To what extent is it possible to apply the

methods and procedures of natural science to

the sociological study of society?

some students
Questions tend about
which ask to find
thethis topic difficult.
scientific nature ofYou need to are
sociology consider whether sociology
fairly common. However,
can be studied in the same way as natural sciences. The topic is no more difficult than any
other topic in sociology. Don't be put off by the terms 'science' or 'natural science'. You
don't have to think scientifically to answer this question.

Most would agree that one of the aims of science is to measure The opening paragraph gives
phenomena using systematic, objective methods which are free a definition of science and
from personal bias. Scientists are interested in discovering an example from science which
universal laws which enable them to predict future events, for every school child should know.
example, that water boils at 100 degrees centigrade at standard
atmospheric pressure. This enables universal statements to be
made about the phenomenon under investigation, and allows
human beings to manipulate nature to their benefit. Scientists
believe that there is always an order, or truth, to discover, and
that phenomena do not occur randomly. In other words, there is
always a cause-and-effect relationship to discover.

In their study of society, positivists use the methods established This paragraph can be seen
by natural scientists in their investigations into the natural world. as an extension of the definition
Positivists argue that individuals react to external social forces, because it links science to
and that human behaviour can be studied in the same way as sociological method. It uses
phenomena in the natural world, in that it can be observed, objec- Durkheim's work on suicide to
tively measured and quantified. They argue that statistical analysis demonstrate this link. A frequent
reveals correlations, causes and ultimately laws of behaviour. mistake that students make in
Durkheim used scientific methodology in his study of suicide. By this type of essay is to write all
examining suicide statistics, he found a cause-and-effect relation- they know about Durkheim's
ship between external social forces and the suicide rate. This led theory of suicide.
Question 3
The work of Popper is vital to the
debate about whether sociology
can be seen as a science.
Therefore, make it your business
to have a thorough understanding
of his contribution to the debate.
You can also use Popper as a
critical evaluation of Marx in
most essays which include
Marxism.
12
Durkheim to conclude that the suicide rate is a social fact.
Positivists argue that when scientific methodology is applied to
the study of human behaviour, the results lead to the formation
of laws on social behaviour. Positivists criticise other methods of
social investigation and claim that sociology should always adopt
scientific methodology.
However, interactionists have criticised the positivist notion that
human beings merely react to social forces. Rather, interaction-
ists claim that individuals interpret situations and act accordingly.
Interactionists believe that scientific methodology is inappropriate
for studying human behaviour as it cannot uncover how individ-
uals experience and interpret the social world. Furthermore, inter-
actionists criticise the positivist idea that sociology should be
objective. Interactionists argue that sociologists should explore the
subjective meanings which human beings attach to their own
behaviour. Interactionists achieve this in their investigations by
using participant observation. This is a major method of investi-
gation in interactionist studies and demonstrates that, although
sociology can use scientific methods and procedures, it does not
do so extensively.
If the positivist method of enquiry was the only investigation
open to sociologists, then much social behaviour would remain
undiscovered. For example, it is doubtful whether Humphreys
could have conducted his study on homosexual activity in male
public toilets by using positivist methods.
Popper claims that it is possible for sociology to be scientific if it
follows the methodological procedures of science. However,
Popper questions the idea that scientific methods lead to the
discovery of absolute truth. According to Popper, nothing can be
proved to be completely true: for example, the statement that all
swans are white cannot be proved, as there may be a swan
somewhere of another colour which no one has seen. Although
sociology can apply the procedures of science, it does not neces-
sarily follow that this will lead to the discovery of universal laws
of social behaviour. Popper suggests that in order to overcome
this problem of validity, sociology should aim to disprove theories
and ideas. He argues that many sociological theories are not
precise enough to develop a hypothesis that cau be proved false,
and as a consequence are not scientific. For example, according to
this point of view, Marxism is not scientific because Marx did not
specify when and under what circumstances a revolution would
occur. However, Keat and Urry who work within a realist perspec-
tive, claim that Marxism is scientific because it looks at society
by examining its underlying structures. Realists believe that there
 are wide overlaps between the study of natural science and
sociology. They argue that both attempt to give an objective
analysis of the areas they investigate.

