International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)

Published online 6 July 2009 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1095

Perimortem Trauma in the

Atacama Desert and Social
Violence During the Late Formative
Period (2500–1700 Years BP)
V. G. STANDEN,a* B. T. ARRIAZA,a,b,c C. M. SANTORO,a,b,c
Á. ROMERO a,d AND F. ROTHHAMMER a,b,c
a
Departamento de Antropologı´a, Universidad de Tarapacá, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile
b
Instituto Alta Investigación, Universidad de Tarapacá, Antofagasta 1520, Arica, Chile
c
Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile
d
Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales, Arica, Chile

ABSTRACT This paper describes a case of a mass grave containing three naturally mummified adults with
multiple traumas to the skeletal and soft tissues, buried in an isolated and informal grave in one
of the valleys that traverses the Atacama Desert, north of Chile. These traumas do not appear
to be indicative of post-depositional alterations. Instead, we hypothesise that the observed
marks correspond to lethal perimortem trauma, the result of acts of extreme violence brought
to bear on the three individuals. Three radiocarbon dates from the site identify that the burial
occurred circa 2000 BP in the Azapa Valley, which corresponds to an epoch of important
cultural changes linked to the development of farming communities that broke away from an
ancient marine hunter–gatherer cultural tradition. Copyright ! 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: mummified soft tissue injures; bone fractures; lethal trauma; Andean
bioarchaeology

Introduction 1997; Lambert, 1997; Costa et al., 1998; Neves

The study of skeletal remains with evidence of
trauma provides first hand information about
intentional violence among prehistoric human
societies (Ortner & Putschar, 1981; Merbs, 1989;
Larsen, 1997, 2002; Walker, 2001). In American
prehistory, there is evidence of trauma and
intentional violence in diverse geographical
regions and at different levels of social
organisation (Lovejoy & Heiple, 1981; Walker,
1989, 1997, 2001; Jurmain, 1991; Milner et al.,
1991; Turner et al., 1993; Jurmain & Bellifemine,
* Correspondence to: Departamento de Antropologı́a, Universidad
de Tarapacá, Casilla 6-D, Arica, Chile.
e-mail: vstanden@uta.cl
et al., 1999; Standen & Arriaza, 2000; Kuckelman,
et al., 2002; Tung, 2003; Lessa & Mendonca,
2004; Lessa & Mendonca, 2007; Torres-Rouff
et al., 2005; Torres-Rouff & Costa-Junqueira,
2006; Sutter & Verano, 2007, amongst others).
These studies primarily focus on antemortem
bone healed trauma such as depression fractures
in the cranium and parry fractures. Comparing a
distinct series of skeletons with healed trauma
makes it easier to minimise biases and diagnostic
errors (Walker, 1997).
In contrast, identifying perimortem human
trauma is one of the most problematic types of
trauma to recognise in bioarchaeological con-
texts. This is partly due to the limitations in the
archaeological record which make it difficult to

