Harmonic Excitation

Periodic Excitation
• When a subject is subjected to harmonic
excitation, it vibrates at the same frequency as the
excitation.
• Sources:
– Unbalance in rotating machines, forces in reciprocating
machines, motion of machine.
• Resonance may occur if the frequency of the
excitation coincides with the natural frequency of
the system.
 Harmonic Forces
• Consider the system
mx + cx + kx = F0 sin ωt
• The solution of this equation consists of two sections:
– The complementary function (associated with the homogeneous
equation). For any damped system this section will decrease
exponentially over time.
xh (t ) = X h e −ζωnt sin(ωd t + φh )
– The particular function (associated with the applied force). This
section always remains after the complementary function has
decayed and hence is also called the steady-state solution.
xss (t ) = X sin(ωt − φ )
Determining the Amplitude & Phase
• Consider the term eiωt = cos(ωt)+i sin(ωt).
• To determine the steady state response to F0sin(ωt) , we
consider the response to F0 eiωt.
• Assume x(t) = X eiωt
• In general, X will be complex. It can therefore be written as
X=|X|e-iφ.
• So x(t)=|X|ei(ωt-φ) = |X| cos(ωt-φ)+i sin(ωt -φ).
• Hence equating the imaginary parts we obtain the
amplitude |X| and the phase difference w.r.t the force, φ.
Determining X and φ
mx + cx + kx = F0 e iωt
Let x(t ) = Xe iωt
x(t ) = iωXe iωt ; x(t ) = −ω 2 Xe iωt
− mω 2 Xe iωt + icωXe iωt + kXeiωt = F0 e iωt
F0
X=
(k − mω 2 ) + icω
F0
| X |=
(k − mω 2 ) 2 + (cω ) 2
cω
φ = tan −1

k − mω 2
 F0 / k
| X |= Divide both numerator and
(1 − mω 2 / k ) + icω / k
denominator by k
F0 / k
=
(1 − ω 2 / ωn ) + iζccrω / k
2 Substitute ωn2=k/m; and c = ζ ccr
F0 / k
= Substitute ccr=2√(mk)
(1 − ω 2 / ωn ) + iζ 2 mk ω / k
2

F0 / k
=
(1 − ω 2 / ωn ) + 2iζω / ωn
2
Substitute ωn=√(k/m)
kX 1
=
F0 (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr ) 2
where r =ω/ωn
2ζr
φ = tan −1
1− r 2
 The steady state solution
• r is known as the frequency ratio.
• kX/F0 is known as the Magnification Factor
or the Amplitude Ratio.
• Note kX/F0 is not a constant; it varies with
r.
 5
4.5
4
3.5
Amplitude Ratio

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio
ζ=0 ζ=0.1 ζ=0.15 ζ=0.25 ζ=0.4 ζ=0.5 ζ=0.6 ζ=1
 200
180
160
140
Phase (Degrees)

120
ζ=ο
100 ζ=0.5
80 ζ=1
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency Ratio
 Notes
• The graph peaks close to r=1, i.e. when the
excitation frequency is close to the system’s natural
frequency. This condition is known as resonance.
1
• When r = 1, the amplitude ratio is
2ζ
1
• The maximum amplitude ratio occurs
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
when
2(1 − r 2 ) − 4ζ 2 = 0 r = ± 1 − 2ζ 2
1 − r 2 = 2ζ 2 ≈ 1± ζ 2
 Notes (cont’d)
• The phase is zero at r = 0.
• The phase is 90o at r=1.
• For r>>1, the phase approaches 180o.
 Response to a moving support
mx = −k ( x − y ) − c( x − y )
mx + cx + kx = cy + ky
• If y(t)=Y0eiωt, then xss(t)=Xeiωt, where

{(k − mω }
) + icω X = (k + icω )Y0
2

X
=
(k + icω )
Y0 (k − mω 2 ) + icω
X
=
(
k 2 + c 2ω 2 )
Y0 (k − mω 2 ) 2 + (cω ) 2
cω−1 −1 cω
phase = tan − tan
k − mω 2
k
To determine dimensionless form
Divide both numerator and
denominator by k

Substitute ωn2=k/m; and c = ζ ccr

Substitute ccr=2√(mk)

Substitute ωn=√(k/m)

Substitute r =ω/ωn
 Dimensionless form
X
=
(
1 + (2ζr ) 2 )
Y0 (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr ) 2
2ζr
phase = tan −1
− tan −1
2ζr
1− r 2

• r=1, Amplitude Ratio is 1/(2ζ), phase = 90o

• The amplitude ratio is near unity for small r.
• For all ζ, 0<ζ<1, the amplitude grows till it reaches its

( )
maximum at 1 1/ 2
rmax = 1 + 8ζ − 1
2

2ζ
• The amplitude ratio has a value of 1 at r = √2, independent
of ζ.
• For all values of ζ, the amplitude ratio is less than one only
for r > √2
 Moving Support

