-00-60
ABSTRACT
Studies of transformation of technogenic heavy metals (HM) in soil, its trends and rate are getting
great importance for monitoring of state of toxic HM in plants, their migration and consumption. The
main amount of HM coming to atmosphere as a result of technogenic emissions is a component of
such solid-phase compounds as metal oxides. Continuity of supply of technogenic pollutants into soil
makes more difficult to determine kinetic regularities of transformation because it is impossible to
determine the succession and rate of processes in which a toxicant takes part.
We used in our work a kinetic model of transformation of the Chernobyl radionuclides falls. As a result
of the CNPP accident practically single pollution of a vast territory from one source happened, that
enables to find out temporal dependences of transformation and migration of technogenic
radionuclides in soil, to obtain analytical solution of temporal dependence of mobile forms of radio-
nuclides content and to estimate the constants of mobilization, immobilization and remobilization rate
in soils of typical landscapes.
We used this kinetic model to determine transformation parameters of technogenic HM in soil. For
estimation of mobilization rate constant, i.e. the rate of free from solid phase and transfer to soil
solution of heavy metals (Pb, Zn and Cd) the data of experiments on decomposition of lead, zinc and
cadmium oxides contributed to soil were used. In four years after bringing in PbO, ZnO and CdO on
the surface of the soddy-podzolic soil 53% of lead, 47% of zinc and 40% of cadmium were left in the
form of oxide; and in 8 years – 28% of lead, 18% of zinc and 26% of cadmium which were brought in.
These experimental data made basis for calculation of mobilization rate constants, which is a
characteristics of stability of solid phase falls in soil. For soddy-podzolic soils it appeared to be equal
for lead 0,16 year-1, for zinc and cadmium – 0,2 year-1. These values are comparable with k1, which
are characteristic for mobilization of radionuclides from solid phase falls in soddy-podzolic soil of
alienation Zone, which vary within the limits of 0,1-0,3 year-1.
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CU, PB, AND ZN SPECIATION IN THE SOILS

WITHIN THE INFLUENCE ZONE OF INDUSTRIAL SOURCE OF
CONTAMINATION1
Tetyana Golovko-Bastrygina1, Natalia Mitsyuk1, Dariya Chernysh2