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 12 November 2008
Revised 30 March 2009
Accepted 2 April 2009
694
distinguish between intentional perimortem
trauma and unintentional postmortem trauma.
We must consider that different taphonomic
processes affect skeletons during the period
between the time of death and excavation in a
bioarchaeological context (Binford, 1981; Milner
& Smith, 1989; White, 1992; Turner et al., 1993;
Ubelaker & Adams, 1995).
On the other hand, although less frequent in
bioarchaeological records, soft tissue preser-
vation of human remains substantially increases
the possibility of identifying perimortem trauma.
It also opens up the possibility of discussing the
scenario surrounding, and the causes of trauma.
Soft tissue helps to maintain the fractured bone
fragments in situ, avoiding the dispersal of
anatomical elements from their primary context
and thus facilitating subsequent interpretation.
But, most important, perimortem soft tissue
injuries show particular characteristics that make
it possible to identify and differentiate them from
postmortem damage.
This report describes three naturally mummi-
fied human males found in a mass grave that was
exposed during improvement of a rural road. The
bodies have multiple traumas which appear to
have taken place in a scenario of extreme
violence. The results of our bioarchaeological
analyses include: (a) the identification and
description of the perimortem fractures at the
Figure 1. Location of AZ-146 mass grave within the Azapa Valley and Formative sites.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
V. G. Standen et al.
level of the cranium and postcranium; (b) X-ray
analyses to strengthen our case study, allowing us
to decipher the exact position of the fragments of
bone and the pattern of the perimortem fractures,
as well as the identification of possible healed
fractures, which would suggest repeated acts of
violence; (c) a macroscopic observation of the
soft tissue, with the aim of identifying and
distinguishing perimortem injuries from post-
mortem damage and possible scalping and skin
wounds; (d) an interpretation of the interment in
the archaeological context and discussion of a
possible explanatory social context that could
have caused this violent episode.
Material and methods
The material presented here is from a mass grave
found in the Azapa Valley from AZ-146, a site at
San Juan in the Cerro Moreno area situated 15 km
inland from the Pacific Ocean (Figure 1). The
extraction of sand and gravel material in a terrace
4 m above the southern edge of the river
unearthed prehistoric domestic activity and a
mass grave. In the domestic area, an 80 cm deep
profile showed cultural stratigraphic deposits 20–
80 cm thick containing maize, ashes, lithic
debitage, domestic ceramic fragments and a
few pieces of Choromytilus chorus shells from the
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert
Pacific Ocean. The mass grave was a depression
measuring 130 ! 170 cm in diameter and 100 cm
deep, which contained three well-preserved
human corpses; the result of natural mummifica-
tion. The corpses were found near the surface of
the grave, lying on a layer of branches (possibly
Magnoliopsida sp. and Tessaria absinthioides), and
wrapped in plant fibre mats (Thypha angustifolia
and Scirpus sp.). Remains of twined mats were
found attached to the mummified skin. These
mats were all of different thicknesses and,
together with the presence of vegetal cords,
suggested that each body was wrapped and tied
up individually.
Radiographic analysis
We used an EZy-Rad, Focus 1.2 mm, Model R20
X-ray machine to X-ray the three bodies in the
supine position, as they were found. The aim of
this radiological analysis was: (a) to estimate age
at death; (b) to identify the cranial and
postcranial fractures; (c) to evaluate the severity
of the fractures; (d) to verify if the fractures linked
to the soft tissue injures had signs of bone
regeneration; (e) to verify the presence of
projectile points or other foreign objects; (f) to
identify old fractures that may have already
healed and (g) to make a general evaluation of the
skeletons’ pathological conditions.
Age and sex
The presence of soft tissue (on body 2 and body
3 and partially on body 1) prevented a direct
observation of skeletal anatomy for an estimation
of age. However, the individuals’ anatomical parts
were all fully articulated. Radiological images of
the mummies enabled us to observe whether
the skeletons had completed the process of bone
maturity, the state of the cranial sutures, the
presence of vertebral osteophytes and other age-
related degenerative processes. The evaluation of
these anatomical features allowed us to estimate
the age of each individual. Sex did not present a
major identification problem due to the presence
of mummified soft tissue including the genitalia of
the three corpses.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
695
Perimortem trauma: bones and soft tissue
Perimortem bone trauma occurs at or around the
time of death, and analysis makes it possible to
identify the circumstances that could have caused
this trauma. However, one should pay particular
attention to the differential diagnoses between
intentional perimortem fractures from postmor-
tem fractures. The latter are often the result of
non-intentional post-depositional taphonomic
processes that affect the body (Binford, 1981;
Milner & Smith, 1989; White, 1992; Turner
et al., 1993; Ubelaker & Adams, 1995). Some