5
4.5
4
Amplitude Ratio

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Frequency Ratio

ζ=0 ζ=0.1 ζ=0.2 ζ=0.3 ζ=σθρτ(2) ζ=0.8 ζ=1

 Moving Support

5
4.5
4
3.5
Phase (Rad)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Frequency Ratio
ζ=0 ζ=0.1 ζ=0.2 ζ=0.3 ζ=σθρτ(2) ζ=0.8 ζ=1
 v
Example
m
A simple one dof model of a vehicle suspension
system is shown in Figure (a) . The vehicle is
traveling over a rough road with a horizontal
k c speed of v. The road contour is approximated by a
sinusoid as shown in (b). The mass of the vehicle
is 1500 kg. The equivalent spring constant of its
suspension is 3 x 107 N/m, and it has a damping
ratio of 0.35. (i) If v = 80 m/s, what is the
maximum displacement and maximum
acceleration of the body of the vehicle? (ii) For
y what values of v, in m/s, will the maximum
displacement be limited to 1 mm?

d=3 mm

1 2 3 4
ξ (m)
 Solution Methodology
• Determine how the road surface variation
may be changed into a function of time.
• Determine the relationship between the
response and the wheel motion.
• Hence, determine the maximum
displacement, X.
• Maximum velocity and acceleration are ωX
and ω2X, respectively for SHM.
 Equation of road contour:
y(ξ)=0.003 sin(πξ) m Assuming constant speed

y(t)=0.003 sin(πvt) m ξ=vt

Note: ω=πv;
Y=0.003 m
mx + cx + kx = cy + ky
Hence, the amplitude of the displacement will be
X 1 + (2ζr ) 2
=
Y (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr ) 2
3 ×107
The natural frequency of the system is ωn = = 141.4 rad / s
1500
r=ω/ωn=π(80) /141.4 = 1.78 ζ=0.35
 (ii)
Maximum allowable amplitude ratio
|X/Y|=0.001/0.003=0.333

1 + (0.7r ) 2
0.333 =
(1 − r 2 ) 2 + (0.7r ) 2
r 4 − 5.92r 2 − 8 = 0
r 2 = 7.054
r = 2.66
vmin=rmin*ωn/π = 119.7 m/s
 Rotating Unbalance
Rotating Unbalance, me
Total mass, M
me
Balanced Mass, M-m
ωt

2
d
(M-m) x +m 2 ( x − e sin ωt ) + cx + kx = 0
dt
or equivalently Mx + cx + kx = −mω 2 e sin ωt
 Dimensionless form
MX r2
=
me (1 − r ) + (2ζr )
2 2 2

• r=1, Amplitude Ratio is 1/(2ζ), phase = 90o

• The amplitude ratio is near zero for small r.
• For all ζ, 0<ζ<1, the amplitude grows till it
reaches its maximum at r = 1
max
1 − 2ζ 2
• The amplitude ratio approaches 1 for large r.
 Rotating Unbalance

5
4.5
Magnification Factor

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Frequency Ratio
ζ=0 ζ=0.1 ζ=0.5 ζ=σθρτ(2) ζ=σθρτ(0.5) ζ=1
 Vibration Isolation
• Isolation system used to either:
– Protect delicate object from excessive vibration.
– Prevent forces in machines (usually caused by
unbalances) from being transmitted to
surroundings.
• Both reduce transmitted force.
 Transmissibility
• Force transmitted, Ft =kx+c x
• Hence its magnitude is (kX ) 2 + (cωX ) 2
= kX 1 + (2ζr ) 2
But recall
F F0 / k
X=
(1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr )
2

Hence
k/2 c k/2 1 + (2ζr )
2
FT
=
F0 (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr )
2

Denoted by TR, known as the transmissibility (ratio).

 Example
• A machine of 100 kg mass is supported on
springs of total stiffness 700 kN/m and has
an unbalanced rotating element, which
results in a disturbing force of 350 N at a
speed of 3000 rpm. Assuming a damping
factor of 0.2, determine (a) the amplitude of
motion due to the unbalance, (b) the
transmissibility and (c) the transmitted
force.
 Energy Dissipated by Viscous
Damping
• Damping Force = c x
• Hence over one cycle the energy lost is
Fd dx = cxdx
dx But for a harmonically excited system
= cx dt
dt x = X sin(ωt − φ )
= cx 2 dt x = Xω cos(ωt − φ )
2π / ω
= cω X
2 2
cos 2 (ωt − φ )dt
0

