pH Scale
Introduction and Definitions:
Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property chemicals. Mixing acids
and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is neither acidic
nor basic is neutral.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A
pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.

The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more
acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and
100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7,
each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole
value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10)
more alkaline than pH 8.

Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become
either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Lye, milk of
magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.

Number Representation and Logarithms

 Number  Exponent Notation  Log of the Number
3
 1000  10  3
2
 100  10  2
1
 10  10  1
 1  100  0
-1
 0.1  10  -1
-2
 0.01  10  -2
-3
 0.001  10  -3
-4
 0.0001  10  -4
Definition of pH, pOH, and pKw:
The concentrations of hydrogen ions and indirectly hydroxide ions are given by a pH number.
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The equation is:

pH = - log [H+]
similarly, pOH = - log [OH-]
and p Kw = - log [Kw] .

Logarithms of numbers that are multiples of ten are merely the exponents of the number
including the sign. See the table on the left for a review. The method to find logs of numbers that
are not multiples of ten are found by using a calculator. The method is not discussed here.

Example: If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.0001 M, find the pH.

Solution:
First convert the number to exponential notation, find the log, then solve the pH equation.

H+ = 0.0001M = 10-4; log of 10-4 = -4;

pH = - log [ H+] = - log (10-4) = - (-4) = +4 = pH

The purpose of the negative sign in the log definition is to give a

positive pH value.
pH Principle: pH and pOH must always equal pKw (14).
 

 
 pH Scale:
The pH scale, (0 - 14), is the full set of pH numbers which indicate the concentration of H+ and
OH-ions in water. The diagram on the left gives some relationships which summarizes much of
the previous discussion.

pH Scale Principle:
H+ ion concentration and pH relate inversely.
OH- ion concentration and pH relate directly.

The following statements may be made about the pH scale

numbers. Complete some of them.

a. Increasing pH means the H+ ions are decreasing.

b. Decreasing pH means H+ ions are increasing.
 pH
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogens ions (= H+) (= protons) in a solution.

Numerically it is the negative logarithm of that concentration expressed in moles per liter (M).

Pure water spontaneously dissociates into ions, forming a 10-7 M solution of H+ (and OH-). The
negative of this logarithm is 7, so the pH of pure water is 7.

Solutions with a higher concentration of H+ than occurs in pure water have pH values below 7
and are acidic.

Solutions containing molecules or ions that reduce the concentration of H+ below that of pure
water have pH values above 7 and are basic or alkaline.

Is pH important? Yes!

The properties of most proteins, enzymes for example, are sensitive to pH.

As the pH drops,
 H+ bind to the carboxyl groups (COO-) of aspartic acid (Asp) and glutamic acid (Glu),
neutralizing their negative charge, and
 H+ bind to the unoccupied pair of electrons on the N atom of the amino (NH2 ) groups of
lysine (Lys) and arginine (Arg) giving them a positive charge.

The result: Not only does the net charge on the molecule change (it becomes more positive)
but many of the opportunities that its R groups have for ionic (electrostatic) interactions with
other molecules and ions are altered.

As the pH rises,
 H+ are removed from the COOH groups of Asp and Glu, giving them a negative charge
(COO-), and
  H+ are removed from the NH3+ groups of Lys and Arg removing their positive charge.

The result: Again the net charge on the molecule changes (it becomes more negative) and,
again, many of the opportunities its R groups have for electrostatic interactions with other
molecules or ions are altered.

The pH of the cytosol within a human cell is about 7.4. BUT, this value masks the pH
differences that are found in various compartments within the cell. For example,

 The interior of lysosomes is much more acidic (as low as pH 4) than the cytosol, and the
enzymes within work best at these low pH values.
 The pH differential created within chloroplasts by the energy of the sun is harnessed to
synthesize ATP which, in turn, powers the synthesis of food.
 The pH differential created within mitochondria during the respiration of food is
harnessed to the synthesis of ATP which, in turn, powers most of the energy-consuming
activities of the cell such as locomotion and biosynthesis of cell components.

