9/3/2009

Powder Metallurgy

Dr. A R Dixit

Powder Metallurgy A R Dixit 1

History of Applications
• 3000 B.C. Egyptians made tools with
powder
d metallurgy
t ll
• 1900’s tungsten filament for light bulb
• 1930’s carbide tool materials
• 1960’s automobile parts
• 1980’s aircraft engine turbine parts

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INTRODUCTION

Components can be made from pure metals, alloys, or

mixture of metallic and non-metallic powders

Commonly used materials are iron, copper, aluminum,

nickel, titanium, brass, bronze, steels and refractory
metals

Used widely for manufacturing gears, cams, bushings,

tools piston rings,
cutting tools, rings connecting rods,
rods impellers etc.
etc

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Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

• Competitive with processes such as

casting,
ti fforging,
i and
d machining.
hi i
• Used when
• melting point is too high (W, Mo).
• reaction occurs at melting (Zr).
• too hard to machine.
• very large quantity.
• Near 70% of the P/M part production
is for automotive applications.
pp
• Good dimensional accuracy.
• Controllable porosity.
• Size range from tiny balls for ball-point
pens to parts weighing 100 lb. Most
are around 5 lb.
Powder Metallurgy A R Dixit 5

Basic Steps In Powder Metallurgy

• Powder Production
• Blending or Mixing
• Powder Consolidation
• Sintering
• Finishing

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1. Powder Production
There are three main processes
for making metal powders:
1. Atomization
2. Chemical Methods
3. Electrolytic Processes

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Atomization
Atomization is a process of which a stream
off molten
lt metalt l is
i transformed
t f d into
i t a spray
of droplets that solidify into powder.

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Atomization

Produce a liquid-metal
stream by injecting
molten metal through
thro gh a
small orifice
Stream is broken by jets
of inert gas, air, or water
The size of the particle
formed depends on the
temperature off theh metal,l
metal flowrate through
the orifice, nozzle size
and jet characteristics

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Variation:
A consumable electrode is
rotated rapidly in a helium-
filled chamber. The
centrifugal force breaks up
the molten tip of the
electrode into metal
particles.

Fe powders made by atomization Ni-based superalloy made by

the rotating electrode process

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Chemical Processes
A process in which metal powders are
f
formed
dbbetween
t metal
t l oxides
id andd
reducing agents.

Reduce metal oxides with H2/CO

Powders are spongy and porous and they
have uniformly sized spherical or angular
shapes

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Electrolytic & Precipitating

1. The process of precipitating metal powders
begins in the electrolytic cell where the source of
the desired metal is the anode.

2. As anode is dissolved the desired metal is

deposited on the cathode.

3. Then metal deposit is then removed, cleaned,

and dried.

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Comminution
Crushing
Milling in a ball mill
Powder produced
– Brittle: Angular
– Ductile: flaky and not particularly suitable for P/M
operations
Mechanical Alloying
Powders of two or more metals are mixed in a ball mill
Under the impact of hard balls, powders fracture and join
together by diffusion

(a) Roll crusher, (b) Ball mill

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Characterization of
Powders

Size of powders 0.1 um – 1 mm

Sieve size quoted as mesh number
Particle D = 15/mesh number (mm)
Powder Metallurgy A R Dixit 325 mesh Æ45 um 17

2. Blending or Mixing
Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction ensures
g particles
that the interstices between large p will be filled out.
Powders of different metals and other materials may be
mixed in order to impart special physical and mechanical
properties through metallic alloying.
Lubricants may be mixed to improve the powders’ flow
characteristics.
Binders such as wax or thermoplastic polymers are added
to improve green strength.
Sintering aids are added to accelerate densification on
heating.

