APPENDIX

Special Features of Atari Logo

Atari L o g o takes advantage of the unique h a r d w a r e design of Atari h o m e

computers. It has features such as dynamic turtles, a sound generator, and
detectors for turtles b u m p i n g into one another or b u m p i n g into lines d r a w n
on the screen. M a n y projects in this book use these features.

Turtle Graphics
L i k e most Logos, Atari L o g o has a graphics turtle that has a d r a w i n g p e n
and can leave a path as it moves and turns about the screen. T h e special
h a r d w a r e of Atari computers allows Atari L o g o to have four turtles. These
turtles are dynamic. T h e y can travel about the screen at different speeds
and, if their pens are d o w n , they d r a w and leave a trace of their paths. If
they are going fast, their paths tend to b e dotted rather than solid lines.
Color is another w a y in w h i c h Atari L o g o differs f r o m other Logos.
Atari L o g o has 128 different colors. T h e colors r a n g e through sixteen hues,
each of which consists of eight different intensities (luminances). These
colors are r e f e r r e d to b y n u m b e r f r o m 0 through 127. A n y of these colors
can b e used for the background, the lines the turtles d r a w , or the turtles
themselves.

Turtle Color and Speed

Each of the four turtles has b e e n given a different color for its shape w h e n
it starts. You can change the color of a turtle's shape to any of the 128 colors.
In the following example the turtles h e a d in different directions, but travel
at the same speed and periodically change color.

By Cynthia Solomon.
 T U R T L E GRAPHICS 363

i t.

'W.

RESET restores turtle 0 to 7 ( w h i t e ) , turtle 1 to 20 (orange) , turtle 2 to

44 (purple), and turtle 3 to 60 (blue).

T h e L o g o operation that outputs the current color of a turtle is

T o find the current speed of a turtle, use

Pens and Pen Color

At any one time the lines d r a w n by turtles on the screen are limited to three
different colors. This limitation is imposed because there are only three
pens: pen 0, p e n 1, and p e n 2. Each pen can write in any of the 128 different
colors. W h e n you change the color in a pen, lines to b e d r a w n by that p e n
and those already on the screen will appear in that color. This feature of
being able to change the color in a pen and thus change the color of lines
on the screen after they have b e e n d r a w n leads to some startling graphics
effects.
W h e n you first start u p Logo, the turtles are all using p e n 0, which
contains pen color 15 (yellow). If you want a turtle to use a different pen,
then you type or T o change the p e n color you use
the command For example, makes the color in p e n 0
become white. changes p e n 0 back to yellow. is the
L o g o operation that outputs the current pen; outputs the color of what-
ever pen you give as input.
If you refer to a p e n with a n u m b e r other than 0,1, or 2, L o g o will print
out an error message. L o g o will also complain if you refer to a color with
a n u m b e r outside the range 0 through 127.
364 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

Using One Pen

In the following example, the turtle makes a star.

N o w try:

STAR 30

and then type

REPEAT 20 [SETPC 0 RANDOM 128 WAIT 20]

You can use m o r e than one turtle to make stars. For example:

Now:

THREESTARS
REPEAT 20 [SETPC 0 RANDOM 128 WAIT 20]

Using Three Pens

In the previous example all three turtles used the same pen, so the three
stars change to the same color. But each of the three turtles can use a
different pen. T o do this, change or make a n e w procedure like
 TURTLE GRAPHICS 365

Try:

STAR3
REPEAT 10 [EACH [SETPC WHO RANDOM 128 WAIT 20]]

Try after running

Type:

REPEAT 3 [WHIRL]

W h e n you finish, you might want to reset the colors in the pens and
have all the turtles use p e n 0.

For examples of different ways of using pens, look at projects such as

Cartoon and Animating Line Drawings.

Background Color

H e r e is a progra m that changes the background color f r o m 0 through 127.

Before stops, it sets the background back to the starting color, 74.
366 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

In running through the b a c k g r o u nd colors, an artifact of standard television

signals appears. T h e T V picture j u m p s w h e n e v e r you go f r o m very bright
to very dark. You can see this elfect by typing:

SETBG 7
SETBG 8

avoids this by skipping over fifteen color changes, w h e r e the shift

is f r o m very bright to very dark. These occur at transitions b e t w e e n hue
boundaries going f r o m 7 to 8, 15 to 16, 23 to 24, 31 to 32, 39 to 40, 47 to
48, and so on. skips over the darkest boundary colors 8, 16, 24,
32, and other multiples of 8 through 120.

Try:

RAINBOW 30

C h a n g i n g the backgroun d while there are drawings on the screen or turtles

in motion can lead to some compelling graphics displays.

Turtles and Their Shapes

Designing a Shape

All the turtles start as the same shape (that of a land turtle), but you can
design other shapes yourself. L o g o sets aside m e m o r y just for these shapes.
W e refer to the shape m e m o r y by one of sixteen slot numbers. Slots 1
through 15 are available for your o w n shapes. Slot 0 always contains Logo's
regular turtle shape. T h e L o g o operation outputs the n u m b e r of the
shape the turtle currently carries. is the c o m m a n d by w h i c h the
turtle's shape can b e changed to any of the ones in slots 0 through 15.
You can m a k e shapes in the shape editor. For example, w h e n you type:

By Cynthia Solomon.
 TURTLES A N D THEIR SHAPES 387

EDSH 1

the shape editor displays a grid of eight columns and sixteen rows.
At the start, the outline of the u p p e r left rectangle is black while the rest
of the grid is white. T h e black rectangle is the cursor that you m o v e around
the grid using the a r r o w keys (with the C T R L key).
You make a design b y filling in cells of the grid. T o fill in a cell (a
rectangle), m o v e the cursor there and then press the space bar. T o clear a
cell you also m o v e the cursor to the cell and press the space bar. Notice that
pressing the space bar does not m o v e the cursor.
Let's make a shape; fill in the edges of the grid to make a hollow
rectangle.
You get out of the shape editor the same w a y you do the text editor, by
pressing the E S C key.*

Using Shapes

N o w change the shape of, for example, turtle 0. Y o u might w a n t to m a k e

sure that you are talking to turtle 0 and that it is visible.

TELL 0
ST
SETSH 1

Sometimes people say that a turtle is " c a r r y i n g " a particular shape. So, for
example, turtle 0 is n o w carrying shape 1.

Animation

You can use the shape you just m a d e in an animation sequence w h e r e the
shape shrinks and grows. For this you n e e d to m a k e another shape. M a k e
a smaller rectangle as shape 2.
Type:

EDSH 2

By alternating the t w o shapes with a delay after the changes, you have a
box that shrinks.