34 A, Palladin av., Kyiv, (03680) Ukraine, T/F: + 380 44 444-14-65,
Email: bastryg@kiev.ldc.net
1
Institute of Environmental Geochemistry National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and
Ministry of Ukraine of emergencies and affairs of population from the consequences of
Chornobyl catastrophe
2
Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Ore Formation National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine
ABSTRACT
Results from the study of forms of copper, lead and zinc being in the common black earth soil profile
within the zone of Artemovsk plant of colour metals influence are represented. The ecologo-geochemical
assessment of environmental situation is given.
Soils are the main indicator of environmental contamination with heavy metals. Forms of being of heavy
metals determine risk of contamination of trophic circuits.
Contamination is especially heavy in urban landscape conditions near mining and metallurgic enterprises,
power plants and heavy-traffic highways.
Mineralogical specific features of Donetsk region determine development of metallurgic enterprises in
towns of Alchevsk and Artemovsk causing intensive contamination of soil with heavy metals. We studied
Artemovsk non-ferrous metal plant’s impact on soils of 1-km zone and state of soil in Alchevsk industrial
and residential area.
According to our estimation about 36,4 kg of copper, 25,5 kg of lead and 60,8 kg of zinc per one hectare
have fallen out within the territory of 1 km around the Artemovsk non-ferrous metal plant. Heavy metals
are concentrated in the upper 10-cm soil layer. The total content of Cu and Zn in soils of the eastern and
northern tracks of the plant influence zone is made up to 5,000 mg per kg, and of lead – up to 1,000 mg
per kg that exceeds the background pollution by 17-34 times.
Concentration of harmful admixtures in the northern part of Alchevsk, where the main ferrous metallurgic
plants are located, is 2-3 times higher than the average concentration all over the town. Western and
northwestern winds prevailing in this area for the most part of the year are one of the factors causing
technigenic elements build-up in soils with 5 time increase of maximum permissible concentration for lead,
10 time for zinc and 7 time for copper. Near-surface and elevated inversions, as well as air stagnation
prevent dispersion of admixtures and increase their harmful impact on the health of population.
The coefficient of soil radial differentiation (Csrd) reflects redistribution of chemical elements in soil profile
relating to soil-forming rock [1]. This coefficient is considered to be a criterion for assessment of migration
ability of heavy metals in soil profile. The Csrd values in 0-10 cm soil layer of the studied towns are tens
and hundreds times higher than the background ones (Table).
The main amount of pollutants and their mobile forms are accumulated in the upper layer of
technogenically contaminated soil, and cause potential hazard for normal functioning of biogeocenotic
systems as a whole [2].
Comparison of the received data with normative ecological criteria for mobile forms of elements in soils of
1-km zone of Artemovsk plant has revealed that maximum permissible concentration of Cu and Zn mobile
forms is exceeded by more than 10 times and that of Pb ones by 2 times [3]. Reducing of heavy metals
mobile forms quantities along the profile is characterised by the exponential dependence. It is defined by
1
753
the dynamics of bonding of Cu, Pb, and Zn water-soluble forms with the components of chernozem buffer
system during the infiltration.
Danger of man-caused contamination of soils is determined not only by the hazard of heavy metals
inhalation incorporation [4]. Exceeding of the maximum permissible concentrations for the exchangeable
and weakly sorbed forms of Cu, Zn and Pb causes contamination of trophic chains.
* **
Heavy metals in soils within industrial and residential areas and 1-km zone of non-ferrous metal plant
Depth of sampling, cm
0-2 2-5 5-10 10-15
Alchevsk*
Pb Cu Zn Pb Cu Zn Pb Cu Zn Pb Cu Zn
1
100 80 630 150 150 320 100 320 200 50 32 120
3,1 2,5 6,3 4,7 4,7 3,2 3,1 10,0 2,0 1,6 1,0 1,2
25 20 100 20 20 150 25 250 800 120 400 120
3,6 0,9 2,5 2,9 0,9 3,8 3,6 10,9 20,0 17,1 17,4 3,0
0-3 3-8 8-13 13-18
50 300 1500 30 60 500 25 40 250 25 30 150
Artemovsk **
2,5 12,0 15,0 1,5 2,4 5,0 1,3 1,6 2,5 1,3 1,2 1,5
500 1000 1500 250 60 300 40 40 120 30 30 120
20,0 33,3 15,0 10,0 2,0 3,0 1,6 1,3 1,2 1,2 1,0 1,2
50 1000 1000 50 150 500 40 60 300 30 40 200
2,0 33,3 6,7 2,0 5,0 3,3 1,6 2,0 2,0 1,2 1,3 1,3
1
– in numerator – total content of element, mg/kg, in denominator - Csdr
REFERENCES
1. Глазовская М.А. Методологические основы оценки эколого-геохимической устойчивости почв к

техногенным воздействиям.  М.: Изд-во Моск.ун-та,  1997.  99 с.
2. Кузнецов В.А., Шимко Г.А. Метод постадийных вытяжек при геохимических исследованиях.
 Минск: Наука и техника, 1990.  65 с.
3. Чулджиян Х., Карвета С., Фацек З. Тяжелые металлы в почвах и растениях. 
Экологическая кооперация.  Братислава, 1988.  Вып.1. С.524.
4. Цинк и кадмий в окружающей среде.  Под ред.В.В.Добровольского.  М.:Наука,  1992. 
200 с.
754
BUCHAREST – ELEMENTS OF URBAN ECOLOGY1

