Self-management psychology

-Manuel Karim
• Self-management psychology aims at providing clients with active coping strategies for
dealing with problem situations. It is a set of cognitive-behavioral process through which
the individual consciously and diligently promotes the likelihood of engaging in desirable
behavior. it is a generalization strategy designed to extend new behaviors into the client’s
home and daily life under his or her own direction and control.
• The terms self-management, self-control, and self-regulation have been used somewhat
interchangeably in literature despite significant differences. It is sometimes referred to as
self-directed behavior also.
• The core of modification skills consists of reinforcement, extinction, and shaping of
behavior and restructuring of the physical \ psychological environment.

• It is different from self-help enterprises in that an experienced therapist actively

participates in helping prioritize goals, in setting the optimum conditions for change to
occur.
• Influential theories in human self-management are the behavioral, biological, and
cognitive. Among these, the behavioral and the cognitive approaches are the influential
ones
• Behaviorist view: self-management is the application of behavior analysis principles
and procedures to modify the behavior \environment interactions of the individual by the
individual. A central task of self-management is to learn to analyze the environment in
terms of reinforcement contingencies. The person who possess these analytical skills will
then be able to recognize the various immediate and delayed contingencies involved in
self- control problems. For example, a student’s recognition that he is not studying
enough because other incompatible responses are reinforced by some friends, while the
consequences for studying are delayed, constitutes the first step in solving the self-control
problem. The target of analysis and modification is at any one time can be the
individuals response repertoire, his environment, or frequently both.
•Self-management generally signifies the gradual assumption of control by the individual
over cueing, directing, rewarding, and correcting his own behavior.

• Self-control is considered to be a conditioned response, associated with a history of

parent mediated punishment or reward for bad versus good behavior.
 •Instrumental paradigm: it is functional relationships between response and their
consequences. The individual controls himself as he would control the behavior of
anyone else through the manipulation of variables of which behavior is a function.
• In actual practice a given self-control program involves simultaneous efforts to increase
the likelihood of certain types of responses, while decreasing other types of responses.
One way is to have clients reward themselves for failing to engage in excessive eating.
Another way is to strengthen responses that would compete with eating. For example
client might be encouraged to take a walk when he would normally engage in eating.
• Kanfer & Phillips states that self-management problems usually fall into one of two
categories . in the first, clients engage in behavior patterns that are self-defeating or
injurious—overeating, excessive smoking or drinking or other forms of drug abuse or
impulsive sexual behavior. For problems in this category, it is the task of the therapist to
help the client reduce the probabilities of the occurrence of such behaviors. The second
category, clients suffer because they engage in certain behaviors only very infrequently.
Common examples include the inability to study, the failure to initiate social contacts, a
low frequency of helping others, and sexual inactivity. Here the therapist’s goal is to aid
clients in increasing the probabilities of such responses.
• The biological approach draws heavily upon the assumption that even the most complex
human functions are best accommodated by the application of principles of homeostasis
to all levels of analysis.
• Cognitivists encompasses not only observable input-output relationships, but also the
intricate and interdependent relationships among the processes that mediate them.
Cognitive psychology has also offered explanations of mediational systems that include
the nature of sensation and perception as well as the evaluative (cognitive and affective)
and selective processes that eventually result in the stream of integrated overt behaviors.
It covers everything from perception to reasoning.
* In short, self-control consists of two strategies: Behavioral programming-the person is
responsible in an ongoing fashion for the change of his own responses by rearranging
self-generated consequences(often covert). Environmental planning- makes use of
stimulus control principles. The person controls what the environment does to him. He
needs to know the external factors responsible for cueing adaptive \ maladaptive
behaviors.
• Background
 As early as 1953, Skinner provided a rudimentary conceptual analysis of self-control,
including a variety of techniques, and in the early and mid-1960s, s small number of
writers made significant inroads into the application of operant principles. By the
early 1970s, interest in operantly based self-control procedures had increased
dramatically. During the same period the ‘cognitive revolution’ paved the way for a
cognitive- behavioral trend.
• Uses
In principle, the therapist can apply self-control procedures to almost any behavioral
problem provided the client has the intelligence sufficient to carry out such a
program, which is probably almost always the case. Currently, self-management
psychology deals with three different target areas:
1. to develop control over their behavior responses to environmentally presented conflictful
situations(as in resistance to temptation or engagement in short-run unpleasant activities).
2. to control such physiological reactions as emotional arousal, anxiety, or the experience
of pain.
3. to help clients control their cognitive or imaginally mediated reactions such as intrusive
thoughts, negative self-reactions, or undesirable urges.

