Lecture 6A

What are three main features of "successful communication"?

You talk
Listeners understand: sometimes they do and sometimes
they don’t listen
Give feedback: you must ask for this
What are five questions that are "intellectually courageous"?
1. Sometimes discussions can start off on hypothetical situations.
Suppose you’re in a discussion and someone says, “What would
have happened if terrorists succeeded in crashing a plane into the
White House?” The discussion could go on for hours and at the end
no one would know anything real, because the event never
occurred. The time wasn’t spent on anything true. The people in the
discussion are acting as if thinking doesn’t have to ask questions
about actual experience.
Here, courageous talkers ask, “What events are we talking
about?” Or else they move the discussion to reality: “But what
about the actual crash into the World Trade Towers?” This
works because it asks a question about actual experience. And it
stops the hypothetical discussion cold.
2. Sometimes you know what a discussion is about, but it gets
abstract. For example, someone in a discussion among assembly
line workers might say, “What we need is more employee
empowerment!” And suppose everyone agrees, even though
“empowerment” is an abstract term, which each person interprets
in a different way. So they really are agreeing on nothing real, only
on an abstraction. When we don’t give examples, what may be
quite “real” to us is usually “unreal” to others – because it’s just an
abstract concept.
Here, courageous talkers ask, “Can you give me an example?”
This will probably surface many different views on what
“empowerment” means. This question works because it again asks
a question about actual experience. What’s really interesting is that
when people can’t give an example, then they literally do not know
what they’re talking about. And what is real to them is unreal to
their listeners.
3. Sometimes people inform us of facts, and we understand them very
well. But intelligent learners are not satisfied knowing whats or
wheres or whens. They ask why or how or what for. The whats,
 wheres, and whens are just facts; the hows and whys and what
fors ask for explanations of these facts.
For example, consider this remark a student made about a course:
This course brought together the pieces of the puzzle we have
spent so much time on.
But that’s all. I was getting to know her up to this point. So her
remark tells me what happened, but it left me wondering why she
experienced this “bringing together” of puzzle pieces, and how this
happened.
In discussions that share mainly factual information, courageous
talkers might ask, “Why did that happen?” and “Why do we do
things this way?” “How did this come about?” and “How does this
actually work?” “What did they do that for?” and “For what
purpose do we have time sheets?”
4. Sometimes you need to insert a “checkpoint” to fix what has been
said so far. Here, courageous talkers say, “So what you’re saying
is …” This can assure the speaker that you are following the
discussion. It also can alert the speaker that you misunderstood
something, and need to get back on track.
5. Sometimes discussions can start off with real experience, good
examples are cited, and everyone agrees on an opinion: “Therefore
we need a national healthcare insurance system.” But often the
discussion ends there – in the air. Nobody is about to change
behaviors. Everyone’s thinking is divorced from acting. They’re just
agreeing on a dream.
Here, courageous talkers ask, “So what?” This works because,
again, it asks a question about actual experience. Specifically, it
asks how the agreed-upon opinion will affect people’s future
experience of doing something about the dream. A more polite way
than “so what?” is to ask, “So what are our next steps?” To avoid
the “So what?” question is just wishful thinking. As the adage goes,
“If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.”
Here, then, is a summary of these five questions:
Is it real? (Not merely hypothetical)
For example? (Not merely general)
Why / How? / What for? (Not merely factual)
Am I following? (Not confusing)
So what? (Not merely wishful thinking)
Lecture 6B
What is the key to engaging your reader at the start?
To be convincing, it is essential to engage your reader. And the key to
engagement is to plant questions.
What are some ways to avoid disengaging your reader?
The fastest way to disengage your readers is to distract them.
We don’t do this intentionally, of course, but there are many
ways we do this unintentionally. One thing most distractions
have in common is unclear language. Clear language brings the
subject right to the front of readers’ minds. They are so taken
with the subject that they barely notice the language. The
words are clear glass.
Also, effective language keeps readers moving forward. They
expect an example, a further idea, a conclusion. But ineffective
language usually makes the reader back up and re-read the
unclear parts.
So an overall rule is “Never make your reader back up.” Below,
I’ve listed some rules for helping your readers move steadily to
the end.
1. Keep sentences short.

A sentence should normally express just one thought. If your

sentence looks too long, check whether it contains two thoughts
that could be expressed in two sentences.

