Æ
 Æ


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 Æ 

 Review of Instrumentation

 Instrumentation standards

 Instrumentation characteristics

 Elements of measurements

 Sensors and transducers

 Signal conditioning

 Application of Instrumentation

Æ 
 here is always an increasing need for precise, efficient       
  industrial environments.

 Industrial control and automation are meaningless {   instrumentation

scheme. herefore, technological advancement requires advancement in both
      

 Peasurement is the result of comparison b/n unknown quantity and predefined standard

 Instrumentation is the design and use of an electrical system to collect and process
physically meaningful data

 Industrial processes to be handled by        can vary

widely from simple to complex processes

    

       !  system and to control that system); o get
information the following processes are must,

   (using sensors and transducers)


    (amplification, rectification, filtration..) using 

 è"  (indicating, recording, and controlling)

 Accuracy and precision, basics of pmmc(permanent magnet moving coil), the 3 different
torques (deflecting,controlling,damping)

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-. Discuss on each of the above torques

Instrumentation standards

 It is a physical representation of unit of measurement

 he term standard is a tool piece of equipment having a known measure of physical

quantity precisely

 here are wo methods of measurement

 Direct method -  

 Indirect method- {  

Classification of instruments

 hey are basically classified in to three categories

 Absolute and secondary

 Deflection and null type

 Analog and digital

-. ry to discuss on each of them

Characteristics of instruments

 his can be divided in to two categories

 Static: this is considered when the instrument is used to measure a

condition not varying with time

Calibration(a process of comparing to the standard and

readjusting)

Accuracy(It is the closeness of instruments reading to the true

value )

Precision(It is the closeness of individual measurements by that

instrument)

Example: assume true value=101v

P1=100 m1¶=98 m1¶¶=98.0

P =99 m ¶=99 m ¶¶=98.

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P3=101 m3¶=97 m3¶¶=98.

A N P

 Dynamic : his is considered when the instrument is used to measure

conditions varying with time

 Sensitivity

 Drift (zero,span,zonal drifts)

 Resolution

 Fidelity

 Speed of response

 Lag

 Linearity

 Backlash

- . Discuss on each of them

 

 he devices that inform the control system about what is actually occurring are called
   # {   $

  %&   !"   '  sensor system that presents our brain
with a reasonably complete picture of the environment whether we need it all or not. For a
control system, the designer must ascertain exactly what parameters need to be monitored.
Example:- position, temperature, pressure, level, flow and other parameters

he choice of sensors would be dictated by

" ( & &   !"

 Post sensors work by converting some physical parameter such as temperature or

position into an electrical signal. his is why sensors are also called  & {
re devices that convert energy from one form to another.

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Position sensors report the physical position of an object with respect to a reference point. he
information can be an angle, as in how many degrees a radar dish has turned, or linear, as in how
many inches a robot arm has extended.

   

A potentiometer (pot) can be used to convert rotary or linear displacement to a voltage.

Actually, the pot itself gives resistance, but as we will see, this resistance value can easily be
converted to a voltage. A pot used to measure angular position has ¦





 


 ¦
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Block diagram

Example

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A pot is supplied with 10 V and is set at 8
the range of this single turn pot is 350
. Calculate
the output voltage.

Loading error

A    occurs when the pot wiper is connected to a circuit with an input resistance that
is not considerably higher than the pot¶s resistance

%

A 10-kȍ pot is used as a position sensor (Figure above). Assume that the wiper is in the
middle of its range. Find the loading error when

a. he interface circuit presents an infinite resistance

b. he interface circuit presents a resistance of 100 kȍ

Example

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 An  "        "   &
   any need for the ADC converter.

 A light source and photocell arrangement are mounted so that the slots pass the light
beam as the disk rotates. he angle of the shaft is deduced from the output of the
photocell. here are two types of optical rotary encoders:

1. Absolute encoder

. Incremental encoder

Æ
 




 It has only one track of equally spaced slots. Position is determined by counting the
number of slots that pass by a photo sensor, where each slot represents a known angle.

 his system requires an initial reference point, which may come from a second sensor on
an inner track or simply from a mechanical stop or limit switch

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Examples

1. A position sensor system uses a 50-slot disk. he current value of the counter is 00100110.
What is the angle of the shaft being measured?

