This is a document for everyday use of electricity in a household.

Many circuits are a mixture of

electrical, mechanical, and electronic components, which interact in different ways to produce
strange and useful effects. Topics include commercially generated AC as well as AC generated
from inverters for alternative power use (such as off-the-grid homes, cabins or recreational
vehicles.) Electricity has become an integral part of life and difficult to imagine to be without it.

Contents
• 1 Distribution and Domestic Power Supply
○ 1.1 Overcurrent protection
• 2 Single phase electric power
• 3 Inverters and Battery Based AC
○ 3.1 Batteries
• 4 Switched Mode Power Supply
• 5 Major Classes of Appliances
○ 5.1 Single-Phase AC motors
○ 5.2 Shaded-pole synchronous motor
○ 5.3 Incandescent Lamps
 5.3.1 Inrush Current
 5.3.2 Evaporation
 5.3.3 Voltage and Efficiency
○ 5.4 Fluorescent Lamps
 5.4.1 Passive Control
 5.4.2 Active (Electronic) Control
○ 5.5 CRT Based Appliances
○ 5.6 Computer Towers
○ 5.7 Other Electronic Loads
• 6 Control Elements
○ 6.1 Light Dimmers
• 7 Energy Meters
○ 7.1 Mechanical Energy Meters
○ 7.2 Electronic Energy Meters
• 8 Lightning
• 9 See also