• When to implement?
When a client is behaving in a self-defeating manner, and there are no immediate and
potent reinforcements in the natural environment , a self-control program may be the most
feasible treatment. Problems of this category include low frequencies of so-called self-
improvement behaviors associated with relatively long-term rewards; for instance, academic
studying, practicing a musical instrument. Other problems include overeating, excessive
smoking, and the inability to save money.
• Introducing the program
Having decided that self-control is the appropriate strategy, the therapist next orient
them to such a treatment strategy. One of the major points to be made during this first session
is to show that the client can change. The problem with the client is not that they are not
trying hard enough, but that they simply have not yet learned to employ the most effective
tactics. The therapist’s role is to facilitate the learning of those tactics.
Clients receive a brief course in the experimental analysis of behavior. Such an
orientation is a very important part of the treatment program because the primary therapist
is the client himself. This can be accomplished in one or two treatment sessions. The
following are the basic operant principles with which the client should have some familiarity
before dealing with a specific problem.
1. self-control is not a matter of blind will-power. Instead, it comes about as result of
judicious manipulation o f antecedent and consequent events, in accord with established
principles of learning.
2. the client should be aware of the importance of self-monitoring, how one engages in such
behavior, and that self-observation is frequently reactive.
3. the client should take advantage of the fact that behavior
• physically changing the stimulus environment
• narrowing the range of stimuli eliciting undesirable behaviors
• strengthening the connection between certain stimuli and desirable behaviors
4. the client should determine which responses are competing with and thereby inhibiting
desirable behavior, with the goal of weakening them the client should determine which
responses might serve as healthy alternatives to undesirable ways of behaving, with the
goal of strengthening them.
5. the client should attempt to interrupt behavior chains leading to undesirable responses as
earl as possible in the chain.
6. the client should self-administer rewards immediately after appropriate responses have
occurred.
7. graduated behavioral goals in a self-control program should always be easily attainable.
That is, clients should deliberately plan to achieve their overall goals in a very gradual
manner.
8. behavioral contracts may be a useful element of self-control program.
Kanfer’s multistage model
The therapist may structure the program around Kanfer’s multistage model. It
proceeds from self-monitoring to self-evaluation to self- reinforcement.
• Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring involves careful observation and recording of the target behavior.
Research indicates that self-monitoring is an effective assessment technique for evaluating
problem behaviors(Dazdin, 1974; Thoresen & Mahoney, 1974). Also the available research
shows that self-monitoring often has the efect of imroving performance(Kazdin, 1974;
Nelson & Hayes, 1981)
The first component in self-management is the ability to discriminate (analyze) the
various behavior \ environment interactions in one’s life. Without this set of analytical
responses the individual cannot effectively utilize any of the other self-management skills.
The major behavior for analysis in self-management is self-monitoring or self-observation.
Self-observation can consist of the systematic recording of behavior and its antecedents and
consequences to analyze the behavior \ environment interdependencies. It also includes
recognition of mutual influences of the individual’s responses on the environment and the
effect of the environment on his response (the concept of reciprocity, e.g., the way how I
behave affect the way people react to me and vice versa).