Æ

For a 50-slot disk, each slot represents 360
/ 50 = 1.44
, and a count of 00100110 = 38
decimal, so the position is 38 × 1.44
= 54.7
.

  )! è   

 he   !     )è$   * 

  that outputs an AC voltage with a magnitude proportional to linear position. It has
a relatively short range of about in., but it has the advantage of no sliding contacts.

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¦¦  
 

   
 
 
¦to
angular velocity. hese sensors find wide application in motor-speed control
systems.hey are also used in position systems to improve their performance.





 

 he  &   &         

  per minute (rpm).

 Position sensors including potentiometers, optical rotary encoders, and linear variable
differential transformers

 Velocity sensors including optical and direct current tachometers.

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  Proximity sensors including limit switches, optical proximity switches, and Hall-effect
switches.

 Load sensors including bonded-wire strain gauges, semiconductor force strain gauges,
and low-force sensors.

 Pressure sensors including Bourdon tubes, bellows, and semiconductor pressure sensors

 emperature sensors including bimetallic temperature sensors, thermocouples, resistance

temperature detectors, thermistors, and IC temperature sensors.

 Flow sensors including orifice plates, venturis, pitot tubes, turbines, and magnetic flow
meters.

 Liquid-level sensors including discrete and continuous types

   
 

 A *       "       & &

iron-based wheel

 here are two kinds of toothed-rotor sensors in use.

1. variable reluctance sensor

. Hall-effect sensor

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Direct current tachometer

It is is essentially a DC generator that produces a DC output voltage proportional to shaft

velocity. he output polarity is determined by the direction of rotation. ypically, these units
have stationary permanent magnets

PROXIPI SENSORS

Limit Switches

 A proximity sensor simply tells the controller whether a moving part is at a certain place.

 A limit switch is an example of a proximity sensor. A limit switch is a mechanical push-

button switch that is mounted in such a way that it is actuated when a mechanical part or
lever arm gets to the end of its intended travel.

For example, in an automatic garage-door opener, all the controller needs to know is if the door
is all the way open or all the way closed.

 Limit switches can detect these two conditions. Switches are fine for many applications,
but they have at least two drawbacks: (1) Being a mechanical device, they eventually
wear out, and ( ) they require a certain amount of physical force to actuate. (Chapter 4
has more on limit switches.) wo other types of proximity sensors, which use either
optics or magnetics to determine if an object is near, do not have these problems. he
price we pay for these improved characteristics is that they require some support
electronics.

Optical Proximity Sensors

 • ¦   
    ¦¦
  ¦ 

 


sensor that are mounted in such a way that the object to be detected cuts the light path.

 Figure below illustrates two applications of using photo detectors.

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  Four types of photo detectors are in general use: photo resistors, photodiodes, photo
transistors, and photovoltaic cells.

è



 Ú 
  

¦
 
¦ ¦¦

¦

 weighing heavy objects or detecting low-force tactile pressures. In most cases, it is the
slight deformation caused by the force that the sensor measures, not the force directly

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 ¦ 




 Pressure sensors usually consist of two parts: he first converts pressure to a force or
displacement, and the second converts the force or displacement to an electrical signal.

 Pressure measurements are made only for gases and liquids.

 he simplest pressure measurement yields a gauge pressure, which is the difference

between the measured pressure and ambient pressure.

Bourdon ubes

 A Bourdon tube is a short bent tube, closed at one end. When the tube is pressurized,it
tends to straighten out. his motion is proportional to the applied pressure.

Bellows

 his sensor uses a small metal bellows to convert pressure into linear motion

o *!  

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¦  
 have

a     
 ¦




 
goes up as the
temperature goes up, but some sensors have a
   






 
 
 
control systems require temperature

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sensors, if only to know how much to compensate other sensors that are temperature-dependent.
Some common types are discussed next.

