Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Why ?

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GDT) is a method for precisely defining the geometry of mechanical
parts. It introduces tools which allow mechanical designers, fabricators, and inspectors to effectively
communicate complex geometrical descriptions which are not otherwise able to be described in a defined
language.

Figure 1.1 A good example of why GDT is needed is the automobile stamped
chassis shown in Figure 1.1. The rear quarter panel must fit snugly in
order to allow spot welds and in this competitive business, cosmetic
appearance and noise abatement are critical. Without GDT, geometric
description of this assembly is difficult if not impossible. Computer
modelling of these complex surfaces continues to increase the
complexity of interface shapes.

Illustrated in Figure 1.2 is an imprecise sand-cast sewer termination fitting. Its

hole pattern must mate with the corresponding pattern of the equally imprecise
mating pipe. Flatness is also an issue with these rough-surfaced parts.
Inspectors must be able to pass as many parts as possible without sacrificing fit.
Tens of thousands of the parts are produced. GDT allows fabricators, inspectors,
and assemblers to match covers with equally imprecise pipes.

Figure 1.2

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is a vast language of which there are many facets. However, what is
commonly used is a small subset of the total. This subset is based on concepts which MUST be learned in order
to progress further. Without a solid understanding of these fundamentals, one cannot gain a firm grasp of later
topics. We will present the most essential (and often misinterpreted) topics in a step-by-step fashion, starting
with a simple two-dimensional case. After the 2D case has been understood, the full three-dimensional
geometry will be described. We also include common areas of confusion and a reference section, but at this
point the primary objective is to explain the fundamentals. Please select "2D DATUMS" from the menu bar to
the left to continue.
History of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing symbols have been in use since at least the turn of the century. GDT
was especially important during the Second World War in relation to extremely high volume production of
Liberty Ships, aircraft, and ground vehicles. The automotive industry, with its high volumes, has also benefited
from GDT. The computer industry, in particular mass storage manufacturers, have used GDT extensively to
increase their yields of high-volume and low-margin hard disk drives. However, as with most engineering and
scientific methodologies, GDT was not rigorously established and documented until later in the twentieth
century. The American National Standards Institute publication in 1982 of ANSI Y14.5M-1982 was a turning
point in the rigorous, unambiguous standardization of the methodology.

2D Hole Positioning

Figure 2.6a: Traditional Plus/Minus Tolerancing

Now that we have rigorously defined how we fixture the part for
dimensioning features, we can define where the hole is. Figure 2.6a
shows two dimensions which show where the hole is with respect to
datums A and B. Plus/minus tolerances are also shown, as is a square
tolerance zone within which the center of the circle must lie. Although it
may seem that we are not using GDT here, without the GDT datums, the
two dimensions shown are ambiguous.

However, the plus/minus tolerance zone is not clearly defined since we

do not know what is meant by the "center of the circle". In addition, a
square tolerance zone is typically not what is needed for defining the
position of a hole with respect to a mating shaft, as shown in Figure 2.7a.

Figure 2.6b
Figure 2.7a

Figure 2.6b illustrates an isolated case where a square tolerance

zone would be appropriate.

Figure 2.7 : GDT of the Same Hole

Figure 2.7 illustrates the equivalent GDT tolerancing of the hole
position. The tolerance zone within which the center of the circle
must lie is circular rather than rectangular. We will later learn
how the size and position of this circular zone is defined based
upon the symbols shown. In GDT, the "center of the circle" is
defined as the center of the best-fit circle determined by the
actual hole. Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) equipment
typically uses at least three points on an actual hole to define the
best-fit circle, as illustrated in Figure 2.7b. Figure 2.7c shows the CMM probe touching the side of the hole for
a data point. The CMM machine of course uses the A and B functional datum planes as its position and
orientation references. A big advantage of GDT is that the circular tolerance zone contains 57% more area
than an equivalent square tolerance zone. The largest deviation from true position occurs on the diagonals of a
square, and the circle meets this, while providing 40% more possible deviation along the vertical and
horizontal. Therefore, more parts can be accepted by inspection. With the square tolerance zone, parts that
 can fit are rejected since typically only the vertical and horizontal location deviations
are checked.

