Shearing

Before singeing some times brushing action takes place to cut off the standing fibers by
using blades called shearing. But this process is used very less due to very bad damages
in fabric causing due to wrong settings of blade movement or more speed of machine.
Shearing machines cut off only protruding fibers but singeing machine also burns the
fibers present in interstices of fabric. This process is not only slow than singeing but also
quality of product is not good.

Singeing
Singeing can be carried out both on yarns and fabrics, but it is more common on fabrics
especially on cotton, cotton/polyester and cotton /polyacrylonitriles substrates.
Protruding fibre ends at the fabric surface disturb the surface appearance and produce an
effect known as "frosting" when dyed. It is therefore necessary to remove the surface
fibres by passing the fabric through a gas flame.
The fabric is passed over a row of gas flames and then immediately into a quench bath to
extinguish the sparks and cool the fabric. The quench bath often contains a desizing
solution, in which case the final step in singeing becomes a combined singeing and
desizing operation.
Synthetic fibers like polyester in blends with cotton can create problem due to melting
under high flame therefore care should be made and use flame of low intensity up to
which required results are obtained

Gas singeing machines are preferred for this purpose and has two type of actions
- perpendicular flame system (flame works at 90 degree angle)
- tangential flame system (flame works at 45 degree angle)
Fabric is positioned at a distance of 1.5 – 4 mm from the end of flame depending on the
intensity of flame and length of protruding fibers in fabric. Speed of fabric is 60 – 120
meters per minute.
Singeing is carried out mostly on woven fabrics but very rarely on knitted fabrics.
Instead of singeing an enzymatic treatment can also be applied to fabrics which corrode
the fiber or fabric surface and remove the fuzz from fabric.

Desizing
For fabrics made from cotton, synthetics or blends, the warp threads are coated with an
adhesive substance known as “Size” to prevent the threads breaking during weaving.
Although many different compounds have been used to size the fabric, starch and its
derivatives has been the most common sizing agent.
STARCH = AMYLOSE + AMILOPECTINE
30% 70%
short chain long chain
But for synthetic fibers synthetic sizes are used like PVA, etc.
After weaving, the size must be removed again in order to prepare the fabric for dyeing
and finishing. The process used to remove size solution applied on warp yarn is known as
“Desizing”
Size removal depends on following factors
- viscosity of size solution
 - easiness in making size film soluble
- temperature used and method for removal
- amount of size applied
- fabric construction
The desizing agent employed depends upon the type of size to be removed.
For synthetics just boiling is sufficient to remove the size solution because sizes applied
on these are soluble in water. Starch is the most difficult size to remove. It does not
readily dissolve in water and must be broken down chemically into water soluble
compounds by enzymes, oxidizing agents, or acids. Enzymes break down starch into
water soluble sugars and dextrines, oxidizing agents oxidize starch into compounds that
are soluble in alkaline solution, while acids hydrolyze starch into water soluble
compounds.

Types of Desizing
As mentioned above starch contain two types of molecules amylose and amilopectines
from which amylose are removed easily but amilopectines resist, to break them different
methods are used

1) Hydrolytic process
2) Oxidative process
Hydrolytic process: -
- Rot steeping
In this process we boil substrate with water at 80 – 90oC for about 8 – 12
hours. In humid conditions bacteria develop on the surface of substrate and
break the amylase chains to remove size or starch solution
- Acid steeping
In this process substrate is treated with H2SO4 (0.5 – 1%) for about 1 – 4 hours
These both processes are not usually used because they damage the fabric by losing the
yarn strength also uneven desizing is obtained (more desizing at top and bottom but less
in middle of substrate). Also more place is required (15 ft2 tanks are used) because of
which these are more costly

- Enzyme desizing
The enzyme that is specific to starch is amylase. There are also two types of
amylase, alpha and beta. Alpha amylase attacks the starch chains at random
leading to a rapid reduction in molecular weight and thus rapid solubilization
of starch. Beta amylase on the other hand successively removes terminal
glucose units from starch chains. Its action is also terminated at branch points
in amylopectin, leaving relatively large molecular weight fractions that are
difficult to solubalize. Therefore alpha amylase should be used to obtain rapid
and thorough digestion of starch.