[edit] Distribution and Domestic Power Supply

Unlike DC, AC can be stepped up to a higher voltage. Because of Ohm's law (Voltage equals
Current times Resistance), electrical energy losses are dependent on current flow, not on energy
flow. By using transformers, the voltage of the power can be stepped up to a high voltage so that
the power may be distributed over long distances at low currents and hence low losses due to the
resistance of the conductor. The voltage can then be stepped down again so that it is safe for
domestic supply.
Three-phase electrical generation is very common and is a more efficient use of conductors.
Three-phase electricity distribution is common only in industrial premises and many industrial
electric motors are designed for it. Three current waveforms are produced that are 120 degrees
out of phase with each other. At the load end of the circuit the return legs of the three phase
circuits can be coupled together at the neutral point, where the three currents sum to zero. This
means that the currents can be carried using only three cables, rather than the six that would
otherwise be needed. Three phase power is a kind of polyphase system.
In many situations only a single phase is needed to supply street lights or residential consumers.
When distributing three-phase electric power, a fourth or neutral cable is run in the street
distribution to provide a complete circuit to each house. Different houses in the street are placed
on different phases of the supply so that the load is balanced, or spread evenly, across the three
phases when a lot of consumers are connected. Thus the supply cable to each house usually only
consists of a live and neutral conductor with possibly an earthed armoured sheath.In India there
is a recent trend of providing a High Voltage line up to the last end of the residence & then
stepping it down to avoid pilferage of the Energy. Although this method has certain advantages
but it has potential dangers associated with it.
For safety, a third wire is often connected between the individual electrical appliances in the
house and the main electric switchboard or fusebox. The third wire is known in Britain and most
other English-speaking countries as the earth wire, whereas in America it is the ground wire. At
the main switchboard the earth wire is connected to the neutral wire and also connected to an
earth stake or other convenient earthing point (to Americans, the grounding point) such as a
water pipe. In the event of a fault, the earth wire can carry enough current to blow a fuse and
isolate the faulty circuit. The earth connection also means that the surrounding building is at the
same voltage as the neutral point. The most common form of electrical shock occurs when a
person accidentally forms a circuit between a live conductor and ground. A residual-current
circuit breaker is designed to detect such a problem and break the circuit before electric shock
causes death. As many parts of the neutral system are connected to the earth, balancing currents,
known as earth currents, may flow between the generator and the consumer and other parts of
the system, which are also earthed, to keep the neutral voltage at a safe level. This system of
earthing the neutral point to balance the current flows for safety reasons is known as a multiple
earth neutral system.
[edit] Overcurrent protection
In households circuit breakers or fuses are used to switch off the supply of electricity very
quickly if the current is too large, for example a limit of 15 Amperes in a 115 Volt circuit.
In distribution systems automatic protection systems are used for that purpose. There may
be two stages:
• A very fast disconnection if the problem causing the overcurrent is nearby, and
• A time-delayed backup operation if the overcurrent originates outside the local area.
Unfortunately in some cases that can have a cascading effect, because a switching-off here can
lead to overcurrent(s) in adjacent circuits that will switch off later. "Blackouts" can be the result.
There is also the problem of the source of power generation getting disconnected from
the load, causing big problems with the balance between the amount of power needed and
the amount of power available in many parts of, or even in the whole system.
There is a difference between the time it will take to restore that balance later, depending on the
kind of generation (from coal, oil, or nuclear), and after a "blackout" it may take many hours to
restore that balance.
[edit] Single phase electric power
The generation of AC electric power is commonly three phase, in which the waveforms of three
supply conductors are offset from one another by 120°. The design of the power generators has
three sets of coils placed 120 degrees apart rotating in a magnetic field. This creates three
separate sine waves of electricity that are displaced from each other in time by 120 degrees of
rotation (1/3 of a circle). Standard frequencies of rotation are either 50 Hertz (cycles per second)
in Europe or 60 Hertz in North America. The voltage across any pair of these three conductors,
or between a single conductor and ground (in a grounded system) is what is known as "single
phase" electric power. Single phase power is what is commonly available to residential and light-
commercial consumers in most distribution power grids. In North America, the single phase that
is supplied is developed across a transformer coil at the utility pole (for aerial drop) or
transformer pad (for underground) distribution. This single coil is center tapped and the tap is
grounded to develop two waveforms that are 180 degrees out of phase with each other with 1/2
the voltage. This then creates a 120/240 volt system that is delivered to the customer. The
voltage from either side of the coil to the center tap (ground) is 120 volts whereas the voltage
between the two conductors on either end of the coil develops the full voltage of 240 volts.
[edit] Inverters and Battery Based AC
An inverter is a circuit for converting direct current to alternating current. An inverter can have
one or two switched-mode power supplies (SMPS).
Early inverters consisted of an oscillator driving a transistor, that is used to interrupt the
incoming direct current to create a square wave. This is then fed through a transformer to smooth
the square wave into a sine wave and to produce the required output voltage.
More efficient inverters use various tricks to try to get a reasonable sine wave at the transformer
input rather than relying on the transformer to smooth it. Capacitors can be used to smooth the
flow of current into and out of the transistor. Also, it is possible to produce a more sinusoidal
wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two voltages, or positive and negative inputs
with a central ground. By connecting the transformer input terminals in sequence between the
positive rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and the negative
rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped sinusoid is generated at the transformer input and the
current drain on the direct current supply is less choppy[dubious — see talk page] .
Modified Sine Wave inverters convert the (usually 12 V DC) battery voltage to high frequency
(20 kHz) AC, so that a small transformer can be used. This is then stepped up to a higher voltage
(say 160 V) AC. This output is converted to DC at the same voltage, and then inverted again to a
quasi sine wave output (about 120 V RMS). Another disadvantage of the modified sine wave
inverters is that the output voltage depends on the battery voltage.
It is quite expensive to obtain a good sine wave from an inverter. The quoted accuracy
(harmonic distortion) for most is less than 60%, and this will have an effect on the appliances
connected to the output of the inverter. This leads to noise in lot of appliances[dubious — see talk page]
and damages electric motors, as they run significantly hotter.
High end inverters (> $2,000) produce waveforms which are closer to a mathematical sine wave
than those produced by the utility.
[edit] Batteries
Most home systems use conventional lead acid batteries for storage. They are cheap, and are
deep cycle batteries, i.e., they can be discharged completely and charged again many times. You
cannot use automobile batteries in inverters, as they are only used to provide a large starting
current, and are not meant to be discharged completely. The lead acid batteries have the
disadvantage that they have to be replenished with distilled water every few months, and if it
dries out, it cannot be repaired. However, they can provide the large surge currents which are
required by many loads (such as induction motors) which may be connected to the system.
[edit] Switched Mode Power Supply
Wikipedia has related
information at DC to DC
converter

A switched-mode power supply, or SMPS or switching regulator, is an electronic power supply