Bimetallic emperature Sensors

 he bimetallic temperature sensor consists of a bimetallic strip wound into a spiral

 he bimetallic strip is a laminate of two metals with different coefficients of thermal

expansion. As the temperature rises, the metal on the inside expands more than the metal
on the outside, and the spiral tends to straighten out

 hese sensors are typically used for on-off control as in a household thermostat where a
mercury switch is rocked from on to off

hermocouples

 he thermocouple was developed over 100 years ago and still enjoys wide use,
particularly in high-temperature situations.

 he thermocouple is based on the See beck effect, a phenomenon whereby a voltage that
is proportional to temperature can be produced from a circuit consisting of two dissimilar
metal wires.

Resistance emperature Detectors

 he resistance temperature detector (RD) is a temperature sensor based on the fact that

metals increase in resistance as temperature rises

 hermistors: A thermistor is a two-terminal device that changes resistance with

temperature.

FLOW SENSORS

 Flow sensors measure the quantity of fluid material passing by a point in a certain
time.Usually, the material is a gas or a liquid and is flowing in a pipe or open channel.

Summary

 Sensors, also called transducers, are devices that sense physical parameters such as
position, temperature, or pressure. In most cases, the sensor outputs an analog voltage (or
digital value) that is proportional to the parameter being measured.

 Position sensors measure the physical position of an object. Potentiometers (variable

resistors) measure angular position and give an analog output. he optical encoder,
another type of position sensor, uses a slotted disk and a photo sensor. he output of the
optical encoder is in digital form. Linear motion can be detected with a linear motion

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 potentiometer or a linear variable differential transformer (LVD). he LVD uses a
movable slug inside a special transformer. he phase and magnitude of the AC output
can be processed to provide position information.

 Position sensors can determine velocity by processing the data from two sequential
position samples.he more direct method to measure velocity is to use a tachometer.

 A DC tachometer is actually a small generator that gives a DC voltage proportional to

velocity.

 Optical tachometers give a pulse for each revolution of a shaft.

 Proximity sensors sense whether an object has arrived at a certain place. he simplest
way to do this is with a mechanical limit switch. Other methods would include using a
photo sensor or a Hall-effect switch. he Hall-effect switch gives an output if a magnet is
brought near a specially configured semiconductor.

 Load sensors can determine force by measuring the small deformation that the force
causes.he traditional method for measuring large forces is with a bonded-wire strain
guage.

 his device incorporates a pattern of thin wires. When stretched, the resistance of the
wires change. Another method for measuring force uses the piezo-resistive effect of
semiconductors²that is, the resistance changes when the material is compressed.

 Pressure sensors measure the pressure of liquids and gases. One class of pressure sensors,
such as a bellows, uses the pressure to cause mechanical motion. Semiconductor pressure
sensors convert pressure directly into electrical resistance.

 A wide variety of temperature sensors are in use. Simple bimetallic strips will bend when
heated and can then activate switch contacts.

 he thermocouple is a traditional high temperature- sensing device that makes use of the
fact that the junction of two dissimilar metals will create a small voltage when heated.

 he resistance temperature detector (RD) uses the fact that a wire will increase in
resistance when heated.Numerous semiconductor devices are available that ³convert´
temperature directly into resistance or voltage.Flow sensors measure the flow of a fluid in
a pipe or open channel. Pany flow sensors work by placing a restriction in the pipe and
then measuring the pressure before and after the restriction. he pressure difference
between the two places is proportional to fluid velocity. urbine flow sensors use the
moving fluid to spin a propeller. he rpm of the propeller is proportional to velocity.

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  Liquid-level sensors determine the level of liquid in a tank. he discrete type can sense
only if the level is at or above a certain point. Examples of the discrete level detectors are
a float activating a limit switch or a photo sensor.

 he continuous-level detector gives an analog output proportional to fluid level. here

are many different ways this can be done²for example, connecting a float to a
potentiometer, monitoring the pressure at the bottom of the tank, or monitoring the
weight of the tank with load cells.

 Vision sensors are being used more and more for such things as inspecting parts and
guiding robots in assembly operations. A vision system consists of a V camera
connected to a computer, typically a PC. Special vision software analyzes the video
image and makes specific recommendations to the work area.

Æ
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 Post of signals found from sensors are too weak which needs conditioning. It is a process
of modifying the coming signal as per the requirement.here are different conditioning
techniques some of them are the following

 1.  / the process of increasing the amplitude or strength of the sensor output
signal without varying it in any other way.