common agents that cause bone postmortem
damage are: (a) stone blocks that are frequently
placed on top of the deceased for ritual or
other purposes, (b) the activity of predatory
animals, (c) disturbances caused by plant
roots, (d) exposure to heat, (e) diagenesis and
even (f) poor excavation and storage practices.
In this study case, we had the opportunity to
carefully examine the external surface of three
naturally mummified injured bodies. We looked
for open skin injuries, punctures, cuts, mixed
lesions and the degree of severity, in order to
evaluate damage to vital organs. The number of
injuries, cut trajectories, location and anatomical
segments affected were also evaluated. These
variables are vital for the interpretation of
perimortem soft tissue injuries caused by close
range intentional violence (e.g. face-to-face
combat) or long range impact projectiles (e.g.
bolas and lithic projectile points).
Dating the bodies
Samples of mummified muscle tissues were
extracted from each body for standard radio-
carbon dating and sent to Beta Analytic Inc.
(Florida). Muscle tissue was sampled from the left
gluteus in body 1, from the left humerus in body
2 and from the left gluteus in body 3. The results
identified the remains to be about 2000 years old
(Table 1), which corresponds to the Late
Formative Period in the northern Chile cultural
sequence, and in particular for the Azapa Valley.
The conventional radiocarbon dates from body
2 and body 3 show them to be contemporaneous,
whereas body 1 is dated as 340 years earlier. The
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696
Table 1. Radiocarbon conventional and calibrated date for each body coming from the mass grave AZ-146
Body No. Radiocarbon Conventional
age (years BP)
Body 1 2370 " 60 2450 " 60
Body 1a 2110 " 40 2240 " 240
Body 2 2080 " 60 2110 " 60
Body 3 2080 " 60 2130 " 60
a
A new muscle sample was taken and radiocarbon dated to double check the date ranges. The archaeological context
suggested the bodies were contemporaneous and the new date (Beta 246690) corroborated this premise.
chronological difference of 30 years for the
calibrated dates could suggest that body 1 was not
contemporaneous with the two others. This is,
however, less likely the case because the
archaeological context indicates that the corpses
were buried closely together. We suggest that the
chronological difference may be the consequence
of technical artefact. This impression is backed up
by a second radiocarbon date of body 1, on
naturally mummified muscle tissue, which nota-
bly reduces the chronological original difference
(Table 1).
Results
Age, sex and position of the interments
All three bodies are estimated to be between
25 and 35 years old, based on epiphyseal fusion of
long bones, the lack of degenerative changes
(osteophytes and arthrosis) and the absence of
the total obliteration of the cranial sutures. The
presence of preserved genitalia confirms that all
three bodies were also males.
The bodies were found fully articulated in all
anatomical segments. Body 1 was found lying on
his back in an extended position; head rotated
towards the left and chin resting on his left
clavicle. The upper extremities were parallel to
the trunk, with the left arm in a forced twisted
position and the hands semi-grasped. The lower
extremities were in severe forced flexion, with the
hips abducted and externally rotated, with the
knees flexed (Figures 2a–b). Body 2 was found
lying on his back in an extended position, his
head was slightly rotated towards the left with the
upper extremities parallel to the trunk and the
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
V. G. Standen et al.
2 Sigma Beta Analytic
calibration (years BP) Inc. lab sample No.
2740–2340 Beta-218168
2340–2150 Beta-246690
2310–2230 Beta-189247
2190–1930
2320–1960 Beta-218169
hands semi-grasped. The lower left extremity was
extended and the hip slightly abducted. The
right lower extremity was flexed at the knee
(Figures 3a–b). Body 3 was found lying on his
back in an extended position with the head
slightly flexed and rotated towards the left. The
upper extremities were extended next to the
thorax, the forearms slightly bent with the right
hand over the pubis and the left flexed and resting
on the abdomen. The lower extremities were in a
forced position, the left flexed and abducted, and
the right with the hip extended and knee flexed.
The plantar surfaces of the feet were in contact
with each other (Figures 4a–b).
The rotated position of the skulls, which is
similar in the three bodies, seems to be the result
of intentional blows to the skulls, which will be
discussed below. The same is true regarding the
flexion of the extremities; they were possibly
forced into that position before rigor mortis set
in. During the Formative period, bodies found in
cemeteries were typically buried in a flexed or
semiflexed position (Santoro, 1980; Muñoz,
2004), which contrasts with the burial position
of the interment described here.
Bones and soft tissue trauma
The three mummified corpses showed severe
cranial and postcranial trauma to the skeletons
and in two of them soft tissue injuries were found
which are characterised below. To distinguish
intentional bone fracture from postmortem
taphonomic alteration we identified the normal
patterns described in the literature (Lovejoy &
Heiple, 1981; Ubelaker & Adams, 1995; Jurmain
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Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert 697