M. Pătroescu, C. Iojă, D. Dumitraşcu, L. Rozylowicz,
R. Necşuliu, V. Popescu, C. Tetelea, M. Matache
ABSTRACT
The tendency of urbanization in the last years of the past millennium contributed to the increase of the
urban ecology problems in Bucharest, the only city in Romania with more than one million of
inhabitants. The rural migration in the years 1970 – 1980, that continued after 1989, lead to the
increase of the number of inhabitants and thus to the diversification of the human needs in the “urbes”
ecosystem created.
The degradation of the urban environment of Bucharest is the synergic result of the uncontrolled
spatial development, of the „socialist industrialization”, the systematization of the territory and of the
settlements, the position of the industrial platforms and lately their destructuration and the appearance
of some punctual sources dispersed in the city area. Before 1989, Bucharest concentrated around 230
industrial units and 17,6 % of the national global production. After 1990, the number of enterprises has
decreased, but the industrial units situated in the inhabited areas or in the city outskirts emit polluting
substances, as well as the thermal power stations, the traffic and the burning of fossil combustibles for
household needs. The data provided by the Ministry of Water and Environmental Protection showed
for the year 1996 that 27 % of the industry gas emissions were toxic, as well as 32 % of the emissions
from the thermal power stations and 41 % of the emissions caused by the traffic.
The quality of the urban environment is the result of a multitude of elements, whose state has changed
continuously under the human impact. Our analysis started from the idea that a city is not an
homogenous space, nor an environment with equally distributed potential. The urban metabolism of
the Bucharest is indissolubly related not only to the humans creations but also to the way these
creations evolved in time and space. The health state of the environment in Bucharest is mirrored in
the comfort of habitat and the health of the inhabitants.
The impact of the city on the natural components of the environment was materialized by
artifficializations of the topography (building embankments on the micro-depressions in Colentina
Plain, in Dâmboviţa flood plain), hydraulic (modifications of the streams and of the aquatic areas) and
also by the total removal of the initial vegetation, the changes of the physical-chemical soil
characteristics or even of the soil profile.
Our paper analyzed the dynamic of the urban heat island during the day and in all seasons, and the
results were correlated with the values of the concentrations of CO2, SO2, NO, sedimentary dusts and
suspensions emitted by stationary or mobile sources. The result was constituted in several areas of
urban discomfort, where restrictions must be introduced in the functioning of some sources that can
amplify the negative effects.
Another element of urban ecology was constituted by the areas providing oxygen (parks, gardens,
other green areas, water areas, other sources of humidity and oxygen for the urban air), that are
insufficient for the urban comfort. Their spatial dynamic is continuously threatened by the extension of
the constructions with different destinations (commerce, etc).
The circulation disfuncţionalities conditioned by the size and quality of the street network, that are
insufficient for the traffic and the categories of transport means were mapped at urban tissue scale,
and in the space of relation between the vast residential areas with the central nucleus.
The quantity of urban waste causes an important pressure on the urban environment. The quantity
of urban waste that is not collected selectively in Bucharest was calculated by the EPA ReduceIt
method. The quantity varies between 4 000 and 10 000 tons/inh/year.
Bucharest has a significant level of the surrounding noise, which is reflected in the internal and
external habitat comfort, as well as in the population’s health state. The noises are produced by
stationary (industrial units, crowded squares, markets, commercial centers, parkings, gas stations, etc)
and mobile (motor vehicles, tramways, etc) sources. The values recorded of the noise frequently
surpass the maximum admitted limit.
The analysis of the destructured industrial platforms allowed to highlight the direct and indirect
changes of the environment and to assess the impact of the isolated units and of the industrial
platforms on the health state of the environment and of the human collectivities. The evaluation of the
1
763
questionnaires run on the industrial platform revealed that none of the enterprises runs programs of
research and environmental protection, nor monitors the synergic effect of the pollutants emitted, that
their waste water treatment plants are old (more than 20 years old) or non-existent, the filters are not
usable, although the industrial units pollute the environment with dusts, nitrogen oxides, etc.
As result of the studies conducted, several categories of disfunctionalities of the environment were
identified, the ones that drew our attention being: the urban heat island, the areas with deficit of areas
providing oxygen, the areas polluted with different noxious substances, the constructed areas which
are vulnerable to natural (seismic) hazards. Closely related with the categories of disfunctionalities
were proposed the measures to be included in the urbanism regulations, and also the directions for
the ecological restructuration.
764
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2003
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ISBN 973-558-077-2

EVALUATION OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMME FOR

Şükran Yalçın, Ph.D.