Self-recording involves using very specific procedures to keep a record of what the
client is doing. Taken together, self-monitoring involves having your client count and / or
regulate a target behavior, for example, an undesirable habit, or a self-defeating thought or
feeling. The process of self-monitoring seems to interfere with the target by breaking the
stimulus-response association and drawing the behavior into consciousness or awareness
where a choice or decision to enact the behavior can occur. Kanfer has observed that a person
who is asked to observe and record his own behavior is helped immediately to become more
aware of its occurrence. Such awareness helps clients to obtain more concrete information
about their problem and to collect evidence of changes in the behavior pattern over time.
During the initial phased of the program, perhaps over a week or two, self- monitoring is
employed to collect baseline data.
The ultimate goal of self-management therapy lies in altering a client’s skill repertoire
for coping with problem situations and for maintaining, transferring, and generalizing
therapy-based learning to new behaviors and situations. It would therefore appear that the
indicants of the effectiveness of self-management therapy must include process measures, not
just product or outcome measures. Circumstances under which the behavior occurred should
be noted, including antecedent events, the stimulus environment in which the behavior was
carried out, and consequent events. Process measures would include: changes in the client’s
evaluational standards, changes in the client’s ability to monitor incipient problem situations,
changes in the relationship between intention statements and self-regulatory actions,
improvements or alterations in planning or problem-solving style, adaptive changes in rates
of self-reward and self-criticism and an enhanced appreciation for the interactional nature of
one’s choices and the success of attaining them.
The initial step in setting up a self-monitoring with a client is selection of the
behavior to be monitored or changed. Usually clients will achieve better results if they start
by counting only one behavior. The type of behavior can also affect the degree and direction
of change that occurs as a result of monitoring. Self-monitoring seems to increase the
frequency of positive or desirable behaviors and to decrease the frequency of negative
behaviors. This effect is called reactivity. Self-monitoring of neutral behaviors results in
inconsistent behavior change. For this reason it is important to have clients monitor behaviors
they value or care most about changing.
Deciding how to monitor the behavior is dependent on the circumstances of the
client’s environmental context and the nature of the behavior to be monitored. Generally,
clients are asked to count either how often a behavior occurs or how long a particular
condition lasts if we are interested in focusing on how often a behavior occurs. But if we
simply want to reduce the amount of time dedicated to a particular behavior pattern, then
recording the length of time spent talking on the telephone, studying or playing a computer
game is appropriate. Occasionally clients may wish to record both time and frequency of
behavior. Where the observed behavior is qualitative, a response scale may be used. For
example, on a 0 to 7 point scale rate how confident he feels. In recording emotions rating
scales are useful because intensity is the crucial issue.
Client will need to record with the assistance of some device for recording. These can
range from simple note cards, log sheets, and diaries for written recording, to mechanical
devices such as golf score counters worn on the wrist, kitchen timer, or tape recorder. The
device should be simple to use, convenient, portable, and economical.(transferring a coin
from one pocket to another every time one engages in the target behavior).

Whether the clients choose to employ small note books or mechanical procedures for
reliable on the spot observations, they should transcribe the data collected each day into more
permanent records that they and their therapists can use during the planning and
implementation stages of the program. This second and equally important step of charting or
plotting the behavior counts over a period of time permits your client to see progress that
night not otherwise e apparent. It also permits your client to set daily goals that are more
attainable than the overall goal. Often client’s motivation to continue self-monitoring is
enhanced if they reward their efforts for self-monitoring.

People rarely observe their own behavior in a systematic fashion. However, when
people are provided with the opportunity to observe their own behavior carefully, dramatic
changes often occur. The reasons for the change are not completely understood. One factor
contributing to the efficacy of self-monitoring as a tool for behavioral change may be the
reactive nature of self-monitoring. That is, the act of observing one’s behavior tends to
change the behavior observed. It facilitates the client’s appreciation of the importance of
stimulus control. An individual with study problems will learn that certain external events
and circumstances favor study behavior while others do not. The information obtained
through careful observation might provide important feedback about the person’s level of
behavior. The information conveys whether behavior departs from a culturally or self-
imposed standard of performance. If behavior departs from an acceptable level, corrective
action may be initiated until the level is met.
Self-monitoring may be effective because the act of observation itself may take on
reinforcing or punishing properties. For example, for the individual who records hours of
study behavior each hour may provide reinforcement. Although it is not entirely clear why
self-monitoring is effective, it has been widely applied as a therapy technique.