Figure 2. (a) Body 1 with the skull totally crushed, perhaps by a club blow. (b) The radiograph image shows a
compound fracture affecting all cranial bones. Circle with solid line shows a probable perimortem oblique fracture on
right ulna and radius. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
698 V. G. Standen et al.

Figure 3. (a) Body 2 with multiple traumas. The face was hit probably with a stone club resulting in a compound fracture.
The circles with solid lines show intentional cutting of the soft tissue and perimortem wounds. (b) The radiograph image
shows a craniofacial disjunction and severe damage to the facial bones, they are completely fragmented. The dashed
line circle shows a probable perimortem transverse fracture to the left humerus. This figure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert 699

Figure 4. (a) Body 3 with multiple traumas to the head and face, probably caused by a stone club blow, the circles with
solid lines show a probably intentional perimortem wound in the abdominal region, the left hand is resting on the open
wound. (b) The radiographic image shows a compound fracture to the skull. In addition, there are probably perimortem
fractures to the left ulna and radius and an oblique linear fracture to the left femur and tibia (dashed circle). This figure is
available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.

& Bellifemine, 1997; Lambert, 1997; Walker,
1997; Kuckelman et al., 2002).
For the soft tissue injures we rely mostly on our
observations and decades of experience working
with mummified human bodies coming from the
Atacama Desert. Specifically, we looked for three
diagnostic features that differentiate intentional
soft tissue injures from postmortem damage:
(a) perimortem soft tissue lesions show well-
defined edges and the characteristic pattern of
retraction of a fresh injury, preserved by natural
mummification process of the corpses. In con-
trast, postmortem damage in mummified soft
tissue shows no pattern of retraction, instead the

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700
dry tissue tends to have a random pattern; (b) in a
perimortem lesion the colour of the injured area
shows no difference in colour with the rest of the
mummified soft tissue, because the wound
mummified simultaneously with the whole body.
In contrast, postmortem damage to mummified
soft tissue shows clear differences in colour.
Often the exposed area has a lighter tone;
(c) compound bone fracture and related injured
mummified soft tissue.
Body 1
Conservation
Soft tissue and bone parts of the anterior chest
area are poorly preserved (Figure 2a). The skin,
the sternal end of the ribs and the distal half of the
sternum are not present. The internal organs of
the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities have
not been preserved. Furthermore, there is a loss of
skin and part of the muscle tissue from the right
humerus and the lower extremities, leaving the
anterior aspect of the bones exposed. Conversely,
the soft tissue of the skull, upper arms, feet
(including the nails) and the complete back of the
body are all well preserved. There is still a small
amount of hair on the scalp. Finally, there are
remains of the plant fibre mat attached to the sole
of the right foot and the back of the right hand.
Unintentional postmortem alterations
As there are no signs of cuts to the ribs, sternum,
right humerus or either femurs that would suggest
that they were defleshed, it is unlikely that the
alterations described above are the result of
intentional perimortem activity. On the other
hand, the left femur shows a concoidal fracture in
the upper third of the diaphysis. The surface of
the fractured bone is lighter than the rest of the
bone, suggesting a recent postmortem fracture.
Intentional perimortem trauma
An X-ray image shows that all cranial vault bones
have compound fractures, with displacement of
the bone fragments, including a fragment of the
left parietal, which has punctured the scalp
(Figures 5a–c). There are multiple linear fractures
facing different directions. In the radiographic
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
V. G. Standen et al.
image, a severe craniofacial disjunction can be
observed around the eye sockets (Figure 5b).
Inside the cranial vault, there are fragments of
frontal bone resulting from the force of the blows
that caused this injury.
The pattern of the fractures suggests that the
cranium was possibly crushed with a blunt object
such as a club or mace (Figure 6), swung with
force, which caused the left side of the cranium to
collapse by the blow. As far as the postcranial
skeleton is concerned, the radiological image
shows an oblique fracture of the mid shaft of the
right radius and ulna (Figure 2b). The bones do
not show signs of tissue regeneration, also
suggesting a perimortem fracture.
Soft tissue injuries
The left eye socket is totally destroyed, and there
is serious damage to the skin of the frontal.
Body 2
Conservation
The soft tissue in this body is very well preserved,
with the exception of the loss of skin in the
medial side of the left leg and the missing toes
from the left foot. The hair is well preserved,
although the scalp has become detached. There
are no noticeable signs of intentional hair cutting
or scalping. The hair is combed and tied back
with a cord. A needle made of plant fibre is
embedded in the hair. Lastly, remains of a plant
fibre mat used to wrap the corpse are attached to
the skin on the back of the body.
Unintentional postmortem alterations
The absence of left metatarsals could be due to
taphonomic processes including eolic erosion.
The small white areas on the bones could be the
result of sun bleaching and indicate the foot was
exposed to the environment. This also suggests
that the toes were not cut off nor was the leg
defleshed intentionally.
Intentional perimortem trauma
A craniofacial disjunction can be observed, with
a compound fracture above the frontomalar,
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Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert 701