 .    è / the process of imposing or removing a signal (the

information) upon another signal (the carrier) that is used to convey the original
information. Podulation puts the information on the carrier, and demodulation recovers
the original information from the carrier.

 3. X( "
 X $ : the process whereby a signal containing a group
of different frequencies is filtered, allowing only certain desired frequencies to pass,
while blocking all other frequencies.  & { &  & !  & 
$

 4.   : the process of taking a signal from one point in space and conveying it,
undistorted, to another point.

 5. w
 / the process of purposely distorting a signal to give it certain desired
characteristics.

 6. Æ / the process of maintaining a signal so that it cannot be easily modified by

interfering signals or random noise.

 7. / the processes whereby certain signals interact with one another according to
preset rules that allow elementary decisions to be made.

 8.   / the process of transferring a signal from analog to digital format or

viceversa.

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 ~   

 
 
 
~   amplifier is an opamp circuit designed to provide a positive voltage
gain.

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  Design an op amp circuit with inputs 
 

 !"#

 One of the most useful and versatile opamp circuits for precision measurement and
process control is the

 
¦  $~ypical applications of IAs include
isolation amplifiers, thermocouple amplifiers, and data acquisition systems.

èÆ +Æ
è)Æ

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Display devices

 A  ¦  
 instantaneous data so that it can be read from the instrument by
a human, but it does not remember any of the data. hus, a display must be continuously
watched if the data is to be carefully observed.

 here are several types of display devices that are useful in any field of instrumentation.
hese are listed as follows:

~
¦ ¦~
¦ ¦ 
¦

¦ ¦%some sort

of a pointer indicates a location on a graduated scale calibrated in the proper units. his
represents the value of the measured variable.

&  ¦
 
  

 ¦ ¦

the actual
numerals displayed. In some cases, letters and other symbols can also be displayed.

#Ú '
 
 
 

 
generating sound
waves. Some instruments even use an artificial voice generated by a computer to announce the
results of a measurement.

()
¦
¦ ¦   ¦
 ¦   LCD readout
of a television set or a computer monitor can display complete photographic-quality images,
graphical data, and other computer generated illustrations and text material.

!$
 ¦Ú 

 
& 
 
*+
+* ¦ 
that they
can only indicate one of two states: light on or light off. Some light emitting diodes can also
change color based on the input signal.

Storage devices

 Storage devices differ from display devices in that they keep a permanent record of all
data. his record may appear as a chart, a printed page, or invisible electrical, optical or
magnetic signal. Examples of storage devices are listed below.

)
 ,
 

¦¦
   
several
types of chart recorders:

- 
~ ¦ ¦
¦

   
paper that is
moved past the plotting mechanism such as a pen, at a uniform rate thus giving a graph of the
variable as a function of time.



   ¦
  

¦
the time scale is very
long, and that several hours of data can be placed on a single 8 ½" x 11" sheet of paper, thus
making it possible to easily observe long term trends in the data.

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   ¦
  
instead of recording
the actual numerical value of a variable, it records only two states, "on" and "off'. hus it can
only be used to record the occurrence of a particular event, denoted by the "on" position, or the
lack of that event by the "off' position.

.+/$

  
 

¦ two-dimensional graph
with two variables being measured, one on the x-axis and one on the y-axis. his allows
interrelationships between the two variables to be easily visualized.


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  ¦ 
 or discs of
special magnetic material. his data can then be played back reproduce the original signal.

-. Discuss on the difference b/n disc and tape?

# 

0
 
  ¦¦ 
  
'
display devices
indicating data for a permanent record of that data.

( 
)

 

¦

 
 transferred to
paper or other tangible material such as polymer film by this device.

!¦
  - ¦¦
  
   
 remember data.
hese memories can then recall their data upon command to be shown on a display device, and
then can be instructed to forget the data and memorize new data. A large amount of information
can be stored on a very small integrated circuit chip using this approach.

1)2  
   

-
  ¦¦    can be included in a computer system that in
addition to processing the data, stores it internally in random access memory (RAP) on the
system disc or on specific archival memory devices such as magnetic discs, magnetic tapes or
optical media such as CD ROP or DVD discs.