When is repeated, the box shrinks and grows continually. F o r

example, type:

*If you press the BREAK key, you will lose whatever changes you made during this
editing session.
388 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

REPEAT 20 [SHRINK]

Another Animation

M a k e a smaller box and extend SHRINK to include it. You might type
to do this. A f t e r making the n e w shape, change to in-
clude as its last two instructions

SETSH 3
WAIT 10

N o w w h e n you try the smooth effect of shrink-

ing and g r o w i n g has b e e n upset. Another step is needed. Rather than
changing make a n e w procedure.

REPEAT 20 [STRETCH]

has all four turtles doing

The Regular Turtle Shape, Shape 0

At any time you can change the turtle back to shape 0 by typing
A turtle always starts carrying shape 0. You cannot change what is in this
slot. N o r can you v i e w this in the shape editor. Try:

SETSH 0
CS
TELL 0
REPEAT 24 [RT 15 WAIT 10]

As the turtle turns, its body turns and changes. Shape 0 changes at 15-
d e g r e e intervals. Thus, if a turtle's heading is 0 and you turn it right 10
degrees, its n e w heading will b e 10 degrees, but the shape it carries will not
have turned or changed. T u r n the turtle 5 m o r e degrees and the shape will
show a change of rotation.
 TURTLES A N D T H E I R SHAPES 369

Rotating Shapes

There is an important difference between Logo's regular turtle shape and

the shapes you make. The rectangle shape you have just made does not
rotate. If you want a shape you have made rotate, you have to design the
shape in its different orientations and specifically order the turtle to assume
that new shape after each rotation. (See the Pacgame and Blaster projects.)

Keeping and Reusing Shapes

When you reboot Logo, the shapes you made are not in the shape memory;
slots 1 to 15 are cleared out. (Notice that does not clear out these
slots.) If you want to use or again, you have to put the three
shapes into the same slots they were in before. Thus you have to figure out
a way to save them and-also a way to load them.
There are two steps to saving shapes. The first is getting the informa-
tion from the shape memory into your workspace. Using the Logo opera-
tion you can get a description of each shape. For example,
1 will output a list of numbers that describes the large rectangle. To put the
three rectangle shapes in your workspace, you make three variables.

MAKE "SHAPE1 GETSH 1

MAKE "SHAPE2 GETSH 2
MAKE "SHAPE3 GETSH 3

and are now lists of sixteen numbers.

The second step can be performed at this time. N o w you can save these
shapes on diskette or cassette using the command writes your
entire workspace onto diskette, cassette, or paper. If you want to save only
these variables, you will have to clean out your workspace.
Although you can put these variables into your workspace either by
typing them in again or by loading them from diskette or cassette, you must
still put them back into their appropriate slots. To do this use the Logo
command takes two inputs: the first is the slot and the second
is a description of a shape.
For example, is one way to ensure that the shapes are set up.

Then put in so that the shapes are in the slots before

is run.
In this book there are examples of other methods to save and load
shapes. Here are two procedures that will do the job.
370 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

will put shapes 1 through 3 in the variables 1,

and so forth.

A Shape as a List of Numbers

GETSH outputs a description of a shape in a particular slot. The description

is a list of sixteen numbers, which describe the sixteen rows and eight
columns of a shape as depicted in the shape editor. Each row can be de-
scribed by a number from 0 to 255. If the number is 0, the row is blank.
If the number is 255, all the columns in that row are filled in. Look at the
picture on page 30 in the Atari Logo Reference Manual. It shows you how
to decipher the numbers. For example, 129 means that the first column and
last column of a row are filled in.
If you would like to see the description for the rectangle in slot 1, type:

PR GETSH 1

An empty shape is described by a list of sixteen zeros.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The three variables that now contain the descriptions of the three
rectangles can be listed by typing
 SOUNDS AND MUSIC 371

Copying Shapes

You can copy shapes from one slot into another. This is often useful when
you want to make variations of a shape. For example, you can put the shape
in slot 1 into slot 4 by typing

PUTSH 4 GETSH 1

N o w using EDSH 4 you can change the copy of shape 1, which is

now in slot 4, to make a new design.

Sounds and Music

This section is intended to give the musically naive programmer insight into
the relationship between sounds and music using which is the tone-
generating command in Logo.
TOOT takes four inputs. The first input is either 0 or 1 to indicate which
of two Atari hardware voices makes the tone. The second input is the
frequency or pitch of the tone in cycles per second (vibrations per second).
The third input is the loudness or volume with a range of 0 through 15, and
the fourth input is the duration in sixtieths of a second. A duration of 60 is
one second; a duration of 15 is a quarter of a second. Try:

TOOT 0 440 10 15

Frequency and Pitch

The frequency of a sound is the number of oscillations it makes in a second.
A large frequency number is a high sound. People can normally hear fre-
quencies ranging from 15 to 20,000 per second and can sing frequencies of
between 200 to 2000 vibrations per second.
Pitch is the name musicians give to frequency. Pitches are organized
into octaves. Each octave is divided into twelve chromatic steps, and each
pitch is heard as equidistant from its neighbor. Multiplying the frequency
of a certain pitch by the twelfth root of 2 will give you the next pitch above
it. The value of the twelfth root of 2, which is approximately 1.0595, works
as the step size because two pitches are an octave apart if the frequency of
one is twice the other and because there are twelve pitches to an octave.

Music Names and Pitch-Frequency Conversion

In music, alphabetic names are used for the pitches. The letters A through
G name seven pitches. The other five are referred to by one of these letters

By G r e g Gargarian.
372 SPECIAL FEATURES OF ATARI LOGO

followed by either a " # " (sharp) or ' V ' (flat) mark. "Aft," pronounced " A
sharp," means "the chromatic step up from A . " Likewise, " A b , " or " A flat,"
means "the chromatic step down from A . "
T h e following conversion chart shows the relationship b e t w e e n pitch
names and frequencies. Each column of frequencies represents one octave
of chromatic pitches. T h e procedure generates the frequencies for
these pitches.

Pitch N a m e s Frequencies

A 220 440 880

A # (Bb) 233 466 932
B 246 493 987
C 261 523 1046
C # (Db) 277 554 1108
D 293 587 1174
D # (Eb) 311 622 1244
E 329 659 1318
F 349 698 1397
Fit (Gb) 370 740 1480
G 392 784 1568
G # (Ab) 415 830 1661

< — lower octaves higher octaves — >

For example, the frequency 440 is the pitch A in a m i d r a n g e octave.

T w i c e 440 is 880, which is A in a higher octave. F r e q u e n c y 220 is A in a
lower octave. is a procedure that plays and prints the twelve chro-
matic frequencies of an octave in ascending order.

Try:

OCTAVE 220
OCTAVE 440
OCTAVE 880

You might want to play with the procedures and

to familiarize yourself with octaves.
 SOUNDS AND MUSIC 373

Try:

OCTAVE.UP 220
OCTAVE.UP 261
OCTAVE.UP 493
OCTAVE.DOWN 1568
OCTAVE.DOWN 698

Listen to in the Pacgame project for an example of using

octaves.

