A

PROJECT

ON

IONIZATION

DOSIMETER
PRITISH KOHLI –U09ME700
nd
2 YEAR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SARDAR VALLABHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SURAT
CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION

 IONIZATION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY SYSTEMS

 GEIGER COUNTER

 GEIGER MULLER TUBE

 EXAMPLES OF DOSIMETER

 UNITS OF RADIATION

 RADIATION SAFETY LIMITS

 OTHER RADIATION DETECTION TECHNIQUES

 1. INTRODUCTION
Dosimeters are electronic devices that are used to evaluate the degree of exposure that an individual experiences when
working in a potentially hazardous setting. Devices of this type are utilized in places where people deal with hazardous
waste or radioactive substances, or where there is regular exposure to high levels of sound. The function of the
dosimeter is to measure the rate of exposure and make sure that no one is subjected to what is considered an unsafe
level.

The most common type of instrument is a gas filled radiation detector (IONIZATION CHAMBER). This instrument
works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air
occurs. When a high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be attracted to
the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel to the positive side (the anode).
These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a very small current in the wires going to the
detector

Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays, remains undetectable by the senses, and the
damage it causes to the body is cumulative, related to the total dose received. Therefore, workers who are exposed to
radiation, such as radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, workers in laboratories
using radio nuclides, and some HAZMAT teams are required to wear dosimeters so their employers can keep a record of
their exposure, to verify that it is below legally prescribed limits.
2. IONIZATION CHAMBER DOSIMETRY SYSTEMS
1. CHAMBERS AND ELECTROMETERS

Ionization chambers are used in radiotherapy and in diagnostic radiology for the determination of radiation dose.
Ionization chambers come in various shapes and sizes, depending upon the specific requirements, but generally they all
have the following properties:

● An ionization chamber is basically a gas filled cavity surrounded by a conductive outer wall and having a central
collecting electrode (see Fig). The wall and the collecting electrode are separated with a high quality insulator to reduce
the leakage current when a polarizing voltage is applied to the chamber.

● A guard electrode is usually provided in the chamber to further reduce chamber leakage. The guard electrode
intercepts the leakage current and allows it to flow to ground, bypassing the collecting electrode. It also ensures
improved field uniformity in the active or sensitive volume of the chamber, with resulting advantages in charge
collection.

● Measurements with open air ionization chambers require temperature and pressure correction to account for the
change in the mass of air in the chamber volume, which changes with the ambient temperature and pressure.

2. CYLINDRICAL (THIMBLE TYPE) IONIZATION CHAMBERS

3. PARALLEL PLATE TYPE IONIZATION CHAMBERS 4. BRACH THERAPY CHAMBERS

5. EXTRAPOLATION CHAMBERS

Extrapolation chambers are parallel-plate chambers with a variable sensitive volume.

 3. GEIGER COUNTER

A Geiger counter, also called a Geiger-Muller counter, is a type of particle detector that measures ionizing radiation.
They are notable for being used to detect if objects emit nuclear radiation.

Description and Operation

Geiger counters are used to detect ionizing radiation (usually beta particles and gamma rays, but certain models can
detect alpha particles). An inert gas-filled tube (usually helium, neon or argon with halogens added) briefly conducts
electricity when a particle or photon of radiation makes the gas conductive. The tube amplifies this conduction by a
cascade effect and outputs a current pulse, which is then often displayed by a needle or lamp and/or audible clicks.
Modern instruments can report radioactivity over several orders of magnitude. Some Geiger counters can be used to
detect gamma radiation, though sensitivity can be lower for high energy gamma radiation than with certain other types
of detectors, because the density of the gas in the device is usually high, allowing most high energy gamma photons to
pass through undetected (lower energy photons are easier to detect, and are better absorbed by the detector. Examples
of this are the X-ray Pancake Geiger Tube).

Schematic of a Geiger Counter A deflection needle type Geiger Counter

 4. GEIGER-MULLER TUBE
A Geiger–Muller tube (or GM tube) is the sensing element of a Geiger counter instrument that can detect a single
particle of ionizing radiation, and typically produce an audible click for each. It was named for Hans Geiger who invented
the device in 1908,[1] and Walther Muller who collaborated with Geiger in developing it further in 1928.[2] It is a type of
gaseous ionization detector with an operating voltage in the Geiger plateau.

The Geiger counter is sometimes used as a hardware random number generator.

The usual form of GM tube is an end-window tube. This type is so-named because the tube has a window at one end
through which ionizing radiation can easily penetrate. The other end normally has the electrical connectors. There are
two types of end-window tubes: the glass-mantle type and the mica window type. The glass window type will not detect
alpha radiation since it is unable to penetrate the glass, but is usually cheaper and will usually detect beta radiation and
X-rays. The mica window type will detect alpha radiation but is more fragile.