• Evaluation
When people monitor their behavior, they usually engage in a process of self-
evaluation. They compare their response with some subjective standard derived from
previous experience of a direct or vicarious nature.(Bandura, 19669, Karoly and Kanfer,
1974). Self-evaluation seems to be a key element for behavior change even though, as a
single treatment method, it does not appear to improve behavior(Bandura& _erloff, 1967;
Gross &Drabman, 1982). Evidence suggests that such evaluation is critical to effective self-
control in all likelihood because it provides the basis for reinforcement. self-evaluation helps
sustain continued performance if the child considers his behavior as satisfactory in relation to
a prescribed standard.
In therapy, self-evaluation involves teaching the client to set a standard for a
particular behavior and to use self-monitored information to decide if the behavior meets the
standard and deserves to be reinforced. There is some evidence to suggest that it is important
to encourage children to set high standards for self-evaluation(Evans, 1981; Jones & Evans,
1980).instructions to se high standards for self-evaluation and for praise have been used
effectively to help children maintain stringent criteria for behavioral improvement. Of course
it is important to evaluate skill level in order to encourage children to set reasonable
performance criteria for self-consequating behavior.
As in any behavioral program, it is often beneficial to utilize a shaping process that urges the
child to set more stringent performance criteria as the behavior improves.
• Self-reinforcement and self-punishment.
 Reinforcing and punishing consequences to oneself have been used rather extensively
as self control technique. Clients are trained to administer consequences to themselves
contingent upon behavior instead of receiving consequences from an external agent. self-
rewards seem to function in the same way as rewards that are external reinforcements. .
Studies(Bellack, 1976) show that self-monitoring with self-reinforcement is more effective
than monitoring alone. Self-reinforcement has received more attention than self-punishment.

There three major factors to consider in teaching clients how to use the self-reward
intervention:, choosing the right reward, knowing how to give the reward (identifying the
response )and knowing when to give the reward.
Rewards can be objects, contact with other persons, activities, images and ideas and
positive self-talk. Watson and Tharpe observe that the most important reinforcements are
those that will eventually maintain a new behavior, once it is solidly in place. Thus self-
reward must be a planned strategy, systematically applied and consistently practiced. This is
unlikely to happen unless you have developed a plan for the self-reward intervention.
Clients can be asked to create a reward menu which would vary from small to quite
large rewards and which they would value and like to receive. The rewards that the client
selects should be potent but not so valuable that they would not give up in the event the target
behavior was not achieved. In other words the reinforcements should be strong enough to
make working for it worthwhile and at he same time not so indispensable that the client
refuses to make it something that must be earned
After identifying the rewards the clients must be instructed on what must be done in
order to give themselves a reward. The plan should be identified before starting the self-
reward intervention. It is perhaps more effective to encourage clients to reward themselves
for gradual progress toward the desired goal. The crucial elements are determining when to
deliver reinforcement and for what behaviors. Self-reinforcement usually requires the client
to observe and record his or her own behavior to determine whether it has met a criterion.
Thus self-monitoring is an ingredient included in the procedure.
Self-punishment has been used relatively infrequently in behavior modification
programs. The reasons are similar to those of punishments. Nevertheless, the utility of
punishment has been suggested in several instances. Wilson, Leaf, and Nathan reported the
use of self-punishment with hospitalized alcoholics. Patients had access to alcoholic
beverages on the ward. Electric shock was used to suppress the amount of alcohol that the
patients consumed. They were encouraged to self-administer shocks for drinking. The results
indicated that self-administered shocks were effective in suppressing alcohol consumption.
Mahoney, Moura, and Wade (1973) showed that self-reward and self-punishment together
was not more effective than self-reward alone.
Self-contracting
Getting clients to make behavioral changes is not easy. So you must first obtain the client’s
commitment to change. The behavioral contract is useful intervention for gaining the client’s
cooperation and commitment. The contract specifies what actions the client agrees to take in
order to reach the desired goal. Kanfer and Gaelick observe that contracts can reduce client’s
fears that they will never overcome their problems by requiring only small behavior changes
at first. The contract contains a description of the conditions surrounding the action steps:
when the client will undertake such actions; how (in what manner) the client will carry out
the actions; and when ( by what time) the tasks will be completed. Because these contract
terms are specified in writing and signed by the client, we refer to this intervention as self
contracting. The most effective contracts have terms that are completely acceptable to the
client, are very specific, and reflect short-term goals that are feasible. Self-contracts often
are more successful when they are paired with self-reward.
In some cases self-reward may include sanctions that the client administers for failure
to meet the contract terms. However, the rewards and sanctions should be balanced and a
self-contract that emphasizes positive terms is probably more effective. Self- contracts are
very useful when working with children and adolescents because the conditions are so
concrete. When contracts are used with children, several additional guidelines are applicable.
1. The required behavior should be easy for the child to identify.
2. The total task should be divided into subtasks, and initial contracts should reward
completion of each component or subtask. Other steps can be added later, after each
successive target behavior is well established.
3. Smaller, more frequent rewards are more effective in maintaining the child or
adolescent’s interest in working for change than lager, less frequently administered
rewards.
4. In the cased of self-contract, rewards controlled by the child or teenager are generally
more effective than those dispensed by adults.
5. Rewards follow rather than precede performance of the performance of the target
behavior to be increased. The client must agree to complete the specified activity first
before engaging in any part of the reward.
6. The client must view the contract as a fair one which, in an equitable way , balances the
degree of work and energy expended and the resulting payoffs.
7. The most effective self-rewards for children and adolescents facilitate their overall
growth and development and are used daily. The very essence of the effectiveness of the
contract procedure , as of many other self-management techniques, lies in the fact that it
becomes a rule for everyday conduct.( not reserved for special occasions or weekends).
Alternate response training.
It trains a person to engage in responses that interfere with or replace an undesired
response. For example, people can think of pleasant thoughts to control worrying or relax to
control tension. The most common focus of alternate response is to control anxiety. Typically,
a client is trained by a therapist to relax deeply. Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation
Technique, self-instruction, and meditation are some of the ways in which relaxation is
induced in the client. Once the client has learned these techniques, they can apply the
procedure to themselves. Individuals have applied relaxation to themselves effectively for
anxiety in interactions with the opposite sex, fears associated with natural childbirth, public
speaking, interviews, and many other problems like hypertension and insomnia and pain.{see
chart}.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback consists of a wide variety of procedures wherein some aspect of an
individual’s physiological functioning is systematically monitored and fed back to that
individual, typically in the form of an auditory or visual signal.
Many physiological processes are directly involved in problems brought for
treatment, including hypertension, headaches, epileptic seizures, muscle spasms, cardiac
arrhythmias(irregular heartbeat) and anxiety. By providing feedback, the goal is to produce a
change in the specific response focused upon. Biofeedback is included here as a self-control
procedure because the goal of many of the procedures is to teach clients specific techniques
to regulate their own responses in the natural environment.
In treating to control blood pressure, the client can be instructed to decrease the
pressure and receive immediate feedback on the extent to which this is successfully
accomplished. Ideally, the client will learn to engage in responses(pleasant thoughts,
relaxation) that are effective in decreasing blood pressure. These responses can hopefully be
extended to everyday situations.