Duration and Loudness

A note has pitch, loudness, and duration. ' s third input controls loud-
ness. changes only the loudness of a repeating note. (In music
terminology crescendo means "to get gradually louder.")

To make it easier for you to hear changes in either duration or loudness,

type

SETENV 0 1

N o w try:

CRESCENDO 1

TOOT's fourth input is duration. changes only the duration of

a note; in this case, it shortens its duration at each recursive call.

Try:

SPEEDUP 60
374 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

is a L o g o c o m m a n d that controls h o w abruptly a sound or a

tone stops sounding by shaping the decay of the sound. ' s first input
is the voice number. T h e second input determines whether the decay is
abrupt (small numbers) or slow (larger numbers). T r y to
hear the effects of

Type:

CHANGE.DECAY 1

T o restore type:

Scales and Intervals, Half Steps and Whole Steps

A scale is a sequence of pitches within the limits of an octave. Scales are

written in either ascending or descending order. Most W e s t e r n scales have
seven steps. T h e most complete scale is the chromatic scale, which contains
all of the pitches in an octave.
T h e distance b e t w e e n pitches is called an interval. A n octave is also an
interval. T h e Ear Training project, found in this book, is an exercise in
hearing intervals.
A half step is one chromatic step and a whole step is two chromatic
steps. T h e half and w h o l e steps are the building blocks of most traditional
Western scales.
W e can think of a scale as a stairway whose sequence of whole and half
steps shape its ascent. For example, the C major scale is m a d e of half and
whole steps. T h e scale starts and ends on the pitch C. T r y the following to
hear the scale.

MAKE "C.MAJOR [261 293 329 349 392 440 493 523]
SCALE :C.MAJOR

Melodies

Melodies are invented sequences of pitches and rhythms (patterns of dura-

tions). Melodies can b e any length and can combine with other melodies to
 SOUNDS A N D MUSIC 375

make songs. W h e n w e talk about melodies, w e are talking about making

music. T h e Melodies project deals extensively with constructing and play-
ing with melodies.

Noise Sounds

Hissing, sputtering, grunting, and other such sounds are noise sounds.
W h e n several frequencies are very close together, they can mix and be-
come noise. T h e bouncing or siren sounds found in some of the projects in
this book or in the Sound Effects project demonstrate that noise sounds can
be not only expressive but quite beautiful as well.

PROGRAM LISTING
376 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I LOGO

Demons, Turtle Collisions, and Other Events

Demons and Events

Atari Logo provides you with ways to detect certain events, such as whether
a joystick is changing position or whether one turtle is colliding with an-
other. You can write programs to watch for these events or you can set up
special Logo helpers called demons. Demons are invisible creatures and
run independently of your programs. You can create a demon on command
and also get rid of it on command.
Many of the projects described in this book take advantage of Atari
Logo's event detection. In this section w e give examples of the different
kinds of events and ways of checking for them.

Collisions

T w o kinds of collisions can be detected: a turtle colliding with another

turtle or a turtle colliding with a line drawn on the screen.

Collisions Between Turtles

Logo can detect collisions between any two of the four turtles. There
are six possible ways in which the four turtles can collide. Each of these
possibilities is represented by an event code number. It is not necessary for
you to learn which number represents which event since you can use the
operation
For example, you can type:

PR COND TOUCHING 0 1

and if turtle 0 and turtle 1 are touching one another, Logo responds
otherwise Logo responds If you type:

PR TOUCHING 0 1

Logo prints the event code, which in this case is 19.

TOUCHING expects as its t w o inputs any of the turtle numbers f r o m 0
through 3. TOUCH I NG outputs the e v e n t code, which is a number f r o m 16
through 21.
is the Logo operation that outputs if an event is occurring
and if the event is not occurring at the time checks. Sometimes
the event is not noticed since it is not occurring when checks. In the
next example, is used in a recursive procedure that continually peeks
at the condition of the events.

By Michael Grandfield and Cynthia Solomon.

 DEMONS, TURTLE COLLISIONS, A N D OTHER EVENTS 377

Using COND

Try the following:

looks for collisions b e t w e e n two sets of turtles. W h e n e v e r a

collision is detected, a sound is emitted. In one case, the sound is a low A
(220). In the other case, the sound is a high A (880).
Try:

FLOAT

sets u p the turtles and then turns the j o b of detecting the colli-
sion over to As long as the p r o g r a m is running, L o g o emits a
low A (220) w h e n turtles 0 and 2 touch and a high A (880) w h e n turtles 1
and 3 touch.

Using Demons

You can create a d e m o n by using the c o m m a n d For example:

WHEN TOUCHING 0 2 [TOOT 0 220 5 30]

You could change so that it sets up demons:

sets up the turtles and two demons. Try:

FLOAT

You can see h o w many demons are active by typing

PODS

L o g o responds by typing the instructions with the event code num-

bers:
378 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I L O G O

Thus, even if you do not directly refer to the event code, L o g o does. You
can always look the codes u p in the reference manual w h e n you n e e d them;
you can derive the collision event codes experimentally by typing, for
example:

T h e demons remain active until you type CS, shut the machine off, or
explicitly get rid of the demons.

Collisions Between a Turtle and a Line

Each turtle can collide with lines d r a w n by any of the three pens. T h e
operation can b e used to describe an event in much the same w a y as
does. takes two inputs: the first is the turtle n u m b e r and the
second is the p e n number. outputs an event code number.
T h e r e are twelve possible collisions. If you want to k n o w a code num-
ber, you can always type something like the following:

L o g o responds:

Notice that both and output numbers. T h e y are not

predicates and do not output or
H e r e is an example that uses this kind of collision. W e make a square
on the screen with p e n 1. T h e n turtle 0 is put in the square and given a
speed.

Next w e make a procedure that runs puts the turtle in

motion, and sets u p a d e m o n to look for turtle 0 colliding with lines d r a w n
by p e n 1.
 DEMONS, T U R T L E C O L L I S I O N S , A N D O T H E R EVENTS 379

T h e turtle monotonously bumps into a side of the square, turns around, and
travels until it again b u m p s into a side of the square and repeats the process.
You might want to change the amount the turtle turns. For example, try

Detecting the Tick of a Clock

Another detectable event is the passing of a particular unit of time, which

in Atari L o g o is a second. Checking for this event in a program is not very
meaningful since more than a second may pass b e f o r e the instruction using
is invoked. This event calls for a demon.
T o set up a once-per-second demon, you use the L o g o c o m m a n d
For example:

A demo n is created and told to watch for event 7 (the passing of a second).
' s second input is a list of L o g o instructions. T h e d e m o n has L o g o run
this list of instructions w h e n it detects the event it is watching for.
In this example the four turtles are set up to head in different direc-
tions. Then the demo n has L o g o run the two instructions and
15 every second.
H e r e is another example that uses a d e m o n to watch for event 7 (the
clock tick). In this example, turtle 0 makes a real clock.
380 SPECIAL FEATURES OF A T A R I L O G O

Getting Rid of Demons

You can dismiss a particular d e m o n by retyping the command, but this

time with an empty instruction list. For example, to get rid of the d e m o n
used in type:

T h e clock will remain on the screen but the hand will no longer b e visible.
You dismiss all demons w h e n e v e r you type CS.
L o g o will dismiss all demons if an error occurs in a demon's list of
instructions.