Keywords: Chelonia mydas, Conservation Biology, Samandağ Coast

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The coastline in Samandağ is approximately 14 km in length and can be

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A monitoring and conservation plan was implemented in 2001 and in 2002 in

The places of nests in the Şeyhhızır Beach

The number of tracks and nests

The nest success

Figure 3. The percentage of succeeded and lost nests in two years.

Table 1. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on

Number of Total egg Mean SD %

Total egg 14 1772 126.57 33.52

Hatchlings alive 14 1503 107.35 31.90 84.82

Hatchlings dead 6 14 2.33 1. 96 0.79

Undeveloped 13 212 16.31 15.33 11.96

Infertile 8 44 4.89 7.41 2.48

Table 2. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on

Number of Total egg Mean SD %

Total egg 78 9494 121.7 23.9

Hatchlings alive 74 7852 106.1 30.07 82.70

Hatchlings dead 12 82 6.83 10.11 0.86

Undeveloped 65 1012 15,6 34.52 10.66

Infertile 70 548 7.8 10.23 5.77

The studies for conservation of green turtles

The following should be adopted in order to efficiently protect green turtles.

Durmuş, H. S. (1998). An investigation on biology and ecology of the sea turtle

Chelonia mydas, in the Mediterranean: a review of status and conservation

IUCN, 1988. IUCN on sea turtle conservation. Amphibia- Reptilia, 9; 325-327.

Yerli S. and Canbolat A.F., 1998. Doğu Akdeniz Bölgesindeki Deniz

A STRATEGY FOR CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED

Naela Costică, Mihai Costică

Keywords: conservation biology, medicinal flora, Romania, threatened flora

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROGRAMS

Biodiversity Convention: Article 10 – “Protect and encourage traditional users of

Convention on Environment Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context

Convention on Access to Information (Aarhus Convention): Article 6 – “Public

Regular Report on Romania’s Progress towards Accession, Commission of the

NATIONAL PROGRAMS AND STRATEGIES

National Strategy of Environmental Protection (2000-2004) – objective:

Condition of Environment in Romania - State of natural habitats, of wild flora

THREATENED MEDICINAL FLORA IN ROMANIA [9]

Abies alba – endangered; D.cneorum - vulnerable, rare;

Larix decidua – rare; Paliurus spina-christi - vulnerable,

REPORTS ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE ABROAD AND EXAMPLES IN THE FIELD

Report looks into health of medicinal plants: “A November 1996 report by

A remedy for medicinal plants: “Conservationists should embrace the idea of

Is it using the medicinal plants compatible with conservation?: “It is often

THE PROPOSED STRATEGY OF CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED

Organisation of theoretical modules of education per social – professional and age

Organisation of practical modules of instruction for demonstrating the principles of

Setting up a Centre of Primary Consulting for problems of medicinal plants by

2. Hugh Synge, 1995 - The Biodiversity Convention Explained, Plant Talk -

7. Kelso Jo Bobbie, 1998 - Herbal renaissance threatens Europe’s medicinal

11. xxxx Planul Naţional de Acţiune pentru Protecţia Mediului – Ministerul

12. xxxxx Regular Report on Romania’s Progress Towards Accession, 2001 -

GLOBAL WARMING AND THE DANGER OF EXTINCTION OF THE

Keywords: Alyki Kitrous, global warming, Greece, wetlands, GIS

2. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COASTAL WETLANDS

protection and waste recycling having a tremendous economical and environmental