Cognitively based techniques

 Several cognitively based interventions can be used as self-control techniques. These
techniques are based on the view that behavior is influenced greatly by cognitive processes
(private events) such as perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, images and self-statements. One’s
perception and beliefs influence the effects that environmental events may have. For
example, a person who believes that other people are very friendly may initiate social
responses( greeting, conversations) with strangers. The belief leads to greeting and chatting
that in turn generates environmental consequences(reinforcement from others). This in turn
affects the person’s perceptions and behavior in the future. This shows that cognitive
processes and environmental events mutually influence each other.
• Self-instructions
The things that people say to themselves have been considered important in
controlling behavior.(Zivin, 1979). Self-instruction involves the use of self-verbalizations to
guide the performance of a task, skill or problem-solving process. The influence that one’s
own speech has on behavior has been suggested to result from childhood learning.
Self-instruction training has been used directly to develop self-control. The individual
is trained to control his behavior by making suggestion and specific comments which guide
behavior in a fashion similar to being instructed by someone else.
In one of the first investigations in this area, self-instruction training was applied to
impulsive and hyperactive children (Meichenbaum and Goodman, 1971). The children
tended to make errors that resulted from performing tasks quickly without deliberation. To
train methodical work habits, the experimenter modeled careful performance on tasks such as
coloring figures, copying lines, and solving problems. As the experimenter performed the
tasks, he talked out loud to himself. The verbalizations modeled by the experimenter
included: questions about the nature of the task, answers to these questions by mentally
rehearsing and planning his actions, self-instructions in the form of self-guidance, and self-
reinforcement. Essentially the experimenter modeled thinking out loud. The impulsive
children were trained to do the task while instructing themselves out loud just as the
experimenter had done. Eventually they were trained to do the task while whispering the
instructions and them saying them covertly without lip movements or sounds. Training in
self-instruction resulted in a reduction of impulsive errors.
Procedure(Meichenbaum, 1977)
1. the Practitioner models performance of the task while talking to himself out
loud(cognitive modeling).
2. Clients perform the same task while receiving verbal guidance from the practitioner
(overt external guidance).
3. Clients perform the task while instructing themselves out loud(overt self-guidance).