Using a Joystick

T w o events you can detect have to do with joysticks, in one case detecting
w h e t h e r any joystick button has b e e n pressed and in the other case detect-
ing whether the joystick itself has changed position. For example, you
might have the turtles moving about the screen using You might
want to change the turtles' direction by pressing a joystick button.
will let you do that; it will make a sound w h e n e v e r you change
the position of a joystick.

You might want to edit so that it calls after setting u p the

turtles (as its last instruction).
E v e n t 3 occurs w h e n any joystick button is pressed. E v e n t 15 occurs
w h e n any joystick changes position.

Advice
' You cannot create a d e m o n w h e n you first start L o g o or immediately
after you leave the L o g o editor. B e f o r e the demons will function, you
must use a graphics c o m m a n d such as CS. If you want to use a
once-per-second d e m o n to print on the text screen, you might do the
following:

CS TS

• Collisions are detected only w h e n the turtle involved is not hidden.

• M a n y projects in this book use demons to watch for turtles colliding
with lines. In many cases the events will not b e detected in time; the
turtles escape and other measures have to b e taken. These escapes
take place w h e n the turtles are moving at a fast rate of speed or w h e n
there are many demons at work.
• If you are looking for a collision that takes place while the turtles are
in motion, then demons are most appropriate. D e m o n s are also ap-
propriate if you are looking at constantly changing events. Most of
the projects in this book use demons. Cartoon (p. 98) and Four-
Corner P r o b l e m make use of
 Name and Subject Index

Abelson, Harold, 115, 212, 303 Bits (binary digits), x, 283 Demons (Cont.):
Adding Numbers, 258-266 Blaster, 151-159 in Demons, Turtle, Collisions, and Oth-
ADD, 266 BLASTER, 158 er Events, 376-380
Addition table: Boxgame, 133-140 in Dungeon, 193
in Adding Numbers, 260 BOXGAME, 138 in Jack and Jill, 111-112
in preface, vii BYEBYE, 139 in Lines and Mirrors, 356
Adventure, 172-191 JOYGAME, 139 in Pacgame, 140-142, 147
ADVENTURE, 188 NEWGAME, 139 in Rocket, 126, 127
Alien, 160-171 Bytes, 283 Dictionary, 21-27
START, 167 DICTIONARY, 26
Animal Game, 11-21 DiSessa, Andrea, 115
ANIMALGAME, 20 Cartoon, 87-104 Diskette, Logo files for all projects, xvi
Animating Line Drawings, 227-229 CARTOON, 102 (See also Files)
START, 229 Cassette, 282 Display Workspace Manager (DWM),
Animation: Chandler, Jeanry, 160, 191 292-301
by changing shapes: in Blaster, 152 Cipher, 330 DWM, 296-301
in Cartoon, 87ff. Clock, 379 Drawing Letters, 50-58
in Exercise, 80 ff. Collisions: LETTER, 57
in Jack and Jill, 108fF. COND, 376, 377 SAY, 57
in Pacgame, 141 Demons, 377-378 Dula, Annette, 58
in Rocket, 126 OVER, 378 Dungeon, 191-205
in Turtles and Their Shapes, 367-368 TOUCHING, 376 START, 198
colormap, 227 WHEN, 377-378 Duration, 230, 373
of human figures (see Alien; Exercise; Color: DWM (Display Workspace Manager),
Jack and Jill; Rocket) background, 365-366 292-301
of line drawings (see Animating Line pen, 363-365
Drawings) turtle, 362-363
using invisible walls, 93 Commands, 272, 326 EACH, 207
Arctan, 212-213 Computer literacy, vii Ear Training, 239-242
ARCTAN, 213 COND, 376, 377 EAR.TRAINING, 241
Argue, 6-11 Cotten, Susan, 21, 74, 80, 126 (See also Sounds and Music)
ARGUE, 11 Editor, shape, 366
Arithmetic: Electronic mail (see Mail)
in Adding Numbers, 258-266 Data base, 8 English sentences, 1,172
in Math: A Sentence Generator, 39-45 Data representation, 282, 335 (See also Sentence generator, English)
MATH, 45 (See also List, as data representa- Error, minimum, 340
in Number Speller, 46-50 tion) Event code, 376
Arithmetic operations, 39, 258 Data structure, 335 Events, 376
Aspect ratio, 269, 283 Davis, James, 172, 302 Exercise, 80-87
Decay of sound, 374 EXERCISE, 85
Delpit, Lisa, 35
Behensky, Max, 242, 251 Demon joystick, 376, 380
Bestline, 337-347 (See also Joystick) Files:
BESTLINE, 346 Demons, 376 loading additional procedures from:
Binary digits (bits), x, 283 in Alien, 162, 166 in Dungeon, 197
Biology: in Blaster, 153, 155 in Jack and Jill, 117
in Bestline, 337 in Boxgame, 133-134 storing data in: in Display Workspace
in preface, x in Cartoon, 93-96 Manager, 294, 296
381
382 INDEX