= πcωX 2
 At Resonance
• The energy lost at resonance is
=πcωnX2
=π(ζccr)ωnX2
=πζ∗2√{mk}√{k/m}X2
=2ζπkX2
Damping Properties of Materials
• Specific damping capacity: ratio of the energy lost
per cycle to the peak potential energy. Wd
U
Wd 2πζkX 2
• Note at resonance, = = 4πζ
U 1
kX 2
2
• Loss coefficient: ratio of damping loss per radian
to the peak potential energy.
Wd
η=
2πU
 Sharpness of Resonance
5
Recall this graph:
4.5
4
3.5
Amplitude Ratio

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio
ζ=0 ζ=0.1 ζ=0.15 ζ=0.25 ζ=0.4 ζ=0.5 ζ=0.6 ζ=1
 Q-Factor and Half-Power Points
• Recall that at resonance kX/F0=1/(2ζ).
• The energy loss associated with this is
2πζkX2.
• If we want to find the frequencies at which
we have half this energy loss, i.e. we are
interested in points for which
X=Xres/sqrt(2)=0.707*Xres.
• These are known as the half-power points.
 1 1 1
=
2 2ζ (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr ) 2
2
1 1 1
= Squaring both sides
2 2ζ (1 − r 2 ) 2 + (2ζr ) 2
r 4 − 2r 2 + 1 + 4ζ 2 r 2 = 8ζ 2 Expanding
(
r 4 − 2(1 − 2ζ 2 )r 2 + 1 − 8ζ 2 = 0 ) Collecting like terms
r 2 = 1 − 2ζ 2 ± 2ζ 1 − ζ 2 Using the quadratic formula
r1, 2 = 1 ± 2ζ
2
to determine r2
r22 − r12 = 4ζ Keeping only O(ζ) terms
 r22 − r12 = 4ζ
ω22 − ω12 (ω2 − ω1 )* (ω2 + ω1 )
=
ωn2
ωn2

≈
(ω 2 )
− ω1 * 2ωn
= 4ζ
ω 2
n

ωn 1
Q= =
ω2 − ω1 2ζ

Q is called the Q – Factor and is half the reciprocal of the

damping ratio.
ω1,ω2 are called the side-bands or half power points.
 Equivalent Viscous Damping
• Viscous damping occurs only when the velocity
between lubricated surfaces is sufficiently low to
ensure laminar flow conditions.
• More typically, damping is nonlinear.
• May be dependent on the operating conditions,
past history of the damping mechanism, or even
shape of the damper.
• In the analysis of these systems, we assume there
is an equivalent viscous damping constant.
 Determining ceq

• The energy loss over one cycle of the

system is equated to the general equation
for loss due to viscous damping.
 Example
A machine of 350 kg mass and 1.8 kg.m eccentricity is
mounted on springs and a damper with velocity squared
damping. The damper consists of a 70 mm diameter
cylinder-piston arrangement. The piston has a nozzle for
the passage of the damping fluid, the density of which is
ρ=960 kg/m3. The natural frequency of the system is 5 Hz.
Assuming the equivalent viscous damping factor ζeq=0.2 at
resonance, determine: (a) the resonance amplitude; (b) the
diameter of the nozzle if the pressure drop across the
nozzle is p = (ρ/2)(velocity)2 where (velocity) is that at the
throat of the nozzle.
 Solution
ωn = 5 Hz = 10π rad/s
For velocity squared damping
dx
∆E = (c2 x 2 ) sgn( x)dx = (c2 x 2 ) sgn( x) dt
dt
2π / ω
= (c2 x 3 ) sgn( x)dt
0
π / 2ω
=2 c2 (ωX )3 cos 3 ωtdt
−π / 2ω
π / 2ω
sin ωt sin ωt
3
= 4c2 (ωX )3 −
ω 3ω −π / 2ω
ceq=8c2ωX/(3π)
= 2c2ω X {(1 − 1 / 3) − (−1 + 1 / 3)}
2 3

8
= c2ω 2 X 3 =πωceqX2
3
 MX 1 1
(a) = = = 2.5
me 2ζ eq 2 * 0.2
X = 2.5 * me / M = 2.5 *1.8 / 350 = 0.0129 m

ceq = 2ζ eq Mωn = 2 * 0.2 * 350 *10π

= 4400 kg / s

8
BUT ceq = c2 X
3π
c2 = 12790
Let relative velocity between piston & cylinder be vrel
and velocity at throat of nozzle be vthroat
Apiston vrel = Athroat vthroat
so
Apiston D 2 piston
vthroat = vrel = vrel
Athroat D 2 throat
ρAthroat
Fd = pA = (velocity at throat ) 2
2
2
ρAthroat Apiston ρ A2 piston
= vrel = v 2 rel
2 Athroat 2 Athroat
But
Fd = c2 (relative velocity between piston & cylinder ) 2
ρ A2 piston
c2 =
2 Athroat
Dthroat = 1.55*10-7 m
Vibration Measuring Equipment
• Accelerometers
• Seismometers
• Optical vibrometers