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BLENDING
To make a homogeneous mass with uniform distribution
of particle size and composition
– Powders made by different processes have different
sizes and shapes
– Mixing powders of different metals/materials
– Add lubricants (<5%), such as graphite and stearic
acid, to improve the flow characteristics and
compressibility of mixtures
Combining is generally carried out in
– Air or inert gases to avoid oxidation
mixing elimination of dusts and reduced
– Liquids for better mixing,
explosion hazards
Hazards
– Metal powders, because of high surface area to volume ratio are
explosive, particularly Al, Mg, Ti, Zr, Th

Some common equipment geometries used for blending powders

(a) Cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone, (d) twin shell

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3. Powder Consolidation
• Cold compaction with 100 – 900
MPa to produce a “Green body”.
• Die pressing
• Cold isostatic pressing
• Rolling
• Gravity
• Injection Molding small, complex
parts.

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Die pressing 21

COMPACTION

• Press powder into the desired shape and size in dies

using a hydraulic or mechanical press
• Pressed powder is known as “green compact”
• Stages of metal powder compaction:

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Powder Metallurgy A R Dixit 23

• Increased compaction
p p
pressure
• Provides better packing of particles and
leads to ↓ porosity
• ↑ localized deformation allowing new
contacts to be formed between particles

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• At higher pressures, the green density approaches

density of the bulk metal
• Pressed density greater than 90% of the bulk density is
difficult to obtain
• Compaction pressure used depends on desired density

• Smaller particles provide greater strength mainly due to

reduction in porosity
• Size distribution of particles is very important.
important For same
size particles minimum porosity of 24% will always be
there
• Box filled with tennis balls will always have open space between
balls
• Introduction of finer particles will fill voids and result in↑ density

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• Because of friction between (i) the metal particles and (ii)

between the punches and the die, the density within the
compact may vary considerably
• Density variation can be minimized by proper punch and
die design

(a) and (c) Single action press; (b) and (d) Double action press
(e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in single action press

Compaction pressure of some metal powders

Metal Powder Pressure (MPa)

Al 75-275
Al2O3 100-150
Brass 400-700
Carbon 140-170
Fe 400-800
W 75-150
WC 150-400

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(a) Compaction of metal powder to form bushing

(b) Typical tool and die set for compacting spur gear

A 825 ton mechanical press for compacting metal powder

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Cold Isostatic Pressing

• Metal powder placed

in a flexible rubber
mold
• Assembly pressurized
hydrostatically by
water (400 – 1000
MPa)
• Typical: Automotive
cylinder liners →

Friction problem in cold compaction

• The effectiveness of pressing with a single-acting punch is

limited. Wall friction opposes
pp compaction.
p
• The pressure tapers off rapidly and density diminishes away
from the punch.
• Floating container and two counteracting punches help
alleviate the problem.

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SINTERING

• Green compact obtained after compaction is brittle and

low in strength
• Green compacts are heated in a controlled-atmosphere
furnace to allow packed metal powders to bond together

Sintering

• Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9 Tm.

• Transforms compacted
p mechanical
bonds to much stronger metallic
bonds.

• Shrinkage always occurs:

ρ ⎛ ρ
1/ 3
Vsintered ⎞
Vol _ shrinkage = = green Linear _ shrinkage = ⎜⎜ green ⎟⎟
Vgreen ρ sintered ⎝ ρ sintered ⎠

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Carried out in three stages:

• First stage: Temperature is slowly increased so that all

volatile materials in the green compact that would
interfere with good bonding is removed
• Rapid heating in this stage may entrap gases and
produce high internal pressure which may fracture
the compact

Second stage: High temperature stage

• Promotes solid-state
bonding by diffusion.
• Diffusion is time-
temperature sensitive.
Needs sufficient time

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•Promotes vapour-phase
t
transport t
•Because material
heated very close to
MP, metal atoms will
be released in the
vapour phase from the
particles
•Vapour phase
resolidifies at the
interface

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• Third stage: Sintered product is cooled in a controlled

atmosphere
t h
• Prevents oxidation and thermal shock

Gases commonly used for sintering:

• H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

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Liquid Phase Sintering

• During sintering a liquid phase, from the lower MP

component, may exist
• Alloying may take place at the particle-particle interface
• Molten component may surround the particle that has
not melted
• High compact density can be quickly attained
• Important variables:
• Nature
N t off alloy,
ll molten
lt component/particle
t/ ti l wetting,
tti
capillary action of the liquid

Hot Isostatic Pressing

• Produces powder metal parts to near

f ll d
full density
it and
d shapes
h off varying
i
complexity.
• Performed in a pressurized fluid.
• Uses lower pressures to densify a
powder by atomic movement
movement.