Files, storing data in (Cont.y. Joystick: Mail, 58-67

in Mail, 58, 65 in Alien, 162, 166 MAIL, 65
in Savepict and Loadpict, 282, 284 in Blaster, 151-152 MAKE with nonquoted first input, 9, 252
Fill (filling drawings with color), 267- in Boxgame, 137-138 Map, 322-331
282 in Demons, Turtle, Collisions, and Oth- MAP, 331
FILL, 281 er Events, 376, 380 MAP.LIST, 331
Filled-in POLY, 218-222 in Dungeon, 192, 198, 200 MAP.WORD, 331
Four-Corner Problem, 210-211 REDUCE, 331
FOUR, 211 Mapping, 323-325
Knuth, Donald, 336 Math (see Arithmetic)
Frequency, 371
Melodies, 230-239
Least squares, 338 SEQUENCER, 238
Games (see Adventure; Alien; Animal SONG, 238
Letter in word (see Membership of letter
Game; Argue; Blaster; Boxgame; also Sounds and Music)
in word)
Dungeon; Hangman; Madlibs; Pac-
Linear regression, 338 Membership of letter in word:
game; Wordscram)
Lines and Mirrors, 347-361 in Hangman, 31
Gargarian, Gregory, 230, 239, 242, 371
BOUNCE, 360 in Map, 327
Global variable, 17
LISP, programming language, 173 in Wordscram, 68
Gongram: Making Complex Polygon De- Menu, 295
List:
signs, 214-222
choose item from, 2, 23, 28, 36, 47, 63- Mergesort, 331-337
GONGRAM, 222
64, 69, 76-78, 242 SORT, 337
Grammar, 1
as data representation: in Adventure, Minsky, Henry, 302
Grandfield, Michael 104, 140, 336 Minsky, Julie, 337
79
Graphics screen, 267-291
in Bestline, 342 Minsky, Margaret, 6, 160, 191, 242,
Greenberg, Bernard, 11
in Display Workspace Manager, 295 251
in Dictionary, 21 Minsky, Marvin, vii
Hangman, 27-38 in Hangman, 28 Mintz, Toby, 347
HANGMAN, 36 in Lines and Mirrors, 352-357 Mirrors (see Lines and Mirrors)
Hardebeck, Edward, ix, 302 in A Logo Interpreter, 311 Mountains (see Cartoon; Jack and Jill;
Harvey, Brian, 27, 46, 50, 74, 151, 206, in Madlibs, 76 Rocket)
210, 212, 267, 282, 292, 322, 331, in Mail, 60 Music (see Sounds and Music)
343 in Map, 322-331
Hillis, Danny, ix, 6, 331 in Mergesort, 331-337
NAMEP, 9
in Naming Notes, 255
Naming, 8, 146, 251
in Savepict and Loadpict, 286
Indirect reference (see Naming) in Wordscram, 74 Naming Notes, 251-257
Integer addition, 258-266 flat, 330-331 MUSIC, 256
Interpreter, Logo, xi, 302-322 iteration over, 329 NAMENOTES, 256
arglist, 306 mapping over, 322, 343 Note, musical (see Sounds and Music,
args, 306 pick random item from, 2, 38 note)
arguments (args), 306 property, 173 Number Speller, 46-50
bind frame, 313, 315-316 reduction, 328-331 SPELL, 50
binding, 313-314
EVAL, 304 BIGE, 343
evaluation, 304 representing program: in Drawing Let-
Operations, 272, 326
evaluator, 304 ters, 52
Optics, in Lines and Mirrors, 347
INIT,321 in Jack and Jill, 107
OVER, 378
in A Logo Interpreter, 311
inputs to procedures, 306, 312
representing shapes, 370
LOGO, 319
representing stack, 314-315
primitive, 302, 307 Pacgame, 140-151
representing tree, 13
programming language, 302, 303 PACGAME, 149
sorting, 295, 331
quoting, 305 Papert, Seymour, viii
Little person model, 260, 262
stack, 314-315 Pens, 363-365
Loading shapes, 144, 153, 369
value, 303, 305 Picture files on diskette (see Files, storing
Loadpict, Savepict and, 282-291
variables, binding, 313 data in)
Interval, musical, 239, 374 LOADPICT, 291
Pitch, 371, 373
Item (see List) Local variable, 272
Pixels (screen dots), 269, 283
ITEM, 38, 50, 191 Logo Interpreter (see Interpreter,
Plotting graphs, 337ff.
Iteration, 329 Logo) Polycirc, 222-227
Loudness, 230, 374
POLYCIRC, 227
Polygon (see Animating Line Drawings;
Jack and Jill, 104-124 Madlibs, 74-79 Gongram: Making Complex Poly-
JACK, 117 MADLIB, 78 gon Designs; Polycirc)
 INDEX 383

Positioning text on screen, 30-31, 292 Slope, 340, 348 Stop rule, 48
Predicate, 173, 181 Societies, computer programs as, x Subtree, 13
Primitive, 266, 302, 307 Solomon, Cynthia, 1, 39, 133, 362, 366, Sussman, Gerald J., 303
Programming languages, xi, 302ff. 376 Szneech, Martian, x
Property lists, 173 Solomon, Erric, 87, 214, 222, 227
Sorting, 295, 331-337
Sounds and Music: Teaching, 258ff.
Quoting special characters, 7, 42 chromatic step, 372 Template, 53, 325
decay, 374 THING, 8, 146, 251
duration, 230, 373 Tinkertoy tic-tac-toe machine, ix
frequency, 371 T O O T , 371
RC, 22, 61, 299
glissandi, 244 TOUCHING, 376
Recursion, 258, 275, 306, 333
half step, 374 Towards and Arctan, 212-213
Reflecting shapes, 157
interval, 239, 374-375 ARCTAN, 213
Rhythm, 236, 374
loudness, 230, 374-375 TOWARDS, 213
Rocket, 124-132
note, 231-242, 251-257, 371-373 Trees (diagram):
ROCKET, 128
names, 231, 251, 371 data representation, 12-13
Rotating shapes, 369
octave, 371 examining, 14
RUN, 179, 204, 308, 324
pitch, 371, 373 represented as list, 13
Run-length encoding, 290
rest, 231 Trees (drawing), 115
rhythm, 236, 374 Turing, Alan, xi
scale, 374 Turtle Collisions, 376-379
Savepict and Loadpict, 282-291 sequencer, 236 Turtle Graphics, 362-366
LOADPICT, 291 SETENV. 249, 374 Turtle Race, 206-210
SAVEPICT, 290, 291 T O O T , 371 RACE, 210
Saving pictures, 282 transpose, 234 Turtles and Their Shapes, 366-
Saving shapes, 144, 157, 369 trill, 247 371
Scale, musical, 374 whole step, 374
Screen dots (pixels), 269, 283 Sound Effects, 242-250
Sengen: A Sentence Generator, 1-6 advance and retreat, 243-244 Variables:
SENGEN, 5-6 ambulance siren, 242, 245 as data base, 8, 251, 309
Sentence generator: bird, 97, 117, 248 global, 17
English, 1-6 boing, 246 local, 272
SENGEN, 5 bounce, 249
math, 39-45 echo, 250
MATH, 45 fanfare, 248-249 Weinreb, William, 11
SETENV, 249, 374 glissandi, 244-245 WHEN, 377-380
Seven-segment digits, 50 motorcycle, 245 WHO, 362
(See also Drawing Letters) rocketship, 126 Word, iteration over (mapping over),
Shape editor, 366 siren, 242, 245 327-328
Shape lists, 370 sliding, 244-245 Wordscram (word scrambling game), 67-
Shapes, 366-371 Space Invader game, 160 74
loading, 144, 153, 369 spaceship, 245 WORDSCRAM, 71
reflecting, 157 trill, 247 Workspace management (see Files)
saving, 144, 157, 369 Sparse data representation, 286
Sharman, Keith, 67 Speed, turtle, 362
Simulation, viii, x, 172 Spelling numbers (see Number Speller) Young, Lauren, 124
384 INDEX

