Our knowledge of Bengali life in this ancient period is fragmentary.

Some descriptions of
Bengali people, and some aspects of bengali food habits, culture, transportation,
possessions, dress, society, religion, technology, literature, and arts are discussed in the
respective pages. A brief outline of this period is supplied below.

History begins by definition in the historic period, the early phase is thus defined as the
period from the beginning of the historic period (before the 5th century AD) till the
Gupta period (ending in 550 AD). After the decline of the sarasvati-sindhu civilization,
direct foreign trade with India restarted only in the centuries before the birth of christ,
when trade with the Ptolemaic Egyptian ports (like Berenice, Nechesia, and Myos
Hormos) allowed the Indians major benefits instead of the Arab intermediaries. The
importance of the Indian trade increased in the first century BC when the Romans took
over Egypt, and is underscored by Pliny's mention that the trade balance with India was
draining the Roman empire, and in the laments of emperor Tiberius. In addition, in the
maurya period, the trade route from eastern china through the desert and pamir,
Afganisthan and Persia, all the way to the mediterranean was accessible to the major
Indian empire. This contact increased during the saka and kusana period. In fact this
foreign trade was the major reason for the continuing power struggles in western India.
The eastern ports of Gange and Tamralipti find mention from the very first century AD;
sounagoura (possibly wari/vaTeshvar near DhAkA with occupation dating back to at
least 450 BC) is mentioned in the early second century AD, and trade with Tibet,
Myamar, and the southeast asian states like suvarNadvIpa is attested from a later period.
Because of all this trade, the period from the 2nd centuy BC to the 7th century AD found
the rise of international cross-influence and a pan-Indian culture: in literature, in
language, in the scripts, and in arts. Overall, even though Bengal was never as rich as the
western and southern parts of the country, trade seems to have been an important
component of the economy in addition to farming, which, of course, had been the
mainstay since the prehistoric period. The society was basically feudal, and like
elsewhere in India, the Gupta period is a golden age in Bengal, with trade and well-
minted gold coins.

No doubt the Hindus, Jainas and Buddhists preachers brought the aryan influence to
Bengal early in this period, in addition to the influence that came through the mauryyas
and the shuGgas; and local religious traditions started becoming discernible in Bengal.
However, the complete aryanization probably had to wait till the age of the Guptas who
were Hindu but supported the Buddhists and Jainas as well. It is to be noted however that
aryanization here refers to the introduction of the aryan caste system and hindu religious
ceremony into Bengal; and was equally accepted by the hindus and majoity of the jains
and buddhists leading family lives. The term is somewhat misleading as much of the
hindu tradition all over India including Bengal and including some of the ceremonial
structure and most of the pantheon of modern hindu gods largely traces its origins to
non-‘aryan’, (dravidian and tribal) cultures as much as to the culture shared with other
Indo-European people.

The golden period in Indian history was, however, not to last. The fall of Rome in 475
AD, the wrenching away of the chinese trade route by the Huns in the fifth century, and
the rise of the Islamic power around the eighth century and them capturing the major
western trading posts, and the slow decay of the eastern ports led to a major change in the
economic and social landscape. The resulting fall in the centralized power, and the return
to a more agricultural pattern led to the rise of insular and local identities. Coming on top
of the advent of the foreign influences not only through trade but also directly with the
Yueh-chi zaka kusana, Ahira (2–3 cent AD), huNa (5–6 cent AD), and gujar-gurjar
turaSkas (7–9 cent AD), and this rise of the regional kingdoms in the second half of the
7th century, the regional characteristics started dominating, in religion, arts and language,
changing economic structures gave rise to feudalism, and it is counted as the beginning of
medieval times in Indian history.

So also in Bengal, After the fall of the Guptas, different small kingdoms arose, and, some
bengalis spread out into the rest of India in search of fortunes. For example, the
gadAdhara of vArendrI, who in the 10th century founded a small kingdom in belArI in
South India under the suzerainty of rASTrakUTa kRSNa III was probably a descendant
of these expatriates. However, in Bengal, except for shashAGka, no powerful kings arose
here, but bengal was very much in the fray of North Indian politics. As opposed to the
situation under harSavarddhana in the UP region, the increasing influence of brahminism
in Bengal in this period precluded state support for buddhism and jainism, even though
they were popular religions, and the buddhist vihAras started. The only exception were
the possibly foreign origin khaD.gas.

