Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Topic:-
DOA :
DOR : 20/10/2010
DOS : 10/11/2010
Submitted to-
Submitted by-
Dr. Lobo Bhini Rani
Chandan Malagar
Department of Chemistry Roll No.-
RA4006A38
Reg No.-11001457
This project is result of collective effort of
many persons.
Firstly I would like to thank our Chemistry
teacher Dr. Lobo , who has provided us with
his full support.
Topics
page no.
-- Introduction 1-3
-Equivalence points & end points 2
-- Descriptive part
*Acid-base titration 4
* Precipitation titration
-- REDOX TITRATION 5
-- Summary & appilicattion 6-7
Of Redox reaction
-- Potemtiometry 8-9
-- Potentiometric titration 12
Introduction:-
Analytical chemistry is the study of the chemical
composition of natural and artificial materials. Unlike other
major sub disciplines of chemistry such as inorganic
chemistry and organic chemistry, analytical chemistry is not
restricted to any particular type of chemical compound
or reaction. Properties studied in analytical chemistry
include geometric features such as molecular morphologies
and distributions of species, as well as features such as
composition and species identity. The contributions made by
analytical chemists have played critical roles in the sciences
ranging from the development of concepts and theories (pure
science) to a variety of practical applications ,such
as biomedical applications ,environmental monitoring, quality
control of industrial manufacturing and forensic
science(applied science).
Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative
chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown
concentration of a known reactant.
At equivalence point –
Number of equivalence of titrand = number of equivalence of
titrant.ie.
N1*V1 = N2*V2.
(3)
The difference between the end point volume and the
equivalence point volume is a determinate titration error. If
the end point and the equivalence point volumes coincide
closely, then the titration error is insignificant and
it is safely ignored. Clearly, selecting an appropriate end point
is critically important.
Descriptive Part –
Acid-base titration
Proton transfer reactions in aqueous solutions are quite fast.
Aqueous acid-base titrations are thus
suitable for the analysis of any Bronsted acid or base.
Practically, the pKa or pKb of the analyte should
be less than about 10 (i.e., pKa or pKb < 10) for a complete
reaction between analyte and titrant.
Precipitation Titrations
Precipitation reactions in aqueous solution range from rapid to
slow, depending on the identity of the
precipitant. Many precipitations are sufficiently rapid and
(4)
complete to form the basis of quantitation.
by titration. Precipitation titrimetry has several advantages
over precipitation gravimetry, including
speed, sensitivity, and convenience.
Endpoint Detection
A variety of chemical indicators are used to indicate the
endpoint of argentometric titrations: the
Fajans, Volhard, and Mohr methods are discussed in some
detail in the lab handout Titrimetric
Analysis of Chloride.
A silver wire or ring is a sufficient indicator electrode for
potentiometric titrations using AgNO3,
while a fluoride ISE is suitable for potentiometric endpoint
detection for fluoride analysis using La3+
or Pb2+ titrant solutions.
Redox Titrations
Redox reactions are the most diverse of the four main
classes of inorganic aqueous reactions
(acid-base, pptn, complexation and redox). In principle,
then, redox titrations can be used to analyze
for any oxidizing or reducing agent. However, many
redox reactions are either too slow or have
inconsistent stiochiometry. The stability of titrant and
analyte solutions can also be a problem.
Nevertheless, a wide variety of analytes can be
conveniently determined by redox titrations.
(5)
Endpoint Detection for Redox
Titrations
• it is probably worthwhile to mention that starch is an
excellent chemical indicator for titrations
involving iodine.
• potentiometric detection with an inert indicator electrode
(e.g., Pt) is a general method for following
redox titrations
Summary of Applications of
Redox Reactions
• analytes that are oxidizing agents are most conveniently
analyzed by addition of excess reducing
agent and then back-titrating. There are two common ways of
doing this: (i) addition of a measured
excess of ferrous ammonium sulfate and back-titrating the
unreacted excess with dichromate titrant;
(ii) addition of an unmeasured excess of potassium iodide and
using thiosulfate to back-titrate the
iodine produced by reaction of iodide with analyte.
• analytes that are reducing agents may be analyzed by a
variety of oxidizing agents: potassium
permanganate and ceric sulfate are strong oxidants, potassium
dichromate is a moderately strong
oxidizing titrant (especially suitable for the analysis of ferrous
(6)
iron, or back-titrations with FAS) and
iodine is a milder, more selective oxidizing agent that may be
used for the direct analysis of number of reducing agents
Potentiometry:-
These titrations are based on redox reactions.
There are many redox reagents used in redox titrations. To list
a few –
Potassium permanganate is used for determination of Fe2+,
H2O2 and oxalic acid
Potassium dichromate for determination of Fe2+ and Cu in
CuCl.
Bromate is used for tin and phenol.
Iodides (titrated with sodium thiosulphate) for H2O2 and Cu2+.
Cerium (IV) can be used to determine ferrocyanides and
nitrites.
There are also many other methods.
Commonly used indicators are substances that can exist in
two forms –
Oxidized and reduced- that differ in color.
Potential at which the substance changes color must be such
(8)
that the change occurs close to the equivalence point.
Examples of such substances are ferroin, diphenylamine.
Sometimes indicators that are oxidized irreversibly are used.
However, in most popular redox titrations there is no need for
a special indicator - permanganate has strong color by itself,
iodine gives strong color when combined with starch, so their
presence or disappearance can be easily detected without
additional indicators.
Potentiometry is the field of electro analytical chemistry in
which potential is measured in a electrochemical cell.
Potential is measured under the condition of no current flow.
The measured potential is directly proportional to the
concentration of analyte.
The potential that develops in the electrochemical cell is the
result of free energy change that would occur until the
equilibrium condition is reached.
The measured potential may then be used to determine the
analytical quantity of interest.
Generally, saturated
Fig: Calomel electrode Calomel electrode is
(9)
Electrochemical Analysis :-
Electro analytical methods measure the potential (volts)
and/or current (amps) in an electrochemical cell containing
the analyte.These methods can be categorized according to
which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are
measured. The three main categories are
potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is
measured),
coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and
(10)
voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively
altering the cell's potential).
Electrochemical analysis is the group of chemical analytical
methods in which a potential change is generated by an
electrochemical reaction and is used for the quantitative
determination of a substance.
These methods depend upon electrode reaction. Two of these
methods are:
Potentiometry using a reference calomel electrode and an
indicator electrode.
summary
Traditional analytical techniques -
Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by
sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical
chemistry and some of the principles used
in modern instruments are from traditional techniques many
of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to
form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical
chemistry educational labs. Examples include:
Titration
Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution being
analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Often the
amount of material in the solution being analyzed may be
determined. Most familiar to those who have
taken college chemistry is the acid-base titration involving a
color changing indicator. There are many other types of
titrations, for example potentiometric titrations.
(13)
Standard Curve
A standard method for analysis of concentration involves the
creation of a calibration curve.
A Step Further-
Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by
performance (sensitivity, selectivity, robustness, linear range,
accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation,
training, time, and space).