2. Avoid unnecessary words.

Every word should count. Fluff words dull the point you’re
making. Slash words mercilessly. Instead of saying, “The
committee reached a decision to hold meetings together every
Wednesday,” say, “The committee decided to meet every
Wednesday.”

3. Prefer the simple to the complex.

If the right word is a big word, go ahead and use it. But, if a
shorter word does the job, use it. For example: write change
instead of modify; write use instead of utilize.

4. Prefer the familiar word.

 When writing, choose the word that will be clear to most people.
Say paycheck rather than wage, and speed rather than velocity.

5. Prefer the verbs that show vivid action.

Vivid action verbs stick to the mind like glue, while abstract,
general verbs easily slide away. For example, compare these
sentences: “He had to chop his essay in half” and “He had to
reduce his essay by 50 percent.” Or: “She collapsed in the hall”
and “She fell in the hall.” Or “His computer froze up” and “His
computer stopped working.”

6. Prefer the active voice to the passive.

When active verbs are used the noun is doing the acting. Passive
verbs have the noun acted upon. For example: "The engineer
fixed the valve” (Active). “The valve was fixed by the engineer"
(Passive). Active verbs are usually more effective because they
give readers an image of a person acting. Passive verbs leave
them with an image of a thing doing nothing.

7. Write the way you’d like to talk.

Your grammar should be correct, but the reader should be

following your thoughts as easily as hearing you talk. Read a
draft of your writing out loud to make sure that it sounds like
talking.

8. Mix it up.

Variety keeps your reader moving along. Change the length of

your sentences. Use different introductory phrases. Occasionally
rely on questions, parentheses, and dashes—things that give
visual variety.

9. Write to express, not to impress.

Avoid show-off words. Instead of, “The team collapsed in a

frenzied brouhaha,” say “The team ended up just arguing.”

10. Separate the details.

 No one likes to read huge reports. Detail may be necessary, but
not for everyone. So tell the main story in as few sentences as
possible and then add the details later or in appendices.

11. Cling to the thing.

If you’re having problems with how to express your thought in

words, focus on the thing you’re talking about rather than on the
right words. Write, “All I’m trying to say is …” and finish this
sentence as quickly as you can. You will be surprised at how
often this gives you the right words. In the words of Cato the
Elder (234-149 BC), “Cling to the thing; the words will follow.”

12. Study Good Writers

You can learn good writing by learning what good writers do.
When an article keeps you moving forward, go back and find out
how. Ask yourself, “How did the author keep my interest alive?”

13. Edit with the “Reader over your shoulder.”

We write from what we understand—the words we use, how we

conceive complex issues, and all sorts of assumptions about life
and how to act. But to be clearly understood, it’s important to
consider our writing from the viewpoint of our readers. Once you
finish a first draft, go back and imagine what a reader over your
shoulder would say. Watch for times when you hear, “What does
that mean?” Or, “I’m getting lost here.” Or, “Oh, stop showing
off!”

Of what use is Cato’s advice to “Cling to the Thing”?

11. Cling to the thing.

If you’re having problems with how to express your

thought in words, focus on the thing you’re talking about
rather than on the right words. Write, “All I’m trying to
say is …” and finish this sentence as quickly as you can.
You will be surprised at how often this gives you the right
words. In the words of Cato the Elder (234-149 BC), “Cling to
the thing; the words will follow.”
 What are the five basic ways of supporting your views?

Experts
In essays, one of the main ways of convincing people is to mention the opinions of
respected experts. This is why we use quotations. But avoid just sprinkling your essays
with quotations because you think teachers expect it. Do not aim to prove you did your
homework; instead, aim to convince your teacher of something. You can quote experts as
agreeing with your view, or as the source of your view, or as opposed to your view, but
make it clear why the quote is there.

Logic
The main reason we use logic is to remove inconsistencies. For example: “It doesn’t
seem logical to support capital punishment but oppose abortion.” And, “It stands to
reason that anyone who believes in world peace must therefore work hard at family
peace.”
Notice that logic is mainly about spotting errors. We use logic to identify problems and to
make our thinking more orderly.

Creative Projection
Logic is not the only way we think. Besides logic, there are also creative projections into
the future of better ways of doing things. None of the great advancements in science or
religion came as a logical deduction but from creativity. The normal way to support a
creative idea is to describe outcomes.