During shashAGka, the buddhists were probably actually persecuted, and some religious
artifacts destroyed. But, three things need to be stated in this context. First, brahminical
hinduism in the early period was very strongly against religions like buddhism which did
not follow its rituals, and often explicitly criticized all ritual as meaningless or worse.
Buddhists were considered inauspicious and their houses unclean. Many kings and
kingdoms tried to expel them. Second, destruction of religious property in the ancient
world was not uncommon; through the ages it was indulged in by such great rulers as
puSyamitra Sunga, srI harSa of kashmir, pulakeshI II, subhAta varmaNa of the parmars,
mahendra varmaNa, and rAjendra cola. The aims were varied: it was sometimes political
as when at the end of the 12th century the malva parmars destroyed the jain temples and
mosques for arab traders in the trade dominated chalukya gujarat, it was sometimes
symbolic as when the rashtrakutas sent elephants to mow down pratihara temples in the
10th century, it was sometimes economic as when harshadeva of kashmir decided to
appoint deva utpATana nAYakas to loot hindu and buddhist temples at the end of the
11th century, and it was sometimes religious like karnataka jaina temples being taken
over by the shaivaites who destroyed the original and put idols of shiva in it. As
shashAGka was fighting the buddhist harSavarddhana, the motives mght not have been
entirely religious vengeance. Third, it seems that traditional stories of extreme religious
intolerance such as the one about the southern shaivaite king srimaravarman killing 8000
jains on a single day in late 7th century are not told about this reign, even though only
accounts by religious and political opponents of shashAGka have survived to date.

In general, vaishnava hinduism was on the rise among the populace. Trade seems to have
further reduced and currency devalued (even during shashAGka, land is being valued in
cowries, not gold dInAra or silver drahma). In fact, during the last hundred years, metal
currency disappeared. The trading post of tAmralipta is hardly ever mentioned after this
period; Mithila, which used to be touched by eight trade routes earlier, now does not
seem to be mentioned at all. Most urban centers seemed to be in decay, and the land turns
rural with increasingly small holdings from the pressure on land. But the state still seems
rich.

Following this period, much of Bengal was ruled by the palas for about four hundred
years (8th-11th century AD). Stories of gopAla's election, dharmapAla's conquests, the
kaivarta revolt, and mahIpAla's popular policies fill Bengali folklore. However, during
this period, trade seems to have further reduced and the region became mainly
agricultural, though traders still seem important personages in the society. The capital
keeps shifting in this agricultural society: at various times it was in pATaliputra,
mudgagiri, rAmavati, vaTaparvataka, vilAsapUra (haradhAma), sahAsagaNDa,
kAJcanapUra, and kapilavasaka. The feudal structure became more ornate along with
increased bureaucracy. Poverty becomes apparent in Bengal at least in some selections
from carYAgIti (10th-12th cent AD) and saduktikarNAmRta (11th-12th cent. poems
collected in 1206 AD). Even though the pAla and candra states were mahAyAnI buddhist
(as was the first kamboja ruler) in name and in deed at least till the early 11th century, the
society in all of Bengal (excepting, naturally, those of the buddhists who had renounced
the worldly life and lived in the saGghas) followed the brahminical class division; but
was quite tolerant. Land grants to buddhist organizations are found alongside those to
brahmins. The buddhist vihAras at nAlanda, vikramashIlA, odantapurI and sAranAtha
flourished. Bengali language and literature rose to prominence in this period.

When however the sena and barman kings (12th-13th cent A.D.) came from the south
(karNATa and probably kaliGga respectively), replaced the pAla and candra dynasties
respectively, and established a strict hindu (but otherwise similar) regime much more
characteristic of their home regions (since the time of andhra-sAtavAhana period though
the times of pallava-cola-cAlukya) and north India than Bengal of that period, the
tolerance reduced and the caste system became very rigid and the influence of buddhism
reduced, and to some extent was forcibly reduced. This intolerance extended to the extant
kamboja kingdom as well. The documents of this period reflect that the lower castes are
not even mentioned in the royal edicts. The trading class no longer seems socally
respectable, beaureaucracy seems to have reached new heights and feudal lords becomes
very powerful. This is the period when Bengal developed its own brahminical tradition,
rules and laws.

Islam also started spreading slowly, especially in the magadha region. When the turkish
invaders started coming in to bengal, the society was ill-prepared to deal with the threat.
The slow corruption of the sena era and its religious rigidity had made it inflexible, slow,
poor, and too dependant on fatalism and astrology; to the extent that the horse-riding
swift-moving turks were almost seen as the inevitable future brought about by kalki, the
last incarnation of viSNu.
But, Bengal, by this time had a self-sufficient village agrarian economy, almost no long
distance trade, a feudal system and a distinct regional identity, its own language and
script, artistic and cultural styles, and distinct religious tradition. The vedic rituals were
weak and knowledge based philosophies were less important, emphasis was rather on the
very physical feelings and aesthetics. This, in turn, led to a very humanistic religious
streak, a bigger recognition of property rights of women, and a coupled rise of the
romantic and physical aspects of the lore of rAdhA and kRSNa, and the slow but steady
rise of the cult of feminine shakti which played such an important role during the
medieval period ushered in by the Turkish conquest.