4. Clients perform the task wile whispering instructions to themselves (faded overt self-
guidance.

5. Clients perform the task while instructing themselves privately (covert self-instructiion).
Imagery-based procedures
A number of self-control procedures have been based upon having clients imagine
various events to alter their own behavior depending upon the manner in which this is
accomplished. The techniques may include self-reinforcement, self-punishment, modeling,
alternate response training, and others. However, the use of imagery makes the techniques
unique and worthy of separate treatment.
covert sensitization.
One procedure based upon imagery is referred to as covert sensitization. The technique
consists of having the client imagine himself engaging in an undesirable behavior
(overeating). When this image is vivid, the client imagines an aversive consequence
associated with the behavior(feeling nauseous). The purpose of treatment is to build up an
aversion toward stimuli which previously served as a source of attraction.
• Covert modeling
It consist of imagining a person other than oneself engaging in various behaviors that
the client would like to develop. In covert modeling, clients imagine rather than observe
models. For example, it has been used in outpatient treatment to train shy adults to act more
assertively in a variety of social situation.
These techniques are usually conducted in treatment sessions in the presence of the
therapist. However, they can be viewed as self-control techniques because clients can
imagine various scenes in their everyday life to handle problems that arise long after contact
with the therapist. By rehearsing in imagination behaviors that may be difficult to perform, or
by imagining rewarding or aversive consequences to facilitate or inhibit a response clients
can control their own behavior.
Client commitment to self-management.
A critical problem in the effective use of any self-management intervention is having
the client use the intervention regularly and consistently. Clients will be more likely to carry
out self-management programs if certain conditions exist, including the following:
1. The use of the self-management program will provide enough advantages or positive
consequences to be worth the cost to the client in terms of time and effort.
2. Clients believe in their capacity to change. Since belief create one’s reality, the belief
that change is possible helps clients try harder when they get stuck or are faced with an
unforeseen difficulty in their change plans.
3. Clients’ utilization of self-management processes reflects their own standards of
performance, not the standards of the counselor or of significant others.
4. Clients use personal reminders about their goals when tempted to stray from the
intervention plan. A written list of self-reminders that clients can carry at all times may
prove helpful in this respect.
5. If the client secretly harbors an escape plan,( I will diet on all days except on Sundays )
this should be made explicit. Concealed escape plans are likely to wreak havoc onto the
best-conceived self-management programs.
6. The self-management program is directed toward maintenance as well as initial
acquisition of target behaviors. For this to occur the client’s life-style must be taken into
account. For therapeutic change to be maintained the individual must be prepared, by
virtue of his mode of information processing, the adequacy of active coping skills, and by
dint of having selected a supportive social setting( friends, co-workers, spouse, etc.) to
deal with unforeseen challenges, conflicts, periods of depression.
7. The client’s use of the program may be strengthened by enlisting the support and
assistance of other persons—as long as their roles are positive, not punishing.
9. The counselor maintains some minimal contact with the client during the time self-
management program is being implemented. Counselor reinforcement is quite important
in successful implementation of self-management program. Have the client drop in or
telephone regularly during the course of the program. This enables you to provide
immediate encouragement and, if necessary, to modify the program.
Final comments
• The value of self-management as technique is not in applying learning principles to
clients but in teaching the principles to clients for their application to themselves. This
enhances client participation in the choice of therapeutic procedures and their
implementation which in turn increases their motivation and commitment to change.
• A genuine amalgam of cognitive and behavioral constructs and methodologies may offer
a firmer platform for clinical intervention than either perspective by itself.
• A wider framework based on a bio-psychosocial model may address the client concerns
more adequately.
• Though the treatment principles appear simple, it is not easy to analyze all the relevant
‘person and situation variables’ in a given problem.

Reference
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