Sources of enzymes
Animals: - these are not used because they create smell (pancreatic enzymes)
Plants: - (maltose enzymes)
Bacteria: - (lialose enzymes)
 The enzymatic process depends on the quantity of enzyme molecules per
gram of fabric. Advantage of this process is that enzymes react with starch
molecules not with fabric molecules.
Recipe
Enzyme 6 – 8 g/l
Detergents 1 – 2 g/l
Sequestering agent 1 g/l
CH3COOH PH (5 – 7)
If water hardness is more than 400ppm then sequestering agents are used

Oxidative process
In this process we use oxidants which whiten the color of substrate with desizing like
sodium hypochlorite desizing, hydrogen peroxide desizing, per sulfates desizing etc.
mostly peroxides and per sulfates are used. These are less effective then enzymes for
desizing but give some improvement in color and complete removal of size after
bleaching with peroxide.
Oxidative process popularity is increasing because it saved the time and energy by
removing process stages and give whitening with peroxide (addition of hydrogen
peroxide in scouring liquor, no extra desizing bath and solution utilization, scouring and
desizing takes place in same bath and same solution)
Hydrogen peroxide was firstly developed for desizing of starch with PVA mixture at PH
about 9.
In desizing/scouring combination process following points should be remembered
- best control of alkali and oxidant concentration (more then required will
damage the solution)
- more alkalinity then required range for a given oxidant can damage the
process
- per sulfates promote desizing rather then bleaching so require more control of
concentration
- in batch process oxidants add when scouring reaches at its top temperature

Machines used for desizing

The sized fabric in either rope or open width form is brought in contact with the
processing liquid containing the desizing agents.

Scouring
Scouring is usually carried out in soft water with addition of textile auxiliaries such as
absorbing agent, detergents, emulsifying agents, caustic soda and sequestering agents.
Fats and related substances can be removed from textile substrate by different methods
such as
- By treating with alkalies in case of cotton
- By emulsification with soap or other surface active compounds
- By treating with an organic solvent

Scouring of cotton
The scouring process removes much of the non-cellulosic compounds naturally found in
cotton. In addition to the natural non-cellulosic impurities, scouring can remove residual
manufacturing introduced materials such as spinning, coning or slashing lubricants.
The scouring process employs sodium hydroxide or related causticizing agents such as
sodium carbonate, potassium hydroxide or their mixtures. Generally an alkali stable
surfactant is added to the process to enhance solubilization of hydrophobic compounds
and/or prevent their redeposition back on the fabric. The treatment is generally at a high
temperature 80oC – 100oC employing strongly alkaline solutions of the scouring agent,
e.g., pH 13-14.
Due to the non-specific nature of chemical processes not only are the impurities but the
cellulose itself is attacked, leading to damages in strength or other desirable fabric
properties. The softness of the cellulosic fabric is a function of residual natural cotton
waxes. The non-specific nature of the high temperature strongly alkaline scouring process
cannot discriminate between the desirable natural cotton lubricants and the manufacturing
introduced lubricants. Furthermore, the conventional scouring process can cause
environmental problems due to the highly alkaline effluent from these processes.
This process increases absorption of cotton fiber because NaOH swell the fiber.

The scouring stage prepares the fabric for the optimal response in bleaching. An
inadequately scoured fabric will need a higher level of bleach chemical in the subsequent
bleaching stages.

Scouring of wool
Scouring in wool removes oils and other contaminants (grease, dirt, dust etc.) from
substrate.
Scouring of wool is differ from cotton in two expects
- Raw wool contain 30% to 60% of wool grease but cotton contain 0.5% of oil,
waxes and other fatty materials
- Wool is sensitive to alkali
Above points tell that we can never use NaOH for wool because slight increase in PH due
to more contamination in wool will damage the surface of wool and also its strength.
Therefore when we scour wool we use weak alkalies such as sodium carbonate,
ammonia, ammonium carbonate or mixture of any two of them.