Procedures Index

?, 189 ARCTAN, 213, 361 BOXGAME, 138

%CS, 321 ARCTAN.RAD, 213, 361 BOXIT, 378
%FD, 321 ARGUE, 11 BRAG, 20
%IF, 321 ARGUEWITH, 11 BRANCH, 118
%MAKE, 321 ARM, 37 BUILD, 121
%PRINT, 321 ARMOR, 202 BUILD.HOUSE, 120
%RT, 321 ARROW, 57 BULLSEYE, 150
%TO, 321 ARTICLE, 79 BUTLAST3, 50
ASETUP, 168 BYEBYE, 139
ASSIGNKEYS, 256 BYTEPOS, 282
A, 129
ABS, 213, 246, 361
C, 120
ABSENT, 189 B, 139, 360
ACTIVATE, 121 CANCEL. DEMONS, 169
BACKGROUND. SCENE, 130
ADD, 45, 204, 266 CARRYINGP, 189
BACK.LEG, 86
ADDl, 266 CARTOON, 102
BADTRY, 37
ADD.ENTRY, 26 CHANGE.DECAY, 375
BAY, 121
ADD.ENTRY1, 26 CHECK, 361
BEAT, 132
ADDGUESS, 73 CHECK.ANSWER, 241
BECOME. BIRDS, 121
ADDIT, 266 CHECKLIST, 242
BESTLINE, 346
ADD.TO.SCORE, 150 CHECK.SLANT, 361
BETWEEN, 361
ADDUP, 266 CHECK.VERT, 361
BIGE, 346
ADJECTIVE, 6 CHEST, 201
BIND.ARG, 321
ADJECTIVES, 6 CLEANUP, 321
BIND.ARGS, 321
ADJUST, 168 CLEAN.UP, 132
BIND.FRAME, 321
ADVANCE, 243 CLEARMESSAGE, 37
BIRD, 102
ADVANCE 1, 243 CLIMB, 238
BIRDS, 248
ADVANCE2, 243 CLIMBING, 238
BIRDSONG, 248
ADVENTURE, 188 COLLAPSE, 86
BIRDSONG1, 248
AFTERMATH, 120 COLLATE.BEFORE, 337
BIRDS.SIGN, 102
A G I T A T I O N , 247 COLLATE.BEFORE.WORD, 337
BLADE, 168
ALREADY, 37 COLOR.AT, 281
BLASTER. 158
ALTER, 20 COMPARE, 73, 337
AMOVE. 168 BLASTER. LOOP, 159
COMPARE2, 337
ANIMALGAME, 20 BLAST.OFF, 130
COMPARE3, 337
ANIMATE, 121 BLAST.OFF2, 130
CONNECT, 5
ANIMATE. PACMAN, 150 BLAST.OFF. DOWN, 130
CONNECTS, 5
ANOTHER?, 74 BLAST.SOUND, 131
CONVERSATION, 132
ANOTHER.HEARING, 242 BOING, 246
CRESCENDO, 375
ANSWER, 45 BOING1, 246
CYC, 229
ANSWER1, 45 BOMB, 168
CYCLE, 229
ANSWER2, 45 BOMB.DEMONS, 168
A.OR.AN, 20 BONGO, 239
APPLY, 320 BORDER, 360 D, 203, 360
APPLY.SFUN, 320 BOUNCE, 249, 360 DEC.SOUND, 139
APPLY.UFUN, 320 BOUNCE1, 249 DEF.SFUN, 321
ARCR, 85 BOUND?, 320 DEF.SSFUN, 321
BOX, 138 DEF.UFUN, 321
 INDEX 385

DELETE. 67 DWM.DRAW.M1, 298 EXPLODE. BOMB, 169

DEPARTURE, 245 DWM.DRAW.MENU, 297 EXPLODE. BOMB. D, 169
DESCRIBE, 188 DWM.EDIT, 300 EXPLODE.BOMB. MISSILE,
DICTIONARY, 26 DWM.ERASE, 301 169
DIE, 159 DWM.ERASE1, 301 EXPLODE. BULLET. AW, 170
DIGIT, 50 DWM.FIRSTPART, 297 EXPLODE. MISSILE. A, 169
DIMENSIONS, 198 DWM.FLUSH.MARKS, 300 EXPLORE. 20
DISAPPEAR, 103 DWM.HIDE.CURSOR, 299 EYES, 38
DISK.DUMP, 67 DWM.IGNORE, 300
DISPLAY, 37 DWM.INSERT, 297 F, 139
DISWORD, 37 DWM.ITEM, 298 FANFARE, 150, 249
DIV2, 45 DWM.LEFT, 299 FANFARE 1, 150, 249
DIVIDE, 45 DWM.MAIN.LOOP, 298 FASTBOUNCE, 250
DMOVE, 168 DWM.MARK, 300 FIGB, 360
DO.CHOICE, 26 DWM.MARKLIST, 300 FIGH, 360
DOjDOTS, 73 DWM.MARKLIST1, 300 FIGHT, 200
DOOR, 121 DWM.PRINTER, 301 FIGLINE, 360
DOORBELL, 121 DWM.PRINTOUT, 300 FIGM, 360
DOOR.LINE, 199 DWM.PROCLIST, 296 FIGTURN, 361
DOORP, 188 DWM.PROMPT, 299 FILL, 281
DOOR.SIDE, 199 DWM. READ.TITLE, 297 FILL1, 281
DOT, 281 DWM.READ.TITLE 1, 297 FILL2, 281
DOTO, 281 DWM.REMOVE, 300 FILL.BLANK, 78
DOT1, 281 DWM.RIGHT, 299 FILL.BOTH, 281
DOT2, 281 DWM.SAVE, 301 FILL.CHUNK, 282
DOT3, 281 DWM.SET.CURSOR, 299 FILL.IN, 78
DOTA, 281 DWM.SHORT, 298 FILL.LINE, 281
DOTTED?, 320 DWM.SHORT1, 298 FILL.RAY, 282
DOWN, 245 DWM.SHOW.CURSOR, 299 FILL.UP, 281
DOWN.THE. HILL?, 121 DWM.SIZE.MENU, 297 FILL.UPl, 281
DRAW. 57, 361 DWM.SIZE.TABS, 297 FIND.BG, 282
DRAW1, 38 DWM.STAR, 298 FINISH, 38, 57
DRAW2, 38 DWM.TOGGLE. MARK, FINISH.UP, 20
DRAW3, 37 300 FIRE, 159, 169
DRAW4, 37 DWM.UNMARK, 300 FIRST.CLEANUP, 120
DRAWS, 37 DWM.UP, 299 FIRST.N, 336
DRAW6, 37 DX, 360 FIRST.PART, 336
DRAW7, 37 DY, 360 FIXGOT, 37
DRAW.BOARD. 149 FLAP, 103
DRAWBOX, 139 EAR.TRAINING, 241 FLAPFLAP, 103
DRAWBOX.BYE, 139 EAR.TRAINING2, 241 FLASH, 140
DRAW.FINISHLINE, 210 ECHO, 250 FLASH.COLOR, 131
DRAWGRASS, 102 EDGE, 281 FLIGHT.SOUND, 132
DRAW.LINES, 361 ENDING, 250 FLIP, 103, 362
DRAW.MARS, 128 ENDING1, 250 FLOAT, 377
DRAW.RACETRACK, 210 ENTER.TRUCK, 120 FLY, 103, 121
DRAWSQUARE, 378 ERASE.POLY, 222 FLYOFF, 103
DRAW.TRAMPOLINE, 85 ERASE.POLY.FILL, 222 FORMAT, 27, 337
DRINK, 190 EVAL, 319 FOUR, 211
DROP, 189 EVAL.ARGS, 320 FOUR.LOOP, 211
DROPANDLAND, 102 EVAL.BODY, 321 FRONT.LEG, 86
DROP.TURD, 102 EVAL.BODY1, 321 FROWN, 38
DSETUP, 168 EVAL.CALL, 320 FSET, 320
DWM, 296 EVLINE, 319 FSYM, 320
DWM.l, 296 EVLINE1, 319 FSYMEVAL. 320
DWM.BEFORE, 297 EXAMINE, 189
DWM.CLEAR.PROMPT, 301 EXERCISE, 85
DWM.CMD.2, 299 EXPLODE, 150, 159 GALL1, 36
DWM.CMD.21, 299 EXPLODE 1, 150 GALLOWS. 36
DWM.DISKSAVE, 301 EXPLODE. AW.D, 170 GAMELOOP, 188
DWM.DOWN, 299 EXPLODE. B. AW, 170 GATHER.ARGS, 321
386 INDEX