About Soil pH
 
 pH is a measure of how acidic or basic things are and is measured using a pH scale
between 0 to 14, with acidic things having a pH between 0-7 and basic things having a
pH from 7 to 14. For instance, lemon juice and battery acid are acidic and fall in the 0-7
range, whereas seawater and bleach are basic (also called "alkaline") and fall in the 7-14
pH range. Pure water is neutral, or 7 on the pH scale.
  THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL pH
 The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because soil
solution carries in it nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P)
that plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive, and fight off diseases.
 If the pH of the soil solution is increased above 5.5, Nitrogen (in the form of nitrate) is
made available to plants. Phosphorus, on the other hand, is available to plants when soil
pH is between 6.0 and 7.0.
 Certain bacteria help plants obtain N by converting atmospheric Nitrogen into a form of
N that plants can use.These bacteria live in root nodules of legumes (like alfalfa and
soybeans) and function best when the pH of the plant they live in is growing in soil
within an acceptable pH range.
 For instance, alfalfa grows best in soils having a pH of 6.2 - 7.8, while soybean grows
best in soils with a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. Peanuts grow best in soils that have a pH of
5.3 to 6.6. Many other crops, vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are
pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to obtain nutrients.
 If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize N, P, K and other nutrients they
need. In acidic soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants
eventually die of toxicity (poisoning).
 To learn more about nitrogen and play a fun board game. 
  Information derived from: "Nutrient Manager: Focus on pH and Lime", published by the
Unversity of Maryland's Cooperative Extension Service and Department of Agronomy;
The Handbook of Soils and Climate in Agriculture; the Topsoil on Tour Mini Curriculum
and Hands on Test Kit by the LaMotte Company, and the Miami Museum of Science web
site.

pH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said
to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25 °C (77 °F). Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to
be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. pH measurements are
important in medicine, biology, chemistry, food science, environmental science, oceanography,
civil engineering and many other applications.

In a solution pH approximates but is not equal to p[H], the negative logarithm (base 10) of the
molar concentration of dissolved hydronium ions (H3O+); a low pH indicates a high
concentration of hydronium ions, while a high pH indicates a low concentration. Crudely, this
negative of the logarithm matches the number of places behind the decimal point, so for example
0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001 molar HCl should be near pH 4 (the
base 10 logarithms of 0.1 and 0.0001 being −1, and −4, respectively). Pure (de-ionised) water is
neutral, and can be considered either a very weak acid or a very weak base (center of the 0 to 14
pH scale), giving it a pH of 7 (at 25 °C (77 °F)), or 0.0000001 M H+.[1] For an aqueous solution to
have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away many of these rare hydrogen
ions. Hydrogen ions in water can be written simply as H+ or as hydronium (H3O+) or higher
species (e.g. H9O4+) to account for solvation, but all describe the same entity. Most of the Earth's
freshwater surface bodies are slightly acidic due to the abundance and absorption of carbon
dioxide; in fact, for millennia in the past most fresh water bodies have long existed at a slightly
acidic pH level.

However, pH is not precisely p[H], but takes into account an activity factor. This represents the
tendency of hydrogen ions to interact with other components of the solution, which affects
among other things the electrical potential read using a pH meter. As a result, pH can be affected
by the ionic strength of a solution – for example, the pH of a 0.05 M potassium hydrogen
phthalate solution can vary by as much as 0.5 pH units as a function of added potassium
chloride, even though the added salt is neither acidic nor basic.

Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured directly by any thermodynamically sound
method, so they are based on theoretical calculations. Therefore the pH scale is defined in
practice as traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international
agreement.[4] Primary pH standard values are determined by the Harned cell, a hydrogen gas
electrode, using the Bates–Guggenheim Convention.

History
The concept of p[H] was first introduced by Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the
Carlsberg Laboratory in 1909 and revised to the modern pH in 1924 after it became apparent that
electromotive force in cells depended on activity rather than concentration of hydrogen ions. In
the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the lower case p, like so: pH.