Scouring of silk
Silk that contains sericin is called raw silk. The gummy substance affords protection
during processing and so is usually retained until the yarn or fabric stage. It is then
removed by boiling the silk in a mildly alkaline solution. This process called degumming.
This process leaves the silk soft and lustrous, but it can reduce the weight of the silk by as
much as 30%. Alkaline degumming process has the following disadvantages:
- Fiber is affected
- Doesn’t give the soft feel
- Loss in w eight is about 25%
- Soap accumulation
Degumming is carried out by treating silk for 2 hours at 95oC in 0.5 to 0.75 percent
solution of soap (or with addition mild alkali for complete degumming) using 30 liters
per kilogram of silk

Enzyme degumming involves proteolytic degradation of sericin using a specific protease

which does not attack fibroin filament. While the conventional degumming needs long
time, enzymatic degumming takes about 30 minutes.
Use of proteases for the degumming process is gaining pace due to the several
techno-economic advantages over the alkaline degumming method, which includes
optimal weight loss and better hand properties.

Scouring of synthetics
Scouring process applied to synthetics removes oils, stains, lubricants, and antistatic
substances (dirt, dust etc.) and can be carried out on yarn or fabric. As man made fibers
have less impurities therefore require weak scouring (weak alkali touch) also because
some man made fibers have poor wet fastness properties like viscose rayon. Regenerated
rayon is scoured at about 70 to 85oC with a 0.3 % solution of soap or synthetic detergents.
If weak alkali is used (not more than 1 % of weight of textile) than temperature should
never rise over 70oC in case of cellulose acetate because it hydrolyzed at these conditions.
Also in absence of alkali temperature should never rise over 85oC because soap solution
is also alkaline.

Scouring of blends
During blends scouring always consider the nature of all textile materials present in
substrate because materials used in blend may have opposite nature.
For example in polyester cotton blend we can’t use cotton scouring conditions in these
conditions cotton impurities will remove but polyester which is sensitive to alkali can
damage. Therefore optimum conditions are achieved e.g. for polyester and cotton blend
following conditions are recommended

Concentration Temperature 90oC Temperature 95oC Temperature 100oC

NaOH 2% 35 min 25 min 20 min

NaOH 3% 25 min 20 min 15 min
NaOH 5% 20 min x x

Bio scouring
For this type of scouring at place of caustic soda enzymes are used.
Enzymes
These are typically very large protein molecules (bio-molecules), which act as catalysts
and increase the speed of a chemical reaction without going any permanent chemical
change in them selves.
Properties:
- They have molecular weights ranging from 10,000 to 2,000,000.
- The catalytic activity of enzymes is influenced by numerous factors like
substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, temperature, and pH.
- They are Ecofriendly in nature

With bio-scouring process all non-cellulosic components from native cotton are
completely or partially removed. After this Bio-Scouring process, the cotton has an intact
cellulose structure, with lower weight loss and strength loss. The fabric gives better
wetting and penetration properties, making subsequent bleach process easy and
resultantly giving much better dye uptake.
The advantage of this process over scouring is less loss in weight and strength of
cellulosic part.

Caustic treatment
This process is used for polyester. The purpose of this process is to make polyester more
fine (thin) by reducing its mass and to give silk like handle. In this process we treat
polyester with caustic soda in presence of some helping agents (wetting agents).This
process is mostly used for fabric manufactured with coarser yarns.
This process may be done in open width or rope form
- open width (jigger, beam or tensionless open width continuous dyeing
machine)
- rope form (jet machine)

Flow process for polyester

Stapled > singeing > pre washing > heat setting > caustic treatment
Filament > pre washing > heat setting > caustic treatment

Recipe
NaOH 20 – 50 g/l
Wetting agent 1 – 2 g/l
Temperature 90 – 130oC
Time 20 – 35 minutes

After completion of process washing and neutralizing is done. Few years ago this process
was also used to get microfilaments.
Bleaching
The objective of textile bleaching is to make the substrate (yarn or fabric) white.
The reason for making gray weaves white through bleaching is to attain good bright
colors in the subsequent dyeing stage. To prevent faulty dyeing complete and thorough
desizing and scouring is necessary. It can be said that around 70% of all faulty bleaching,
dyeing and printing results is caused by poor desizing and scouring. In the bleaching
process, it is important to eliminate complete impurities that could not be removed in
next stages.
That is to say, the objective of bleaching is not just improved whiteness. This process has
an important role in removing the sizing agent on gray fabric and other remaining
impurities that could not be cleared in the preceding stages of desizing and scouring. .