circuit that attempts to produce a smoothed, constant-voltage, output from a varying input
voltage.
Switched-mode power supplies may be designed to convert from alternating current or direct
current, or both. They generally output direct current, although an inverter is technically a
switched-mode power supply.
Switched-mode power supplies operate by using an inverter to convert the input direct current
supply to alternating current, usually at around 20 kHz. If the input is alternating current but at a
lower frequency (such as 50 Hz or 60 Hz line power) then an inverter is still used to bump the
frequency up.
This high frequency means that the output transformer of the inverter will operate more
efficiently than if it were run at 50 Hz or 60 Hz, due to hysteresis in the transformer core, and the
transformer will not need to be as large or heavy. This high-frequency output is then fed through
a rectifier to produce the output direct current.
Regulation is achieved through feedback. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage
and the result used to alter the switching frequency or duty cycle of the inverter oscillator, which
affects its output voltage.
Switched-mode PSUs in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal
inputs, meaning that they can accept power from most mains supplies throughout the world, with
frequencies from 50 Hz to 60 Hz and voltages from 100 V to 240 V.
Unlike most other appliances, switched mode power supplies tend to be constant power devices,
drawing more current as the line voltage reduces. This may cause stability problems in some
situations such as emergency generator systems.
Also, maximum current draw occurs at the peaks of the waveform cycle. This means that basic
switched mode power supplies tend to produce more harmonics and have a worse power factor
than other types of appliances. However, higher-quality switched-mode power supplies with
power-factor correction (PFC) are available, which are designed to present close to a resistive
load to the mains.
The term power factor with respect to switched-mode supplies is misleading as it doesn't have
much to do with leading or lagging voltage, but the way in which it loads the circuit (i.e. only at
certain points in the cycle).
There are several types of switched-mode power supplies, classified according to the circuit
topology.
1. buck regulator (single inductor; output voltage < input voltage)
2. boost regulator (single inductor; output voltage > input voltage)
3. buckboost regulator (single inductor; output voltage can be more or less than the input
voltage)
4. flyback regulator (uses output transformer; allows multiple outputs and input-to-output
isolation)
5. forward regulator (uses output transformer; allows multiple outputs and input-to-output
isolation)
6. Cuk converter (uses a capacitor for energy storage; produces negative voltage for positive
input)
[edit] Major Classes of Appliances
[edit] Single-Phase AC motors
The most common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole synchronous motor, which is most
commonly used in devices requiring lower torque such as electric fans, microwave ovens and
other small household appliances.
Another common single-phase AC motor is the induction motor, commonly used in major
appliances such as washing machines and clothes dryers. These motors can generally provide
greater starting torque by using a special startup winding in conjunction with a starting capacitor
and a centrifugal switch. When starting, the capacitor and special winding are temporarily
connected to the power source and provide starting torque. Once the motor reaches speed, the
centrifugal switch disconnects the capacitor and startup winding.
[edit] Shaded-pole synchronous motor
Shaded-pole synchronous motors are a class of AC motor that uses single phase electric power to
convert electric power to mechanical energy. They work by using a squirrel-cage rotor and a split
stator that has copper shorting rings placed on it so as to shade a portion of the stator's magnetic
field enough to provide starting torque.
The number of poles in an induction motor is an important factor in its interaction with non sine
wave input. As a rule of thumb, motors with larger number of poles are more sensitive to
harmonic distortion.
[edit] Incandescent Lamps
Early applications of lighting was using lamps which used a heated filament to provide light. The
filament was made of tungsten and was placed inside a near vacuum glass enclosure. While it
was cheap, it produced a lot of heat, so that it was inefficient too. Note that the incandescent bulb
is a purely resistive load (power factor 1).
[edit] Inrush Current

Wikipedia has related

information at inrush current

The incandescent bulb is designed to operate at high temperatures. At normal operating

temperatures, a tungsten filament has a resistance nearly 20 times its room-temperature
resistance. So when a bulb is turned on, it draws a current nearly 20 times the normal current
until it warms up. This current surge is called the inrush current, which lasts for 30-100
milliseconds. Again, something different from the "dumb load" point of view. Thus, 5 100 W
bulbs in parallel, which would consume just 500 W in normal circumstances, will have a inrush
load of more than 10000 W. More importantly, a huge current flows, and it is important that all
components on the line can carry the current. For larger lamps, a small current flows to keep it at
a reasonable temperature, called the "keep alive".
[edit] Evaporation
Another factor often overlooked in lamps is the resistance vs. time values. For an incandescent
lamp, the power is proportional to the area. The tungsten slowly evaporates as the bulb ages, so
that the power (and hence the light) produced by the lamp drops. Further, the light drops at about
5 times the rate of the power drop, so that the lamp becomes very inefficient with age.
After running for 75% of its rated life, an incandescent lamp must produce more than 93% of its
initial light output in order to pass the standard test described in IEC Publication 60064.
[edit] Voltage and Efficiency

Wikipedia has related

information at incandescent
light bulb#Voltage, light
output, and lifetime

The efficiency of an incandescent lamp is measured in terms of the amount of light produced per
watt of power consumed. As the temperature of the lamp decreases, the light output per watt
decreases. Thus, at a lower voltage (brownout), the efficiency of the lamp is very low.
• saying that the efficiency is "very low" is purely subjective - "very low" compared to
what?