It is unknown what the exact definition of 'p' in pH is. A common definition often used in
schools is "percentage". However some references suggest the p stands for “Power”, others refer
to the German word “Potenz” (meaning power in German). still others refer to “potential”. Jens
Norby published a paper in 2000 arguing that p is a constant and stands for “negative
logarithm”;H then stands for Hydrogen. According to the Carlsberg Foundation pH stands for
"power of hydrogen".Other suggestions that have surfaced over the years are that the p stands for
puissance (also meaning power but then the Carlsberg Laboratory was French speaking) or that
pH stands for the Latin terms pondus Hydrogenii or potentia hydrogenii. It is also suggested that
Sørensen used the letters p and q (commonly paired letters in mathematics) simply to label the
test solution (p) and the reference solution (q).

Definitions
Mathematical definition
pH is defined as a negative decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution.

where aH is the activity of hydrogen ions in units of Mol/L (molar concentration). Activity has a
sense of concentration, however activity is always less than the concentration and is defined as a
concentration (Mol/L) of an ion multiplied by activity coefficient. The activity coefficient is a
number between 0 and 1 and it depends on many parameters of a solution, such as nature of ion,
ion force, temperature etc. For a strong electrolyte activity of an ion approaches it concentration
in diluted solutions. Activity can be measured experimentally by means of an ion-selective
electrode which responds, according to the Nernst equation, to hydrogen ion activity. pH is
commonly measured by means of a glass electrode connected to a milli-voltmeter with very high
input impedance which measures the potential difference, or electromotive force, E, between an
electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion activity and a reference electrode, such as a calomel
electrode or a silver chloride electrode. Quite often glass electrode is combined with the
reference electrode and a temperature sensor in one body. The glass electrode relatively good (95
- 99.9%)[clarification needed] follows the Nernst equation:

where E is a measured potential , E0 is the standard electrode potential, that is, the electrode
potential for the standard state in which the activity is one. R is the gas constant, T is the
temperature in kelvins, F is the Faraday constant and n is the number of electrons transferred
(ion charge), one in this instance. The electrode potential, E, is proportional to the logarithm of
the hydrogen ion activity.

This definition, by itself, is wholly impractical, because the hydrogen ion activity is the product
of the concentration and an activity coefficient. To get proper results, the electrode must be
calibrated using standard solutions of known activity.

The operational definition of pH is officially defined by International Standard ISO 31-8 as

follows:[13] For a solution X, first measure the electromotive force EX of the galvanic cell

reference electrode|concentrated solution of KCl || solution X|H2|Pt

and then also measure the electromotive force ES of a galvanic cell that differs from the above
one only by the replacement of the solution X of unknown pH, pH(X), by a solution S of a
known standard pH, pH(S). The pH of X is then

The difference between the pH of solution X and the pH of the standard solution depends only
on the difference between two measured potentials. Thus, pH is obtained from a potential
measured with an electrode calibrated against one or more pH standards; a pH meter setting is
adjusted such that the meter reading for a solution of a standard is equal to the value pH(S).
Values pH(S) for a range of standard solutions S, along with further details, are given in the
IUPAC recommendations.[14] The standard solutions are often described as standard buffer
solution. In practice, it is better to use two or more standard buffers to allow for small deviations
from Nernst-law ideality in real electrodes. Note that because the temperature occurs in the
defining equations, the pH of a solution is temperature-dependent.

Measurement of extremely low pH values, such as some very acidic mine waters,[15] requires
special procedures. Calibration of the electrode in such cases can be done with standard solutions
of concentrated sulfuric acid, whose pH values can be calculated with using Pitzer parameters to
calculate activity coefficients.[16]

pH is an example of an acidity function. Hydrogen ion concentrations can be measured in non-

aqueous solvents, but this leads, in effect, to a different acidity function, because the standard
state for a non-aqueous solvent is different from the standard state for water. Superacids are a
class of non-aqueous acids for which the Hammett acidity function, H0, has been developed.