Bleaching can be performed on all kinds of make-ups (yarn, woven and knitted fabric).
When the material has to be dyed in dark colors it can be directly dyed without need of
bleaching. When it has to be dyed in pastel colors or it needs to be subsequently printed,
however, bleaching is an obligatory step in the pre-treatment process.

The most frequently used bleaching agents are the following:

− Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
− Sodium hypochlorite (NaClO)
− Sodium chlorite (NaClO2).
Apart from these, per acetic acid is also applicable.

The main process in use today is alkaline hydrogen peroxide bleach. In many cases,
especially when a very high whiteness is not needed, bleaching can be combined with
scouring (salomatic process usually used for light fabrics such as synthetics). Bleaching
can be carried out as a single treatment or in combination with other treatments
(e.g. Bleaching /scouring or bleaching / scouring / desizing can be carried out as single
operations).
The combined process does however require higher dosages of bleach chemicals.
The optimal temperature for bleaching is 60 – 80oC.

Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

It has strong oxidizing properties and is therefore a powerful bleaching agent. Industrial
bleaching of cotton is mostly done using hydrogen peroxide. The most usage of hydrogen
peroxide is due to following factors

- It can easily be decomposed into oxygen and water after bleaching

- It can be used in all type of processes like batch and continuous in both hot
and cold conditions
- Give good results and permanent bleaching

Commercially available H2O2 are 35% and 50% solutions in water.

.The primary factors contributing to H2O2 decomposition include

- Increasing temperature (2.2 factor increase for each 10oC). Hydrogen peroxide
will bleach cellulose at ambient temperature but need overnight dwell. When
bleaching is carried out at 100oC this time is reduced 3 – 20 minutes.
- Increasing PH (especially at PH > 6 – 8). Hydrogen peroxide may decompose
readily at higher values of PH mostly when we use caustic soda in bath which
cause of depolymerization of cellulose under high alkaline conditions to avoid
this different agents are used known as stabilizers.

H2O2 H+ + H-O2 (decomposition)

Sodium silicate together with Mg salts (MgCl2 or MgSO4) and sequestering or

complexing agents (EDTA, DTPA, NTA, gluconates, phosphonates and
polyacrylates) are commonly used as stabilisers. Sodium silicate has been the
preferred stabilizer in per oxide bleaching for many years.
 - Increasing contamination (especially transition metals such as copper,
manganese or iron)
- Exposure to ultraviolet light (up to some lesser extent)

In most cases PH and contamination, work as dominant factors.

The textile is treated in a solution containing hydrogen peroxide, caustic soda and
hydrogen peroxide stabilisers at PH 8 - 10. Operating temperatures can vary in a wide
range from ambient to high temperature. But a good bleaching action occurs when
operating at around 60 – 90ºC.
Other auxiliaries used in hydrogen peroxide bleaching are surfactants with emulsifying,
dispersing and wetting properties. Employed surfactants are usually mixtures of anionic
compounds (alkyl sulphonates and alkyl aryl sulphonates) with non-ionic compounds
such as alkyl phenol ethoxylates or the biologically degradable fatty alcohol ethoxylates.

Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide in weakly acidic or neutral conditions (PH range of
6.5 – 8) is also possible in some cases (e.g. when treating cotton in blends with alkali
sensitive fibers such as wool). At these PH conditions activators are required to give
bleaching activity.