Figure 2.7b : Best Fit Circle Center

Figure 2.7c
The 7.5 and 3.0 dimensions in Figure 2.7 do not have attached tolerances for a
reason. They are called basic dimensions and represent the exact position of the
center of the circular tolerance zone within which the center of the circle must lie.
They can be recognized as basic dimensions because they are box framed. The
diameter of the circular tolerance zone comes from the feature control frame which is
below the 2.5 hole diameter dimension. The diameter of the tolerance zone in the
feature control frame is 0.5 inches. The first symbol in the frame designates the
tolerance as a positional tolerance. The -A- and -B- are the GDT datums to which the zone refers. For a two
dimensional problem, the importance of -A- and -B- is not apparent, but we will see in the 3D example how
they come into play. For now, let us notice that the tolerance zone location is located via -A- and -B-. The
±0.2 tolerance on the 2.5 hole diameter allows the diameter of the hole to vary from 2.3 to 2.7, but the center
of the hole must still lie within the circular tolerance zone described above. The ± 0.2 tolerance will be
discussed further under bonus tolerancing.

Figure 2.8
There is another way in which the circular tolerance zone for the hole can be interpreted. Figure 2.8 shows this
tolerance zone as being the annular "racetrack" formed by two circles centered at 7.5, 3.0, nominally 2.5 in
diameter, and ±.125 above and below 2.5 in diameter. If the actual hole profile is within this "racetrack", it is
very similar to its center being within the 0.5 diameter circular tolerance zone. This interpretation of hole
positional tolerances is common and probably originated before CMM machines allowed finding the center of
the best fit circle. This interpretation lends itself to inspection with calipers, gauge pins, and the like. However,
in cases where extreme precision and the utmost certainty of geometry are required, the true GDT (ANSI
Y14.5) definition should be used.

Now that we have observed how GDT can clearly define hole position, let us move on to bonus tolerancing. If
you would like to skip bonus tolerancing for now and move on to the 3D case of what we have discussed, see
3D Datums.

2D Datum Examples
 It has been found that the most powerful (yet often misunderstood) use for
GDT is in the area of sizing and positioning of holes which must mate with
shafts. We will start with a two-dimensional geometry and progress to three
dimensions.

Figure 2.1
Pictured in Figure 2.1 is a two-dimensional part. The roughness of its
edges has been greatly exaggerated in order to clarify the discussion. It
might be thought of as a part with plane dimensions large compared with
its dimension into the page. For example, this might be a sheet metal part
which is .125 inches thick with a length and width of about ten inches.
In this example we will determine the position of the hole and in the
process, find out why mutually-perpendicular ordered datums must be
defined in order to define the position. Figure 2.1 shows the part with
possible ways to define the location of the hole. As has been made
apparent, the linear dimensions originate from the sides of the part, but it
is not clear from where on the sides the dimensions should begin. (We consider where the center of the hole is
later.) The method of fixturing the part for measurement of its features is critical since many different groups
of people will be measuring the part: design, fabrication, fabrication inspection,
purchasing inspection, etc. Without a common agreement as to how the part will be
measured, measurements become meaningless.

Figure 2.2
One way to define where the dimensions should originate is shown in Figure 2.2. A steel
straight edge can be used to define a line for the two edges. One problem with this
method is that the two defined lines are not necessarily perpendicular, as shown in the
figure. Without perpendicularity, the part dimensions do not agree with print dimensions, since print
dimensions are assumed to be perpendicular.

We can force the two defined lines to be perpendicular to each other by using a right-angle straight edge, as
shown in Figure 2.3. Now when the part is pushed against these two edges so that it cannot move (rock), the
two edges can be used as mutually perpendicular datums. However, as Figure 2.4 shows, the part position
with respect to these two datums is ambiguous. The final orientation of the part depends upon which side
contacts first.

Figures 2.3 and 2.4

Figure 2.5 illustrates an ordered datum scheme that prevents confusion. The first side that is pressed against
one of the edges will contact at the two highest points of the part edge. The part now only has one degree of
freedom left: it can slide back and forth against the straight edge.

Figure 2.5
Once we butt the perpendicular side of the part against the corresponding straight edge, we will have
completely constrained the position and orientation of the part in 2D space, as shown in Figure 2.5. This
second side contacts its straight edge at one high point since it is not able to rotate to contact more than one
high point. Figure 2.5 labels the datums as A and B, in the order of fixturing hierarchy. These datums are
referred to as "functional datums" since they contact the part and are physical hardware used, for example, on
a factory floor.