Personal Experience
Your personal experience can be quite compelling. A mother can write about
childbearing that her male teacher is bound to respect. However, experience is not
understanding. A mother can say with certainty that she gave birth, but this experience is
not very engaging. What interests people more is how she understands the experience:
“In my experience as a mother, I have come to understand my main job is to provide
health and safety; it is up to them to find happiness.”

Data
A drawback of appealing to personal experience is that you are only one person. Your
support is anecdotal; others can bring up contrary examples. To draw on a large set of
experiences, you need to appeal to statistical data. For example, “One study (page 18 of
our textbook) found that 65 percent of mothers thought their main role was to make their
children happy.”

Lecture 6C
What is the purpose of editing?
What exactly is the purpose of editing? Editing is rewriting from a reader’s
viewpoint.
 Editing for Clarity. Here you make sure your words are so
transparent that the reader can focus on the issue without
stopping to wonder what you mean.
Editing for Grammar Conventions. Here you fix any problems
with nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that could
mislead your reader.
Editing for Correctness. Here you fix problems with
punctuation (commas, semicolons, apostrophes, etc.) that also
could mislead your reader.

Notice that each editing principle has ultimately the same reason: You
want to convince your reader of something. You want to be as clear
and focused as possible. So when editing, fix any area where a reader
might have to back up.

Unit 7: Critical Thinking

Lecture 7A
Identify what each of the following refuses to think about:
Obsession, Egotism, Loyalism, Commonsensism, Secularism.

Obsession
Everyone gets obsessed now and then, but for most of us there are some obsessions that
repress the very questions that might heal their obsessions. We don’t want to think
about our obsessions.
But, more ordinarily, to really learn about how obsession works, there is no better
way than to catch yourself. A “bias” does not mean we have the obsessive-
compulsive disorder, which is a serious problem. But it does mean that all of us
have a tendency, a leaning, an inclination to get fixated on certain memories or
projects or fears and then not let ourselves realize that we are fixated

Egotism
Where the bias of obsession avoids learning indeliberately, through
repression, the bias of egotism avoids learning deliberately, through
suppression. (Notice that difference: Repression is a largely
unconscious avoidance of certain questions, while supression is a
deliberate avoidance of certain questions.) Egotism shows when we
earnestly ignore anything that might benefit others at our expense.
We aren’t stupid. We have the intelligence to make things better all
around, but we dedicate our minds to getting just whatever we can for
ourselves. We suppress our imagination about the well-being of
others. In short, the bias of egotism is a tendency to avoid thinking
what benefits other individuals.

Loyalism
Where egotism avoids learning what benefits other individuals,
loyalism avoids learning what benefits other groups. People in whom
loyalism is dominant can appear quite selfless. Indeed, the stronger
the loyalism, the weaker the egotism. They set aside personal
interests for the sake of others, but only to a point - - the point where
another group's interests are at odds with their own group's. Their
field of moral vision is wider than personal advantage, but it is still
limited by a line that divides an “us” from a “them.” They don’t want
to think of what benefits other groups.

Commonsensism
By commonsensism I mean our tendency to trust our common sense as sufficient for all
problems. It’s the bartender doling out advice with the beer; it’s the politician promising
immediate action to voters’ problems. Ironically, common sense commonly lacks the
sense to dig deep into the nature of things. Nor does common sense scan history very
deeply. It hopes to change behaviors without bothering to change the minds that were
shaped and strengthened by generations of forebears.
Typically, commonsensism shows in the assumption that it’s always better to take some
action than no action at all. No doubt, tackling immediate problems is often better than
sitting around planning global solutions. But is it better in every case? Do we not we
make things worse when we tackle immediate problems without some knowledge of the
general nature of the problem and its particular history?
Common sense looks to the practical, the interpersonal, the immediate, and the palpable.
And these vary widely, place to place, culture to culture. Common sense easily spots the
quick and dirty solution but is blind to the slower but cleaner view afforded by wider
perspectives. In complicated situations, it doesn’t bother to peel back layers of erroneous
assumptions among participants. It is chronically vulnerable to the Myth of the Simple –
the assumption that progress must be based on simple strategies, simple principles. This
is true of anyone who prides themselves in relying on common sense above all. They
don’t want to think about the history or the complexity of situations.
Secularism
In Latin, saeculum means an epoch or a lifetime—meaning time-bound
human existence. In English, secular has come to mean worldly or at
least non-religious. However, secularism is a bias in our intelligence
that avoids thinking about anything that may be beyond or
above the world of our experience. We can include it as a type
bias against thinking because it is actually part of human nature to
think about reality beyond this world:

Lecture 7B
Be prepared to recognize any of Ellis' 12 irrational ideas (also
called convictions or assumptions) that sustain a neurosis.