   +0

 A   "' or   "' is a device used to examine the spectral
composition of some electrical, acoustic, or optical waveform. It may also measure the
power spectrum.

here are analog and digital spectrum analyzers:

 An analog spectrum analyzer uses either a variable band-pass filter whose mid-frequency
is automatically tuned (shifted, swept) through the range of frequencies of which the
spectrum is to be measured or a super-heterodyne receiver where the local oscillator is
swept through a range of frequencies.

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  A digital spectrum analyzer computes the discrete Fourier transform (DF), a
mathematical process that transforms a waveform into the components of its frequency
spectrum.

 Some spectrum analyzers (such as "real-time spectrum analyzers") use a hybrid technique
where the incoming signal is first down-converted to a lower frequency using super-
heterodyne techniques and then analyzed using fast Fourier transformation (FF)
techniques.

  
  "'

 Certain functions and basic controls :

 FRE-UENC: allows to fix the window of frequencies to visualize in the screen.

 PARKER/PEAK SEARCH: controls the position and function of markers and indicates
the value of power.

 BW/AVG: is a filter of resolution. he spectrum analyzer captures the measure on having

displaced a filter of small bandwidth along the window of frequencies.

 APPLIUDE: is the maximum value of a signal in a point.

 VIEW/RACE: manages parameters of measurement. It stores the maximum values in

each frequency and a solved measurement to compare it.

Æ XÆ
ÆÆ

 he signals are often processed before interfacing between the instrument and the
computer. Some of the processing operations are as follows :

1. Patching or termination for a standard signal type

. Protection or barrier

3. Filtering

4. Conditioning

5. Panipulation such as linearization

ô 
 

 In a process control system the signals of various forms are transformed to a standard
form of voltage or current. For example, optically transmitted signals are converted to
electrical voltage signals by opto-electrical converters.

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  In many industries pneumatic transducers transmit pneumatic signals. Such signals are
converted to electrical signals by pneumatic to voltage or current converters.

 AC signals produced by some sensors are rectified to DC.

 In many cases, signals generated by high-impedance sensors are matched by using op-
amp impedance matching modules.

  
 

 he digital computers and the interfacing circuits operate at low voltage levels and these
are always prone to accidental damage due to probable high current flowing from the
plant side. Proper protection against this is incorporated by using a series of current-
limiting resistors, circuit-breaking fuses, polarity protectors, opto-isolators, isolation
transformers, and so on.

 Apart from protection, fault detectors are also used to detect faults like short circuits,
open circuits in transducers, and so on.

X 

 Low-level signals are corrupted with noise generated in the transducer itself or noise due
to other electrical or electromagnetic interferences.

 Power line interference causes undulation to the transducer signals at power line
frequency (50±60 Hz), which must be removed by RC or active high-pass filters.

Similarly high-frequency noises generated by logic switching, microwave,radio waves, and so on

can be filtered by low-pass filters.

Æ 
 

When a set of transducers, sensors, and actuators are required to be interfaced between plant and
computer several parameters must be matched: the interrupt structure, data timing and control,
physical connections, signal levels, and programming.

o  
What are biomedical instruments ?

 he term  ¦

stood for simple hand-held instruments used by physicians
for observing patients, examining organs, making simple measurements, or administering
medication. hese small instruments, such as stethoscopes, thermometers, tongue
depressors, and a few surgical tools, typically fit into a physician¶s hand bag.

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  oday¶s medical instruments are considerably more complicated and diverse, primarily
because they incorporate electronic systems for sensing, transducing, manipulating,
storing, and displaying data or information.

 Furthermore, medical specialists today request detailed and accurate measurements of a

vast number of physiologic parameters for diagnosing illnesses and prescribe complicated
procedures for treating these

  

 he isolation amplifiers described in the preceding paragraph are primarily used for the
protection of the patient from electric shock

Æ  

 he most critical point in the measurement of biopotentials is the contact between

electrodes and biological tissue. Both the electrode offset potential and the
electrode/tissue impedance are subject to changes due to relative movements of electrode
and tissue

"" 
$

 EPG measures muscle activity by detecting and amplifying the tiny electrical impulses
that are generated by muscle fibers when they contract.