Most tubes will detect gamma radiation, and usually beta radiation above about 2.5 MeV. Geiger–Müller tubes will not
normally detect neutrons since these do not ionise the gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which
either have the inside of the tube coated with boron or contain boron trifluoride or helium-3 gas. The neutrons interact
with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles or with the helium-3 nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and
electrons. These charged particles then trigger the normal avalanche process.

Although most tubes will detect gamma radiation, standard tubes are relatively inefficient, as most gamma photons will
pass through the low density gas without interacting. Using the heavier noble gases krypton or xenon for the fill effects a
small improvement, but dedicated gamma detectors use dense cathodes of lead or stainless steel in windowless tubes.
The dense cathode then interacts with the gamma flux, producing high-energy electrons, which are then detected.

Description and Operation

A Geiger–Muller tube consists of a tube filled with a low-pressure (~0.1 Atm) inert gas such as helium, neon or argon
(usually neon), in some cases in a Penning mixture, and an organic vapor or a halogen gas. The tube contains electrodes,
between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts, but no current flowing. The walls of the tube are
either entirely metal or have their inside surface coated with a conductor to form the cathode while the anode is a wire
passing up the center of the tube.

When ionizing radiation passes through the tube, some of the gas molecules are ionized, creating positively charged
ions, and electrons. The strong electric field created by the tube's electrodes accelerates the ions towards the cathode
and the electrons towards the anode. The ion pairs gain sufficient energy to ionize further gas molecules through
collisions on the way, creating an avalanche of charged particles.

This results in a short, intense pulse of current which passes (or cascades) from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode and is measured or counted.

Most detectors include an audio amplifier that produces an audible click on discharge. The number of pulses per second
measures the intensity of the radiation field. Some Geiger counters display an exposure rate (e.g. mR·h), but this does
not relate easily to a dose rate as the instrument does not discriminate between radiation of different energies.
Quenching

The ideal GM tube must produce a single pulse on entry of a single particle. It must not give any spurious pulses, and
must recover quickly to the passive state. Unfortunately for these requirements, the positive argon ions that eventually
strike the cathode become neutral argon atoms in an excited state by gaining electrons from the cathode. The excited
atoms return to the ground state by emitting photons and these photons cause avalanches and hence spurious pulse
discharge. Quenching of this process is thus important because a single particle entering the tube is counted by a single
discharge, and so the tube is unable to re-set and detect another particle until the discharge has been stopped. Also, the
tube is damaged by prolonged discharges.

External quenching uses external electronics to remove the high voltage between the electrodes. Self-quenching or
internal-quenching tubes stop the discharge without external assistance, by the addition of a small amount of a
polyatomic organic vapor such as butane or ethanol; or alternatively a halogen such as bromine or chlorine.

If a poor diatomic gas quencher is introduced to the tube, the positive argon ions, during their motion toward the
cathode, would have multiple collisions with the quencher gas molecules and transfer their charge and some energy to
them. Thus, neutral argon atoms would be produced and the quencher gas ions in their turn would reach the cathode,
gain electrons therefrom, and move into excited states which would decay by photon emission, producing tube
discharge. However, effective quencher molecules, when excited, lose their energy not by photon emission, but by
dissociation into neutral quencher atoms. No spurious pulses are thus produced.

Halogen Tubes

The halogen GM tubes were invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947,[3] and are now the most common form, since the
discharge mechanism takes advantage of the metastable state of the inert gas atom to ionize the halogen molecule and
produces a more efficient discharge, which permits it to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400–600 volts instead
of 900–1200 volts. It also has a longer life because the halogen ions can recombine whilst the organic vapor cannot and
is gradually destroyed by the discharge process (giving the latter a life of around 108 events).
 5. EXAMPLES OF DOSIMETER
BEAM THERAPY DOSIMETER (By DRDO)
Beam Therapy Dosimeter is portable digital instrument for an accurate measurement of dose and dose rate. The
detector is a 0.5 cc. ionization chamber provided with a perspex buildup cap, of wall thickness 4.75 mm, to enable
calibration and use of chamber with Co-60 radiation. The measuring system is an electrometer operational amplifier
with a high megohm resistor for exposure rate measurement and a low leakage capacitor for exposure measurement
connected in the feedback path. The output of the measuring system is displayed on a Digital Panel Meter.