Cotton bleaching
H2O2 bleaching in kier

A typical recipe for bleaching liquor in this process is

H2O2 (35%) 3 – 5 percent

Or
H2O2 (50%) 2 – 3.5 percent

Sodium silicate 2 – 3 percent All these percentages are calculated

On the weight of fabric
NaOH 0.6 – 1.4 percent
Or
NaOH/Na2CO3 0.3/0.6 – 0.8/1.0 percent

Wetting agent according to requirement

Kier is filled one third of its capacity with water at about 40 to 45oC and raise
temperature in about 30 minutes at 65 to 75oC after which fabric is fed in and give 10
minutes here to remove any type of air pockets and then raise the temperature up to 80oC
again give 5 to 8 minutes to remove air pockets and then add liquor with temperature
raising up to kier bearing capacity.
In closed vessel time is given about 2 – 3 hours but in open vessel 5 – 6 hours are
required.

Pad roll bleaching

In this process whiteness is less than kier bleaching also fabric is in open width form to
give 100 percent pick up
Padding mixture contain about 38 ml/l of H2O2 (35%) and optimum amounts of NaOH,
sequestering agents. After treated with this fabric is rolled on a pad which is then stored
for about 12 hours in a chamber.
The degree of bleaching obtained is not sufficient for good quality textiles but is
acceptable for some verities.
Continuous bleaching

For this purpose J-box is used. The fabric passes through a padder where it is padded
with NaOH first and secondly with H2O2 and then through a heated tube at temperature
about 90 - 100oC after which it comes into J-box where it takes 40 to 60 minutes in
presence of steam.
Following steps are involved in this process
- padding with 4% NaOH at about 71oC
- steam in J-box for about 60 minutes at 90 - 100oC
- hot wash
- cool the fabric
- padding with H2O2 at about 37 - 38oC
- steam in J-box for about 60 minutes at 90 - 100oC
- hot wash
- cool

Bleaching with Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO)

NaClO is commercially available in 5.25% solution in water.

The high reactivity of this bleaching agent imposes softer operative conditions than
hydrogen peroxide (PH 9 - 11 and temperatures not above 30ºC). Otherwise there is a
risk of damage to the cellulose fiber.
Optimum value of PH is 9 – 10(formation of some hypochlorous acid) at PH 11 less
bleaching occurs due to existence of hypochlorite ions.
The bleaching stage is followed by an anti-chlorine treatment in order to remove residual
chlorine to avoid form fiber damages, for this purpose usually reducing agents are used.
Some times sodium hypochlorite bleaching is done after hydrogen peroxide usage
Where amount of H2O2 used is less than its alone reaction.

Advantages of NaClO bleaching

- low cost
- more whiteness than hydrogen peroxide bleaching
- less temperature requirement (occur at room temperature)

Disadvantages of NaClO bleaching

- more time is required (no rapid process)

- generation of AOX in waste water
- formation of chloroform
- temporary whiteness
- danger of yellowing the textile
- danger of decrease in strength of textile
- degrades most of dyes and FBA’s
 - pre scoured textile is necessary

Wool bleaching

H2O2 bleaching

For wool only peroxide is used because chlorine bleaching discolor the material and also
damage the fabric. Conditions for wool bleaching are

PH 8–9
Temperature 50 - 55ºC
H2O2 (0.3 – 0.6% solution) 13 ml/l (35%)
Or 9 ml/l (50%)

EDTA 1 g/l (30%)

Tetra sodium Pyrophosphate 2 g/l

When bleaching occurs in open bath then starting temperature is 55ºC (time is about
10 – 13 hours) but when machine is used for this process where movement to liquor or
textile is provided then temperature should 50ºC (time is about 3 – 5 hours)

Acids can also be used for wool bleaching but care is very important here this process is
used when wool has shrink resistant treatments.

In process of silk conditions are same like in wool bleaching only the differences are
Temperature 70ºC
Time 2 – 4 hours
H2O2 0.6% solution

Recipe is same like wool

Synthetic bleaching

Sodium chlorite is used for synthetic fiber that takes the advantage of oxidizing action of
chlorine dioxide. Chlorine dioxide is a toxic agent and attacks stainless steel therefore it
is necessary to work in closed units with best suction system with resistant materials
(such as titanium and ceramic). Amount of NaClO2 for different fibers is given below

Poly acrylonitrile 0.5 – 2 g/l (80% NaClO2)

Polyester 1 – 2 g/l (80% NaClO2)
etc.