p[H]
This was the original definition of Sørensen, which was superseded in favour of pH. However, it
is possible to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions directly, if the electrode is calibrated in
terms of hydrogen ion concentrations. One way to do this, which has been used extensively, is to
titrate a solution of known concentration of a strong acid with a solution of known concentration
of strong alkali in the presence of a relatively high concentration of background electrolyte.
Since the concentrations of acid and alkali are known it is easy to calculate the concentration of
hydrogen ions so that the measured potential can be correlated with concentrations. The
calibration is usually carried out using a Gran plot. The calibration yieds a value for the standard
electrode potential, E0, and a slope factor, f, so that the Nernst equation in the form

can be used to derive hydrogen ion concentrations from experimental measurements of E. The
slope factor is usually slightly less than one. A slope factor of less than 0.95 indicates that the
electrode is not functioning correctly. The presence of background electrolyte ensures that the
hydrogen ion activity coefficient is effectively constant during the titration. As it is constant its
value can be set to one by defining the standard state as being the solution containing the
background electrolyte. Thus, the effect of using this procedure is to make activity equal to the
numerical value of concentration.

The difference between p[H] and pH is quite small. It has been stated[18] that pH = p[H] + 0.04. It
is common practice to use the term "pH" for both types of measurement.we can report negative
pH for strong acid.

pOH
pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH−, or alkalinity.
pOH is not measured independently, but is derived from pH. The concentration of hydroxide
ions in water is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by

[OH−] = KW /[H+]

where KW is the self-ionisation constant of water. Taking cologarithms

pOH = pKW − pH.

So, at room temperature pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other
circumstances, such as in measurements of soil alkalinity.

Applications
Some typical pH values

Pure (neutral) water has a pH around 7 at 25 °C (77 °F); this value varies with temperature.
When an acid is dissolved in water the pH will be less than 7 (if at 25 °C (77 °F)) and when a
base, or alkali is dissolved in water the pH will be greater than 7 (if at 25 °C (77 °F)). A solution
of a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, at concentration 1 mol dm−3 has a pH of 0. A solution
of a strong alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, at concentration 1 mol dm−3 has a pH of 14. Thus,
measured pH values will mostly lie in the range 0 to 14. Since pH is a logarithmic scale a
difference of one pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.

Because the glass electrode (and other ion selective electrodes) responds to activity, the electrode
should be calibrated in a medium similar to the one being investigated. For instance, if one
wishes to measure the pH of a seawater sample, the electrode should be calibrated in a solution
resembling seawater in its chemical composition, as detailed below.

An approximate measure of pH may be obtained by using a pH indicator. A pH indicator is a

substance that changes color around a particular pH value. It is a weak acid or weak base and the
color change occurs around 1 pH unit either side of its acid dissociation constant, or pKa, value.
For example, the naturally occurring indicator litmus is red in acidic solutions (pH<7 at 25 °C
(77 °F)) and blue in alkaline (pH>7 at 25 °C (77 °F)) solutions. Universal indicator consists of a
mixture of indicators such that there is a continuous color change from about pH 2 to pH 10.
Universal indicator paper is simple paper that has been impregnated with universal indicator.

Universal indicator components

Indicator Low pH color Transition pH range High pH color
Thymol blue (first transition) red 1.2 – 2.8 yellow
Methyl red red 4.4 – 6.2 yellow
Bromothymol blue yellow 6.0 – 7.6 blue
Thymol blue (second transition) yellow 8.0 – 9.6 blue
Phenolphthalein colorless   8.3 – 10.0 fuchsia

A solution whose pH is 7 (at 25 °C (77 °F)) is said to be neutral, that is, it is neither acidic nor
basic. Water is subject to a self-ionization process.

H2O H+ + OH−

The dissociation constant, KW, has a value of about 10−14, so in neutral solution of a salt both the
hydrogen ion concentration and hydroxide ion concentration are about 10−7 mol dm−3. The pH of
pure water decreases with increasing temperatures. For example, the pH of pure water at 50 °C is
6.55. Note, however, that water that has been exposed to air is mildly acidic. This is because
water absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, which is then slowly converted into carbonic acid,
which dissociates to liberate hydrogen ions:

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  HCO3− + H+

Calculation of pH for weak and strong acids

In the case of a strong acid, there is complete dissociation, so the pH is simply equal to minus the
logarithm of the acid concentration. For example, a 0.01 molar solution of hydrochloric acid has
a pH of −log(0.01), that is, pH = 2.