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HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING (HIP)

Steps in HIP

• Simultaneous compaction + sintering

• Container: High MP sheet metal
• Container subjected to elevated
temperature and a very high vacuum to
remove air and moisture from the powder
• Pressurizing
P i i medium:
di I t gas
Inert
• Operating conditions
• 100 MPa at 1100 C

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• Produces compacts with almost 100%

density
• Good metallurgical bonding between
particles and good mechanical strength
• Uses
• Superalloy components for aerospace
industries
• Final densification step for WC cutting
tools and P/M tool steels

Sintering Process Cont.

• Furnace provides time and temp.

control.
t l

Continuous Furnace

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Sintering on Particles

The particles will

stretch and
densification will
form in places of
rapid shrinking.

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Steel formed from HIP

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Advantages

• Ability to create complex shapes

• High strength properties
• Low material waste
• Good microstructure control

Powder Metallurgy A R Dixit 49

Disadvantages

• Creation of residual pores

• High tooling costs

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5. Finishing
• The porosity of a fully sintered part is still significant (4-15%).
• Densityy is often kept
p intentionally
y low to ppreserve
interconnected porosity for bearings, filters, acoustic barriers,
and battery electrodes.
• However, to improve properties, finishing processes are
needed:
• Cold restriking, resintering, and heat treatment.
• Impregnation of heated oil.
• Infiltration with metal (e.g.,
(e g Cu for ferrous parts).
parts)
• Machining to tighter tolerance.

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Special Process: Hot compaction

• Advantages can be gained by combining consolidation and

sintering,
• High pressure is applied at the sintering temperature to bring
the particles together and thus accelerate sintering.
• Methods include
• Hot pressing
• Spark sintering
• Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
• Hot rolling and extrusion
• Hot forging of powder preform
• Spray deposition

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Advantages and Disadvantages of P/M

• Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites, and
associated properties.
• Refractory materials are popular by this process.
• Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration uses.
• Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000 parts).
• Long term reliability through close control of dimensions
and physical properties.
• Very good material utilization.
• Limited part size and complexity
• High cost of powder material.
• High cost of tooling.
• Less strong parts than wrought ones.
• Less well known process.
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POWDER METALLURGY
Properties similar to casting
Porosity related amount of compaction
Usually single pressed products have high
tensile strength but low elongation (brittle)
Repressing can improve elongation

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POWDER METALLURGY
Useful in making parts that have irregular
curves, or recesses that
th t are hard
h d tto
machine.
Suitable for high volume production
Near Net Shape (very little waste)
Secondary machining is virtually
eliminated

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POWDER METALLURGY
Examples of typical parts
– Cams
– Ratchets
– Sprockets
– Pawls
– Sintered bronze and iron bearings
(impregnated with oil)
– Carbide tool tips

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Part must be so designed to allow for easy
ejection from the die
Sidewalls should be perpendicular
Hole axes should be parallel to the
direction of opening and closing of the die
Holes, even complicated profiles, are
permissible in the direction of compressing
The minimum hole diameter is 1.5 mm
(0.060 in)
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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The wall thickness should be compatible
with the process ttypically
ith th i ll 1.5
1 5 mm (0.060
(0 060
in) minimum
Length to thickness ratio can be up to 18
maximum - ensures tooling is robust
Wall thickness need not be uniform
Threads for screws cannot be made and
have to be machined later

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Tolerances are 0.3 % on dimensions. If
repressing
i iis d
done, th
the ttolerances
l can b
be
as good as 0.1 %. Repressing, however,
increases the cost of the product.

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END

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