Polyester may be bleached in fiber form before spinning with titanium dioxide
(delustering)
When blend is considered then condition should match all type of fibers present in blend
for good results like in PC blend polyester and cotton both are opposite medium stable
Therefore optimum value of PH should obtain.
In blends hydrogen peroxide may also be used even combination of hydrogen peroxide
and sodium chlorite is also preferred when fluorescent brightening is included in process.

A wide range of bleaching processes can be used including kiers, jiggers, paddle wheel,
jet, over flow (for batch system) pad batch, pad roll (for semi continuous system) and
J-box or long ranges (for continuous system).

Bleach clean up
Bleaches are highly reactive chemicals and any peroxide left on the fabric can interfere
with the dyeing process therefore a bleach clean up is necessary. The traditional method
is to neutralize the bleach with a reducing agent, but the dose has to be controlled
precisely. Enzymes present a more convenient alternative because they are easier and
quicker to use. A small dose of catalase is capable of breaking down hydrogen peroxide
into water and oxygen. Compared with the traditional cleanup methods, the enzymatic
process results in cleaner waste water or reduced water consumption.

Mercerizing
Caustic soda mercerizing is the most commonly applied mercerizing technique (it is not
applied to flax). Cotton is treated under tension in a solution of concentrated caustic soda
(270 – 300 g/l) for approximately 40 - 50 seconds at a temperature below then 20oC.
When the luster is the priority temperature kept low and at slightly higher levels when the
improvement of the other characteristics is preferred.
Concentration of NaOH used for mercerizing industry is 30 Be in liquid form.

Treatment of cotton with NaOH has many benefits such as

- increased tensile strength if use up to optimum level
- increased softness
- increased luster (if done under tension)
- increased affinity for dyes
- improved dyeability of immature fibers
- increased water absorption

Different points for good Mercerizing

.
- Lower concentrations of NaOH will result in a lower degree of mercerization
and less luster. Higher concentrations have no additional effect. Optimum
value should be considered for cost saving and good results
 - A good wetting agent or penetrant should also be added to the bath. It should
be stable and effective at the high alkaline concentrations used. Select only
those designed specifically for mercerization
- As cotton fibers are swollen by the alkali, the fabric shrinks. To obtain luster
and shrinkage control the fabric must be stretched on a frame. It should be
stretched in the filling direction. No stretching in the warp direction is
required unless extreme luster is desired. If warp stretching is required, the
frame speed should not exceed the padder speed by more than 5 percent.
- The temperature of the bath can affect the degree of mercerization. Swelling
of cotton and thus mercerization decreases with increasing temperature. The
temperature should be maintained between 15 and 20oC. Lower temperatures
do not affect the process if the sodium hydroxide concentration is in the
proper range. At lower concentrations degree of mercerization will increase as
temperature decreases. Lower degrees of mercerization are obtained as
temperature increases above 20oC.
- Wet pick-up in padding can affect mercerization in several ways. Less
swelling will occur at low wet pick-up leading to incomplete mercerization.
The caustic solution also plasticize the fabric so that it is easily stretched. At
low wet pick-ups less plasticization occurs and the fabric may tear during
stretching on the frame. Wet pick-up should be about 100%. After padding at
least 30 seconds should be allowed for the caustic to swell the cotton fibers
before tension is applied on the frame. Shorter times will result in incomplete
mercerization.

(For more details concern lectures on mercerizing)

Causticizing
This process is used for cotton fabrics to increase their absorption without applying any
tension on fabrics (usually used for knitted fabrics), no time is concerned. When
mercerization conditions are not fulfill the process is known as causticizing
In this process we treat the fabric with NaOH (145 -190 g/l) at about 20 - 30oC, the
material is allowed to shrink because of which its absorbency increase but no
improvement in luster occur. Concentration of NaOH used is less than 24 Be.