The tungsten filament normal operating temperature is selected to minimize the net cost of
running lighting fixtures, balancing efficiency and lifetime. Hotter filament temperatures cost
more because they wear out the filament faster and require more frequent replacements. Colder
filament temperatures cost more because they require more electrical power for a given amount
of visible light.
The luminous efficiency of any black-body radiator increases with temperature up to 6300 °C
(6600 K or 11,500 °F). Tungsten melts at 3695 K (6192°F), where it, like any black-body
radiator, would theoretically have a luminous efficiency of 52 lumens per watt.
A 50-hour-life projection bulb is designed to operate at 50 °C (90 °F) below that melting point,
where it may achieve up to 22 lumens/watt.
A 1000 hour lifespan general service bulb typically operates at 2000 K to 3300 K (about 3100-
5400°F), achieving 10 to 17 lumens/watt[citation needed]. As you increase the voltage V of an
incandescent light bulb, the incandescent bulb puts out more light -- proportional to the fourth
power of V -- but the life of the incandescent bulb is then decreased by the eighth power of V.[1]
[edit] Fluorescent Lamps
The tungsten lamp has been replaced in most applications by fluorescent lamps. Fluorescent
lamps have a power factor close to 0.25. Fluorescent lamps typically rate about 40 W, and they
provide much more (about 5 times) light compared to an incandescent lamp of the same wattage.
they also give out less heat.
[edit] Passive Control
Early fluorescent lamps used a ballast (also called a choke coil), which was essentially an
inductor to control the current in the lamp. Also, the lamp was started by using a starter, which is
essentially a neon thermistor which heats up and closes a circuit. With the choke coil in series
with it, the lamp has a relatively small voltage drop across it so that the starter doesn't close
again. As the starter is in parallel with the lamp, the same starter can be used to start several
lamps. One particularly annoying aspect of the electromagnetic ballast is the 60 Hz flicker
produced. While it does not bother most people, some find it extremely irritating. Also, the
electromagnetic ballast increases power consumption by about 25% when on utility power.
[edit] Active (Electronic) Control
Modern lamps use electronic circuits to control the current, so that both the starter and the choke
coil are redundant, and they behave much better on both inverter based and utility power. Many
electronic ballasts will boost the frequency to something in the range of 20 kHz, so that there is
no flicker problem.
[edit] CRT Based Appliances
The other major source of power consumption are CRTs (Cathode Ray Tubes) like computer
monitors and televisions.
[edit] Computer Towers
The towers of a modern computer draw their power from a SMPS, which has been detailed
below. The most popular computers today (running P4s and 3D cards) consume several hundred
watts of power.
[edit] Other Electronic Loads
Other electronic items in a household draw their power from the mains using a wall wart. The
steady state power consumed by each component is pretty low, and in many cases (likeprinters,
scanners etc.), they don't work continuously.
[edit] Control Elements
Control elements are the switches, dimmers, and regulators which are connected to the circuit.
They are, by their very nature non linear elements and their behavior is quite complicated, and
not quite well represented by their simple schematic symbols.
[edit] Light Dimmers
Light dimmers work by cutting off parts of the input sine wave. While this works for resistive
loads, even here it has side effects.
[edit] Energy Meters
Most households are on the grid, i.e. their electricity comes from a utility, which installs an
energy meter on the premises. The meter is then read either manually or by phone line
connection to the utility offices.
The utility wants your power factor to be as close to 1 as possible, and businesses are penalized
if they cannot achieve a target set by the utility, as the transmission losses are nearly the same for
both active and reactive power consumed. For home users no such rule exists, and it is
interesting to see the changes in the power consumption patterns now that most of the home
electricity use is not lighting, and even the lighting is by fluorescent lamps which are not
resistive in nature. The utility only charges the home uses for active power, so that a low power
factor is not an issue from an economic perspective, and transmission losses within the
household are negligible.

[edit] Mechanical Energy Meters

Mechanical energy meters are discussed in high school physics books as applications of Lenz's
law, viz., the generation of eddy currents which oppose the change that caused it. The number of
revolutions of a metal disc between the poles of an electromagnet represents the amount of
energy consumed. They are more accurately described as electro-mechanical meters, as they use
mechanical components like a spinning disc to measure the energy consumed.
[edit] Electronic Energy Meters
Electronic meters work by measuring the current flowing through the resistors in it at any time.
The unit of measurement in the meter is the number of pulses, which is the smallest unit of
energy measured by the meter. The pulses are calibrated in terms of kilowatt-hours of electricity,
typically 3200 pulses per unit. Apart from the numbered wheel display found in mechanical
meters, the energy consumed is also noted inside chips in the meter, so tampering can be
detected.
[edit] Lightning
Lightning is a very major cause for concern for a home user. Lightning consists of an immense
current source which discharges itself through anything it can find. Proper lightning control and
defense is very tricky, and improper methods can increase the risk to man and machine.
A simple lightning arrestor consists of a choke which is in series with the loads. A spark gap
which is grounded runs parallel. When lightning strikes, the pulse is almost a square wave, and
the choke acts as a large resistance. At the same time, the large voltage generated causes the air
to break down across the spark gap, and it acts as a short,