12 Irrational Assumptions That Cause and Sustain Neurosis[1]

Irrational Assumptions Rational Convictions

1. For adults, it is a dire necessity I should concentrate on … rather
to be loved by significant others for than on…
almost everything they do.
2. Certain acts are awful or Certain acts are …. I aim to
wicked, and that people who respond to poor behaviors by …
perform such acts should be
condemned; they deserve
punishment, not help.
3. It is horrible when things are Being disappointed is … It is
not the way we like them to be. better if I … If things cannot be
changed, then I …
4. Feeling miserable is always I will regard feeling miserable as
caused by external conditions, …
forced on us by outside people and
events.
5. If something is dangerous or It will be much better if I
fearsome we should be terribly respond to dangers by …
upset and endlessly obsess about it.
6. It is easier to avoid than to face When I start looking for the easy
life difficulties and self-
responsibilities.
7. We absolutely need something
other or stronger or greater than
ourselves on which to rely.
8. We should be thoroughly
competent, intelligent, and
achieving in all possible respects.
9. Because something once
strongly affected our life, it should
always affect it.
10. We must have certain and
perfect control over things.
11. Happiness can be achieved by
just relaxing and doing nothing.
12. We have virtually no control
over our emotions and that we
cannot help feeling disturbed about
things.
way out, I will instead …
When I feel the need to find
strength, I will …
Instead of trying to be perfect, …
It is important for me to think of
my deeply influential experiences
as …
Life is …. To meet life
challenges, I will …
Happiness comes when I … or …
With difficult emotions, it is
healthy for me to …

What should people do to uncover their irrational assumptions?

If you would like to discover your unnoticed assumptions, then
do not think about what you think. Instead, watch how you
behave. Monitor your everyday actions as if you were someone
else watching you day and night.

Unit 8: Critical Responding

Lecture 8A
What does it mean to "reframe" an experience of being put on
the defensive? Reframe from an offense or defense…. Reframe
from attack.
In return, you can go on the offense, or the defense, or withdraw
to the sidelines. But life isn't a football game. "Critical thinking"
can "reframe" the event altogether: "This is not a battle between
people; I'm witnessing a battle inside a person. My attacker is
 the victim!" In other words, think of life as a sharing in the
struggle against bias and irrationality. You are vulnerable, and so
is your attacker. But you are companions in the struggle
According to the lecture, who is often the victim when you feel
attacked?
The attacker is being attacked.
Attacked by what?
By his or her own bias or irrational assumptions!

According to the lecture, what "response" is usually best when

you feel attacked?
See the difference? You don't need to react at all. You can
"respond." A good first response is to really listen. Hang in
there with the person. Let yourself love your attacker.
"Seek first to understand" is a habit of highly effective people. If you
don't understand right away what's attacking your attacker, give
yourself the time to wonder. Move on, but "bookmark" the event for
further reflection later, when you're somewhat removed from the
immediate situation. Consider what bias or irrational assumption may
be attacking your attacker. Ask yourself, "Where is my attacker's heart
right now?"
To respond, rather than react, is to help the attacker “heal” what is
attacking him or her.
This inner attacker may come clear or it may not. If it does come clear
to you, ask yourself, "Can I help heal my attacker's wound?" If so,
then move gently, with genuine care. If not, then don't move in;
charging into people's vulnerability against their will only convinces
them to build stronger defenses. Sometimes, gentle mockery can help:
“Oh yes. You could be in big trouble if you don’t find an immediate
solution!”
• A response is thoughtful, so think to yourself, "This isn't football:
no offense, no defense, no sidelines."
• A response is imaginative, so picture the images I've provided
above.
• A response is responsible, so be prepared to care for this person
if the opportunity presents itself. To be genuinely responsible is
to take responsibility for healing, as far as you can.