GE, 361 INVENTORY, 189 MAP.WORD, 331

GET, 72 ITEM, 38, 50, 73, 191, 242, 360 MARS, 128
GETANSWER, 71 MATH, 45
GETDOOR, 190 M A T H 1, 45
GET.ENTRY, 26 JACK, 117 MDEAD, 202
GETGUESS, 36, 72 JACK. AND.J ILL, 120 MEMP, 37
GETINP, 45 JEWEL, 202 MERGE, 336
GETINPUT, 188 JOYGAME, 139 MHIT, 202
GETLINE, 360 JOYRD, 139 MISSILE, 168
GET.LINE, 322 JOYREAD, 139 MISSILE.DEMONS, 168
GET.MESSAGE, 66 JOYREAD.NEW, 140 MOON.MARS, 131
GET.NEW.QUESTION, 20 JUMP, 86, 256 MOON.PLANET, 131
GET.OFF.TRAMPOLINE, 86 JUMPING.JACKS, 86 MORE.STARS, 131
GET.PILOT, 130 JUMPING.JACKS1, 86 MOTORCYCLE, 245
GET.RIGHT.GUESS, 20 JUMPING.ON.TRAMPOLINE, 86 M O U N T A I N , 102
GETTURN, 139 JUMP.OVER.RT, 121 MOUNTAINS, 130
GET.VARIABLE.VALUE, 320 JUSTX, 346 MOUNTAINS. DISAPPEAR, 131
GETWORDS, 74 JUSTY, 346 MOUTH, 38
GOLD, 201 MOVE, 188, 204
GONGRAM, 222 MOVE1, 188, 210
GOODBYE, 131 KEEPSHAPES, 370 MOVEPLAYER, 200
GOROOM, 188 KEY, 201 MOVE.TO.TRAMPOLINE, 86
GPROP, 191 KEYBOARD, 257 MOVEWING, 103
GPROP 1, 191 MULTIPLY, 45
GRASS, 102, 118 MUSIC, 256
GREATEST.NUM, 347 L, 139 MUSIC.MIRROR, 238
GREEN.PLANET, 131 LAND, 169 MY.MESSAGES, 66
GROW, 368 LANDING, 103
GUESS, 20 LAST3, 50 NAMENOTES, 256
LAST.N, 336 NAMEOCTAVE, 256
LAST.PART, 336 NAMEOCTAVES, 256
HANGMAN, 36 LBRANCH, 118 NARGS, 320
HATCH, 103 LEARN, 20 NEWGAME, 139
HELP, 66 LEARN.LINES, 360 NEWHEAD, 361
HILL, 118 LEARNOPP, 11 NEXT, 267
HILL1, 118 LEAST.NUM, 347 NEXT.ITEM, 319
HINT, 73 LEAST.SQUARES.SLOPE, 346 NEXT.ITEM1, 319
HINTWORD1, 73 LEG, 364 NEXTPEN, 227, 229
HIT.GREEN.PLANET. 131 LETTER, 57 NO, 151
HIT.SOUND, 131 LEVEL, 202 NO.BRANCH, 20
HOME.AGAIN, 128 LINE.EQUATION, 346 NODE, 118
HPOTION, 203 LOADPICT, 291 NOISE, 131
LOADPICT 1, 291 NOTE, 257
LOAD.SHAPES, 118 NOUN, 6
I, 203
LOGO, 319 NOUNPHRASE, 5
IGNORE, 322, 346
LOGOLOOP, 319 NOUNS, 6
INC.SOUND. 139
INFOR, 360 LOOK, 188
INIT, 188, 321 LOOP, 361 OCTAVE, 375
INITOBJS, 190 LOSE, 168 OCTAVE 1, 375
INITPRIMS, 322 LOVE.HATE, 11 OCTAVE.DOWN, 375
INITROOMS, 190 OCTAVE.UP, 375
INITVARS, 190 M, 128, 360 ON. WITH.THE. GAME, 150
INPUT.LINE, 322 MADLIB, 78 OPPOSITE, 11
INPUT.LINE1, 322 MAIL, 65
INROOMP, 189 MAKE.ENTRY, 27 PACGAME, 149
INSTRUCTIONS, 71 MAKEROOM, 198 PAIRS, 347
INTER1, 188 MAKE.SFUN.DEF, 320 PAIRUP, 347
INTER2, 188 MAKETREE, 20 PDEAD, 202
INTERPRET, 188 MAKE.UFUN.DEF, 320 PHIT, 202
INTERVALS, 242 MAP, 331 PICK, 6, 38
INVADE, 167 MAP.LIST, 331 PICKWORD, 37
 INDEX 387