With this ordering of datums, we have clearly positioned the part in 2D space. As we have seen, this clear
fixturing of the part is critical since it defines from where features are to be dimensioned on the part. Please
continue by selecting "2D Hole/Shaft" from the menu on the left.

SIDE NOTE: Since this is a two-dimensional example, the part has three degrees of freedom: two translational
and one rotational. The reason for the first two high points of contact has to do with the rotational degree of
freedom of the part: one point allows the part to rotate, two does not. The single point of contact for -B- is due
to the fact that once the part can only slide along -A- without rotating, a single high point will contact first on
-B-. The part cannot rock, so a second contact point does not occur.

2D Virtual Condition

The Virtual Condition of a feature is a concept used to describe the worst-case envelope which either of two
features must lie within in order to mate acceptably. For a shaft that fits into a hole, the shaft virtual condition
must be smaller than the hole virtual condition.

For an external feature of size, such as a shaft, the virtual condition is equal to the size at MMC plus the size of
the tolerance zone. For the shaft in Figure VC1.1, the diameter of the virtual condition is the diameter of the
MMC shaft plus the diameter of the position tolerance zone.
Figure VC1.1

For an internal feature of size, such as a hole, the virtual condition is equal to the size at MMC minus the size
of the tolerance zone. For the hole in Figure VC1.2, the diameter of the virtual condition is the diameter of the
MMC hole minus the diameter of the position tolerance zone.
Figure VC1.2
Figure VC1.3 shows the shaft and hole virtual conditions superimposed. Since the shaft virtual condition is
smaller than the hole virtual condition, the two parts will always mate.
Figure VC1.3

In summary, the way to calculate virtual condition (VC) for a shaft and hole is:
SHAFT VC = MMC diameter + Position Tolerance Zone Diameter
HOLE VC = MMC diameter - Position Tolerance Zone Diameter

Virtual condition is extremely useful in the design of functional gauges. A functional gauge made to virtual
condition will ensure that a part will always mate with its counterpart. For a description of how a real-world
functional gauge works, please see 3D Functional Gauge. To start from scratch in 3D, go to 3D Datums.

2D Shaft Bonus Tolerance

GDT dimensioning of holes (and shafts) provides a powerful method for increasing inspection yield without trial
and error fitting or binning. This method is what is known as bonus tolerancing. Figure 2.9 illustrates the
possible size variation of the hole from the 2D Hole section. It does not, however, show the variation in
position of the hole that is shown in Figure 2.10, for a nominal hole size.

Figure 2.9(left) and Figure 2.10

Combining the two types of variation, we get Figure 2.11, which shows the quite large envelope which results.
If the hole becomes larger, why not widen the tolerance on the hole position since the mating part now has a
larger target ? This is what bonus tolerancing provides.
 Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12 is the same hole that we have been discussing, but with an added
symbol in the feature control frame. The M with a circle around it stands for
Maximum Material Condition (MMC). For a hole, this is the smallest possible
size, and for a shaft, it is the largest. In other words, for mating holes and
shafts, MMC is the tolerance condition where fit is most difficult.

If the hole increases in size from MMC, leeway in the position of the hole
becomes available. This addition to the positional tolerance zone diameter is
defined as the amount that the hole diameter increases over MMC.

Figure 2.12
If no MMC symbol is present, the tolerance is assumed to apply at
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) and there is no bonus tolerance. The
Least Material Condition (LMC) also exists, symbolized by a circled L,
but we have not found it to be used very often.

For a continuation of this discussion concerning virtual condition, please

see 2D Bon Tol Example.

2D Hole/Shaft Bonus Tolerance Example

GDT dimensioning of holes (and shafts) provides a powerful method for increasing inspection yield without trial
and error fitting or binning. This method is what is known as bonus tolerancing.

In the following series of figures, the captions suffice to explain the logic. What is being shown is how
increasing the size of a hole above MMC allows a bonus in the size of the positional tolerance zone.

Figure 2.13

Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16

Figure 2.17
For a continuation of this discussion concerning virtual condition, see 2D Virtual Condition.