The pH of a solution of a weak acid may be calculated by means of an ICE table. For acids with
a pKa value greater than about 2,

pH = ½ ( pKa − log c0),

where c0 is the concentration of the acid. This is equivalent to Burrows' weak acid pH equation

A more general method is as follows. Consider the case of dissolving a weak acid, HA, in water.
First write down the equilibrium expression.
 HA A− + H+

The equilibrium constant for this reaction is specified by

Solution of this equation gives [H+] and hence pH.

This method can also be used for polyprotic acids. For example, for the diprotic acid oxalic acid,
writing A2− for the oxalate ion,

CA = [A2−] + β1[A2−][H+] + β2[A2−][H+]2

CH = [H+] + β1[A2−][H+] + 2β2[A2−][H+]2

where β1 and β2 are cumulative protonation constants. Following the same procedure of
substituting from the first equation into the second, a cubic equation in [H+] results. In general,
the degree of the equation is one more than the number of ionisable protons. The solution of
these equations can be obtained relatively easily with the aid of a spreadsheet such as EXCEL or
Origin. The pH always has an amount of fractional figures equal to the amount of significant
figures of the concentration.

pH in nature
Hydrangea macrophylla blossoms are either pink or blue, depending on a pH-dependent
mobilization and uptake of soil aluminium into the plants.

pH-dependent plant pigments that can be used as pH indicators occur in many plants, including
hibiscus, marigold, red cabbage (anthocyanin),[19] and red wine.

Seawater
The pH of seawater plays an important role in the ocean's carbon cycle and there is evidence of
ongoing ocean acidification caused by carbon dioxide emissions.[20] However, pH measurement
is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in
chemical oceanography.[21]

As part of its operational definition of the pH scale, the IUPAC defines a series of buffer
solutions across a range of pH values (often denoted with NBS or NIST designation). These
solutions have a relatively low ionic strength (~0.1) compared to that of seawater (~0.7), and
consequently are not recommended for use in characterising the pH of seawater since the ionic
strength differences cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative
series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed.[22] This new series resolves the
problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is
referred to as the total scale, often denoted as pHT.

The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience
protonation, H+ + SO42− ⇌ HSO4−, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons
(free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:

[H+]T = [H+]F + [HSO4−]

An alternative scale, the free scale, often denoted pHF, omits this consideration and focuses
solely on [H+]F, in principle making it a simpler representation of hydrogen ion concentration.
Analytically, only [H+]T can be determined,[23] therefore, [H+]F must be estimated using the
[SO42−] and the stability constant of HSO4−, KS*:

In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units,
differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required,
particularly in relation to the ocean's carbonate system.[21] Since it omits consideration of sulfate
and fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales.
Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only
very slightly.

Living systems
pH in living systems[24]
Compartment pH
Gastric acid 1
Lysosomes 4.5
Granules of chromaffin cells 5.5
Human skin 5.5
Urine 6.0
Neutral H2O at 37 °C 6.81
Cytosol 7.2
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 7.3
Blood 7.34–7.45
Mitochondrial matrix 7.5
Pancreas secretions 8.1

General symptoms of acidosis, resulting from decrease in body pH.

The pH of different cellular compartments, body fluids, and organs is usually tightly regulated in
a process called acid-base homeostasis.

The pH of blood is usually slightly basic with a value of pH 7.365. This value is often referred to
as physiological pH in biology and medicine.

Plaque can create a local acidic environment that can result in tooth decay by demineralisation.

Enzymes and other proteins have an optimum pH range and can become inactivated or denatured
outside this range.

The most common disorder in acid-base homeostasis is acidosis, which means an acid overload
in the body, generally defined by pH falling below 7.35.[citation needed]

In the blue, pH can be estimated from known base excess (be) and bicarbonate concentration
(HCO3) by the following equation:

Reference ranges for blood tests, showing concentration of protons (purple) at left. It can be seen
that the ranges are kept in a narrow range, and that free protons are among the compounds with
the very smallest mass concentrations.