Specifications:-
Detector: 0.5 cc. air equivalent ionization chamber
Wall material : Tufnol. Perspex build-up cap of thickness 4.75 mm provided for Co-60 radiation

Range
Two linear ranges:
Exposure rate : 0-1.999 Gy/min.
0-19.99 Gy/min.
Exposure : 0- 1.999 Gy
0- 19.99 Gy

Linearity : � 1% or � 1 digit.
Energy range : 30 KeV- 1.3 MeV high energy . photons and electrons (with appropriate calibration
factors)
Accuracy : + 3%
Reproducibility : + 0.1%
Chamber voltage : + 180 (V) and + 90(V/2) Volts
Power requirement : Mains (23OV AC, 50 Hz) OR 6 Volts DC (4 x1.5 V'D'type cells)
Dimensions : 430 mm x. 300 mm x 120 mm
Weight : 5.5 Kg (without batteries)

Application:-
Useful for measuring beam outputs from accelerators, X-ray and Telecobalt machines and for evaluating HVT of X-ray
beams

.
 The Sentry - Personal Alarming Dosimeter and Rate Meter

The Radiation Alert® Sentry is a Personal Alarming Dosimeter / Rate meter designed to protect personnel who are
exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation. The pocket sized unit has built in memory for recording data points for tracking
accumulated exposure. The Sentry Software option enables the user to generate incident reconstruction for analysis.
The vibrating and audio alarm can be easily set to desired levels for dose and dose rate. The Sentry features an audio
switch to choose between audible clicks or a discreet silent mode. A headphone jack is also included.

Specifications

Detector: Uncompensated GM Tube

Switch Functions:
Operating Range: Dose Rate:
Dose Rate Linearity:
Energy Response:
Gamma Sensitivity:
Audible Alarms:
Alarm Thresholds:
Connectors:
Power Requirements:
Temperature Range:
Weight:
Size:
Includes:
Power, Audio Clicks On/Off, Vibrate & Audible, Alert, Silent Vibrating Only Alert
.1 - 15 R/hr, Accumulated Dose: .1 - 65 R
Better than ±15% up to 15 R
Down to 30 KeV
1.5 cps/mR/hr referenced to Co-60
90db @ 1 ft.
• accumulated dose
• dose rate
Dose Alarm Default 500 mR
Rate Alarm Default 50 mR/hr
Alarm and warning levels are user selectable with
Optional Sentry Software.
Headphone Connector, Internal Serial Header connector (cable comes w/ Optional
Sentry Software).
9 Volt Battery. Typical battery life is 1500 hrs at background.
-20° - + 50°C (-4° - +122°F)
88 g (3.1 oz.), 8.3 oz w/ Xtreme Boot Option
3.8 x 2.4 x 1 in (96.5 x 70 x 25.4 mm)
Carrying Case
 6. UNITS OF RADIATION
Radioactivity is measured in Becquerel (Bq) per second. 1 Bq means one disintegration per second. It is also
measured in Curie (Ci), named for Madam Curie, who shared Nobel Prize with her husband. 1 Curie = 3.7 x
1010 Bq or disintegrations per second. The radiation absorbed dose is measured in Gray, rad, rem and Sievert
(Sv).

In the United States, absorbed dose is commonly given in rad or Gray and other protection quantities, such as
equivalent dose and effective dose, are given in rem. The following table is provided to help avoid confusion
among persons not familiar with these quantities. The use of the newer system of units would be particularly
useful during radiological incidents involving international responders.

Roentgen :A unit for measuring the amount of gamma or X rays in air.

Rad :A unit for measuring absorbed energy from radiation.
Rem :A unit for measuring biological damage from radiation.

Conversions for Effective Dose, Equivalent Dose, Dose Equivalent, and ambient dose equivalent

0.001 rem = 1 mrem = 0.01 mSv

0.01 rem = 10 mrem = 0.1 mSv

0.1 rem = 100 mrem = 1 mSv

1 rem = 1000 mrem = 10 mSv

10 rem = 100mSv = 0.1 Sv

100 rem = 1000 mSv = 1 Sv (Sievert)

1000 rem = 10 Sv

Conversions for Absorbed Dose

0.001 rad = 1 mrad = 0.01 mGy

0.01 rad = 10 mrad = 0.1 mGy

0.1 rad = 100 mrad = 1 mGy

1 rad = 1000 mrad = 10 mGy

10 rad = 100 mGy = 0.1 Gy

100 rad = 1000 mGy = 1 Gy (Gray)

Measured Dose (Temporary Measurements) – gamma radiation or X-rays

1 R (roentgen) = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 Sv

 7. RADIATION SAFETY LIMITS
Accepted good practice for the use of radioactive material and radiation-producing machines results in personnel
radiation exposures being reduced to values as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA). International Commission on
Radiological Protection(ICRP) has published guidelines for maintaining radiation doses at ALARA levels. "As exposure
may involve some degree of risk, and thus some detriment, the comprehensive system of dose limitation is aimed at the
following principal objectives:

a) To ensure compliance with the dose limits;

b) To avoid the use of unnecessary sources of exposure;

c) To provide for operational control of specific procedures, both individually and in combination, so that the resulting
doses are as low as is reasonably achievable, economic and social considerations being taken into account; and

d) To provide a general framework to ensure that these doses are justifiable in terms of benefits that would not
otherwise have been received.