The positivist view and Popper's ideas are dependent on the

notion that science is based on objective methods and procedures.
According to Lynch, this is not always the case. Lynch carried out
an investigation to discover how scientists really act. He found
that when ambiguities in their results occur, scientists make
assumptions about the results and are likely to interpret them
according to their existing knowledge. This is subjective rather
than objective.
Kuhn also disagrees with the assertion that scientists engage
in the objective pursuit of knowledge. He argues that scientists work
within a paradigm, which is a set of shared beliefs that scientists
hold about the natural world. Kuhn believes that natural scien-
tific knowledge does not exist independently and objectively, but
is constructed by scientists within a framework of assumptions.
It is produced rather than discovered. Sociology has a number of
competing perspectives to explain social life, and consequently
no single agreed paradigm; for example, Marxists, functionalists
and interactionists all view the social world in different ways,
and come up with very different explanations of social behaviour.
For Kuhn, sociology is pre-paradigmatic and therefore is not a
science.

Anderson et al., writing from a realist perspective, have criticised The information on CJD is straight
Kuhn for underrating the disputes which go on between scientists from the newspapers. Don't be
in the world of natural science. Scientists are not always in agree- afraid to apply your own relevant
ment: for example, take the conflicting evidence and information examples. Examiners tend to
produced by various scientists about CJD, the human equivalent reward recent examples which
of 'mad cow disease'. Some scientists claim that it is safe to eat are successfully applied to the
beef while others advise against it. question. CJD is a good example
According to Sayer, in the world of natural science there are because it's topical. You could
two categories of study - open and closed structures. Sayer argues just as easily comment on the
that, within a closed structure, all the factors are controllable and ShelljGreenpeace debate on the
measurable, so the results of this study can formulate universal environmental effects of dumping
laws. However, this is not the case within an open structure where oil platforms at sea. By the time
the variables cannot be controlled and measured with the same you sit your exam, there might be
accuracy. There may be many areas of science which make up an other examples in the news which
open structure, for example, seismologists cannot accurately you can apply instead of CJD.
predict when and where an earthquake will occur. Sayer argues
that it is impossible for accurate predictions to be made in much
of the world of natural science, just as it is impossible to predict
human behaviour accurately in society which, like an earthquake,
has many variables acting on it. From the realist perspective there

A-Level Sociology: Essays 13

Quesfon3

are few differences between sociological studies and the investi-

gations of the natural sciences.

The conclusion summa rises the
positivist versus interactionist
debate. Note that it makes
references to when the scientific
method can and can't be applied
to sociology by using the exact
words of the question. The essay
title was in the form of a
question, and demands an
answer. Make sure you give
one in your conclusion.
In conclusion, what constitutes scientific sociology varies accord-
ing to the sociologist's values, which are generally governed by
the sociologist's theoretical perspective. Although it is possible to
apply the methods of natural science to the study of society, it is
clear that not all aspects of society can be investigated by scien-
tific methods. It is doubtful whether the application of scientific
methods and procedures would lead to accurate information about
gang behaviour, for example. Early positivists assumed that crime
statistics were generated by scientific methods and procedures,
but interactionist studies demonstrate that the picture of the
typical criminal which is built up through the manipulation of
statistics is a misconception.

The science debate will give you a good grounding in understanding Durkheim's work, particularly
in relation to his study of suicide. Make sure you pay particular attention to the spelling of
sociologists' names. All too frequently, students misspell Durkheim. This certainly does not look
impressive to the examiner.

Related questions

1 'The use of natural science methods is inappropriate in the study of society.' Discuss.

2 'Non-scientific studies of society are nothing more than subjective accounts.' Evaluate this
statement.

3 Evaluate the claim that sociology is a science.