PICTLOC, 291 RACE.FROM, 210 SELECT, 6

PITCH, 238, 242 RAINBOW, 366 SEN, 5
PITCHl, 238, 242 RAINBOW1, 366 SENDER'S.NAME, 66
PIXEL, 281 RAMP, 122, 244 SEND.MAIL, 66
PLANET.MARS, 128 RAMP2, 245 SENGEN, 5
PLANET.SATURN, 129 RANDOM.POS, 159 SEQUENCER, 238
PLAY, 20, 36, 149 RANGE, 347 SET, 320
PLAY.BLASTER, 158 RANPICK, 74 SET.ARGS, 321
PLAYGAME, 71 RBRANCH, 118 SETBOXES, 139
PLAYGAME 1, 72 READ.BODY, 322 SET.DEMONS, 150
PLAYTUNE, 256 READ.BODY1, 322 SET.DRIVE, 118
PLOT.AXES, 346 READ.LINE, 322 SET. EGG, 103
PLOT.HORIZ, 347 READY.JUMPING.JACKS, 86 SETJOY, 140
PLOTLINE, 346 READY.SHAPES, 85 SET.MARKS, 102
PLOT.POINTS, 346 RECEIVER'S.NAME, 66 SET.MONSTER, 204
POINT, 168 REDISPLAY, 74 SET.PIECES, 149
POINT1, 360 REDUCE. 331 SETPLACE, 129
POINT2, 360 REFORM, 122 SETRING, 129
POLY, 227 REFORM. AND.EXIT.TRUCK, 120 SET.SCENE, 118
POLYl, 227 REFRESH.SCREEN, 72 SETSH APES, 132
POLYCIRC, 227 SET.SHIP, 132
REMEMBER, 360
POLY.FILL, 222 REMOVE, 27, 72, 191 SETUP, 36, 85, 117, 138, 149, 167, 369,
POLYGON, 222 REMOVE.ALL, 65 370
POLYGON1, 222 REMOVE.ENTRY, 27 SET.UP, 132
POP, 322 RERUN, 122 SETUP.BLASTER, 158
POP1, 322 RESET, 122, 363 SETUP.BYE, 138
POSADDR, 281 RESETPC, 365 SETUP. DEMONS, 158, 168, 198
POTION, 201 RESTORE, 74 SETUP.ENEMIES, 158
PPOTION, 203 RETREAT, 243 SETUP.GRAPHICS, 361
PPROP, 191 RETREAT 1, 243 SETUP.JJ, 121
PPROP 1, 191 RETREAT2, 244 SETUP.LAND, 169
PRDOOR, 189 RE VEAL.TURTLE, 150 SETUP. LAND. DEMONS, 169
PRDOORS, 189 REVERSE, 238 SETUP. PLAYER, 158
PRDOORS 1, 189 RHYTHM, 239 SETUP.RACE, 210
PRESENTP, 189 RING, 129 SETUP.RACERS, 210
PREXIT, 188 ROAD, 118 SETUPSHAPES, 170
PREXITS, 188 ROCKET, 132 SETUP.TURTLE, 256
PREXITS1, 188 ROOM1, 199 SETUP. VARS, 149
PRINT.ALL.MESSAGES, 67 SFUN?, 320
ROOM2, 200
PRINT.AND.DELETE, 66 SFUN.FUNC, 320
ROOM3, 200
PRINT.DEF1, 27 SHOW.SCORE, 159
ROOM4, 200
PRINT.DEF2, 27 SHOW.WINNER, 210
ROW, 72
PRINT.DEFINITION, 27 SHOW.WORD, 73
RUN.RACE, 210
PRINT.DICTIONARY, 27 SHRINK, 367
PRINT.ENTRY, 27 SIDE, 199
SIGH, 86
PRINT.MESSAGE, 66 S, 129
SING, 104
PRINT.SCORE, 169 SATURN, 129 SLOPE, 360
PROPTRUE?, 191 SAVE.CURSOR, 74 SMILE, 38
PUNCTUATE, 79 SAVEPICT, 290, 291 SOLID.SIDE, 199
PUSH, 322 SAVEPICT1, 290, 291 SOLVE, 361
PUTBYTE, 291 SAVESH, 204 SOLVE.X, 346
PUTSHAPES, 132, 158, 370 SAVE.SHAPES, 170 SOLVE.Y, 346
SAY, 37, 57 SONG, 104, 238, 256
SCALE, 375 SONG1, 238
QUESTION, 20
SCORE, 169 SOUND.DOWN, 130
QUOTED, 331
QUOTED?, 319 SCRAMBLE, 72 SOUND.OFF, 131
QUOTIFY, 320 SCRAMBLE1, 72 SOUND.UP, 130
QUOTIFY1, 320 SEARCH, 361 SPACE.SHIP, 246
SECOND, 1 1 SPEEDUP, 375
SECOND. CLEANUP, 120 SPELL, 50
R, 129, 139 SEGMENT, 57 SPELLl, 50
RACE, 210 SEGMENTS, 57
388 INDEX

SPELL.GROUP, 49 TOWARDS2, 213 VERBPHRASE, 6

SPOTION, 203 TOWARDS3, 213 VERBS, 6
STAIRS, 201 TRAMP.BED, 85 VICTORY, 150
STAR, 129, 229, 364 TRAMP.LEGS, 85 VIEWPOLYGON, 220
STAR3, 365 TRANSFORM, 120 VIEWPOLYGON1, 220
STARS, 129 TRANSPOSE.DOWN, 238 VOWELP, 78
START, 167, 198 TRANSPOSE.UP, 238 VSYM, 320
START.TURTLE, 361 TRAP, 201
STAY.IN. BOUNDS, 150 TREES, 118 W, 204
STEER, 159 TRIAD, 50 WAFFLE, 363
STEPVALUE, 247 TRILL, 247 WALK, 86, 130, 169
SUB1, 267 TRY.AGAIN, 242 WALK.SOUND, 130
SUB2, 45 TRYDOOR, 189 WAND, 202
SUBMOUNTAIN, 130 TUNE, 238 WHIRL, 365
SUBTRACT, 45 TURTLESONG, 256 WIN, 38, 121, 168
SWORD, 202 TURTLETIMER, 379 WING, 103
SYMEVAL, 320 WIN.MESSAGES, 74
UFUN.ARGLIST, 320 W I T H I N , 189
TAKE, 189 UFUN.BODY, 320 WONP, 210
TAKEOFF, 103 UNBIND, 321 WORDSCRAM, 71
TAKE.OFF, 130 UBIND.ARG, 321
TAKE.OFF. ACTION, 131 XDIFF, 291
UBIND.ARGS, 321
TEEN, 50 XLIST, 347
UNDOT, 320
TEMPO, 257 XSQUARED, 346
UNGALL, 38
TENS, 49 XTIMESY, 346
UNLOCK, 189
TESTWORD, 38 XVALUE, 347
UNQUOTE, 319
THEEND, 103 UP, 245
THREESTARS, 364 UPDATE, 150 YDIFF, 291
T O l , 321 UP.THE.HILL, 121 YES, 151
T O U C H T O O T , 377 USE.SHAPES.WALK, 86 YES.BRANCH, 20
TOWARDS, 213 YINTERCEPT, 346
TOWARDS 1, 213 VERB, 6 YLIST, 347