DOSE LIMITS

ICRP has recommended dose limits for occupational and public exposures. In setting the dose limits for radiation worker,
ICRP has ensured that, for a continued exposure at that level, the estimated risk is not unacceptable. By considering
total harm arising from somatic(fatal cancer, non -fatal cancer) and hereditary effects, the commission recommends a
limit to the effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over 5 years(100 mSv in 5 years) with further provision that the
effective dose should not exceed 50 mSv(30 mSv as per AERB) in any single year. The effective dose limit ensures the
avoidance of deterministic effect in all body tissues and organs. The annual limits are 150 mSv for the lens and 500 mSv
for the skin, averaged over any 1 cm2 regardless of the area exposed. For internal radiation exposure, limits are
prescribed in terms of annual limits on intake (ALI) for different radio nuclides, which are based on a committed
effective dose of 20 mSv. The basis for the control of occupational exposure of women who are not pregnant is the same
as that for men. However, once pregnancy has been declared, the conceptus should be protected by applying a
supplementary equivalent dose limit, to the surface of the woman's abdomen of 2 mSv for the remainder of pregnancy
and by limiting the intakes of radio nuclides to about 1/20 of ALI. Members of the public include children who might be
subjected to an increased risk and may receive no direct benefit from the exposure. Hence, the limit for public exposure
is an effective dose of 1 mSv in a year. However, in special circumstances, a higher value of effective dose could be
allowed in a single year, provided the average over 5 years does not exceed 1 mSv per year. For preventing deterministic
effects in lens of the eye and skin, annual dose limits of 15 mSv and 50 mSv respectively have been recommended for
the public.
The sensitivity of various types of cells is shown below. The dose given in each case is the lowest amount of
radiation that cells in the tissue can absorb without being damaged:

 Fetus: 2 Gy
 Bone marrow: 2 Gy
 Ovaries: 2–3 Gy
 Lens of the eye: 5 Gy
 A child's bone: 20 Gy
 An adult's bone: 60 Gy
 A child's muscle: 20–30 Gy
 An adult's muscle: 100 or more Gy

These children live in a village not far from the Chernobyl nuclear plant. Four years after the 1986 Chernobyl accident,
these children are suffering intestinal problems from exposure to radiation.

Radiation levels being detected in Japan.

 8. OTHER RADIATION DETECTION TECHNIQUES
FILM DOSIMETRY
The film badge dosimeter, or film badge, is a dosimeter used for monitoring cumulative exposure to ionizing radiation.
The badge consists of two parts: photographic film, and a holder. The film is removed and developed to measure
exposure.

THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETRY
A thermo luminescent dosimeter, or TLD, is a type of radiation dosimeter. A TLD measures ionizing radiation exposure
by measuring the amount of visible light emitted from a crystal in the detector when the crystal is heated. The amount
of light emitted is dependent upon the radiation exposure. Materials exhibiting thermo luminescence in response to
ionizing radiation include but are not limited to calcium fluoride, lithium fluoride, calcium sulfate, lithium borate,
calcium borate, potassium bromide and feldspar.

SEMICONDUCTOR DOSIMETRY
A silicon diode dosimeter is a p–n junction diode. The diodes are produced by taking n type or p type silicon and
counter-doping the surface to produce the opposite type material. These diodes are referred to as n–Si or p–Si
dosimeters, depending upon the base material. Both types of diode are commercially available, but only the p–Si type is
suitable for radiotherapy dosimetry, since it is less affected by radiation damage and has a much smaller dark current.
Radiation produces electron–hole (e–h) pairs in the body of the dosimeter, including the depletion layer. The charges
(minority charge carriers) produced in the body of the dosimeter, within the diffusion length, diffuse into the depleted
region. They are swept across the depletion region under the action of the electric field due to the intrinsic potential. In
this way a current is generated in the reverse direction in the diode.

FILM DOSIMETER TLD DETECTOR HIGH PURITY GERMANIUM DETECTOR