 EPG sensors are required to be placed on the muscle belly and its positive and negative
electrodes are parallel to the muscle fibers.

èÆ
 ,+ 1
 
$

 EKG is similar to EPG: he sensor detects and amplifies the small electrical voltage that
is generated by the heart muscle when it contracts.

 he actual EKG signal is measured in micro-volts (ȝV). Post often, though, the
clinically useful measures are those that are computed from the raw EKG

  
$

 Brain cells (neurons) generate small electrical voltages when they fire.

 Electroencephalography is utilized to measure the electrical activity of the brain via

electrodes and the resulting traces are known as an electroencephalogram (EEG)

 w   2
  % "$.

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  A CA scan is used to detect both bone and soft tissue damage. During the procedure,
three-dimensional anatomical imagery is created by utilizing x-ray technology

ñ*"

X-rays are used to create images by shining a high energy electromagnetic beam through the
patient's body. his beam casts a shadow onto an x-ray film. A photograph of the internal
structures is created through the shadows cast by varying tissue densities. Softer tissues allows
more x-ray light to pass through, while harder tissues, such as bone allow less light to pass
through.

"

 Pammography is an x-ray imaging procedure for examination of the breast.

 It is used primarily for the detection and diagnosis of breast cancer

Exercises

1. List and discuss the most common biomedical instruments with the help of circuit diagram and
working principles

. Design a street light control system that gives light during day time but not at night

3. As we know digital instruments are excited by digital signals but signals extracted from
sensors are analog so it should be converted first using ADC which follows sampling, quantizing
and holding steps.

Develop a matlab code to sample, quantize and hold by taking any analog signal

4. Clearly draw the block diagram for a television and discus each of them

5. Draw the block diagram for CR and discuss each of them

6. Design a PC based system to control room temperature

7. Apply a PSPICE and manipulate any circuit what you want

X    "

 Post food processing techniques are extensions of traditional kitchen preparation
methods that employ scientific techniques, making enough surplus products to be sold
outside the household. Current food processing technologies are gradual improvements of
old techniques and equipment designs to improve quality and efficiency.

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 When food items are processed, water is either mixed in or driven off by the process of
drying

 Post food items absorb moisture from the air during processing or preservation the
unwanted or free water in food helps the growth of microorganisms, which can cause
food poisoning on consumption

,"  

 food items like potato chips, dry breakfast cereals, and crackers absorb water particles
when exposed to relatively humid environments. As a result, the quality deteriorates due
to physical, chemical, or biological changes that take place in the food. Physically, food
can become soggy, rubbery, and unappetizing

  X

 Peasurements of color is important quality control method in many food processing

industries.

 In many food items the chemical and the food values are reflected in their color. Apart
from the processed food, the color of the raw materials also plays an important role in
quality monitoring in certain food processing industries

X       

 he primary considerations required for food temperature measurement are type of the
food item (solid, liquid, viscous, etc.), accuracy needed, dynamic behaviors (stationary or
moving), atmospheric conditions, thermal coupling, and so on. he simplest situation of
temperature measurement is in a stationary

 phase of a food (i.e., while storing)

X X{  

 Flow measurement of liquid food materials is primarily conducted to determine the

quantity or proportion of input material introduced into a processing stage.

 he important aspect of flow metering in the food industry is the quantity control; hence,
special attention should be paid to designing a flow meter for a special applications.

, )  X

 pH is a parameter that determines the quality of a food or any other quality dependent on
pH, particularly in packaging, preservation, or canning.

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  ,
 pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (i.e., proton)
concentration in a solution, which can be expressed as pH = ±log(H+)

X  '"

 Because enzyme activities are one of the most important facets of food processing,
researchers are currently trying to detect and quantify enzymes using various solid state
sensors developed so far.

X $  

 Food items are mostly natural vegetative products that have a certain characteristic
flavor. When food items are processed, the flavor pattern might change and new flavor
components might be produced.

X %    
'

 exture plays an important role in many food products to make it more appealing.
Analysis of the texture-related qualities of food products is an area for development of
new products or improvement of existing ones

#  

 Pilking machine

 Pilk churner

 Pilk processor

 Packing machine

 Reserving

 ransporting

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