Figure 5. (a) Body 1, the crushed skull shows severe damage around the left eye and frontal bone. The circle with a solid
line shows a fragment of bone. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. (c) Detail of the right parietal emerging through the
skin caused by a compound fracture. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.

frontomaxillary and frontonasal sutures shattered and crushed. The mandible shows two
(Figures 7a–b). There are also lineal fractures to fractures, one compound fracture at a symphysis
the frontal and right parietal. The radiological menti level, with a complete bone fracture, and
image showed that the facial bones are totally another to the right side, as well as the loss of the

Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
702
Figure 6. Stone club found in the nearby contemporary
AZ-71 site from the Formative Period. This could have
been the kind of object used to strike and crush the heads
of the individuals studied. This figure is available in colour
online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.
upper right maxillary incisors. As in the case of
Body 1, the pattern of fractures suggests that the
right side of the face was ‘crushed’ with a blunt
object, such as a mace. There is a fracture to
the postcranial skeleton in the mid shaft of the
left humerus, with a transverse orientation
(Figure 3b). The same colouring of the rest of
the bone and the bevel edges of the fracture, with
no signs of bone regeneration, suggests a
perimortem fracture (the absence of soft tissue
in this location made it possible to observe bone
fragments of the humerus).
Soft tissue injuries
The scalp shows five sharp wounds, all with a
similar oval pattern. The skin edges are retracted
inwards, towards the surface of the bone,
exposing some bony segments. The dimensions
of the injuries (length and width) are as follows:
left frontal side, 1.5 ! 0.4 cm; left parietal, three
injuries of 3.0 ! 0.4 cm, 2.5 ! 0.5 cm, and
2.0 ! 0.5 cm, respectively; left temporal, 3.0 !
1.0 cm (Figure 7c). The concentration of the
lesions and the similarity of the wounds would
indicate that they were produced by a sharp
weapon; possibly a knife or spear with sharp lithic
blades. Only one of these injuries also shows a
fracture to the left parietal bone. There is another
injury to the face near the left ear, perhaps an
attempt was made to cut off the ear.
The thorax presents a sharp wound oriented
crania-caudally of 20 cm long by 0.6–1.0 cm
————————————————————————————————————"
Figure 7. (a) Body 2, flattened face with a craniofacial disjunction and compound fractures to the mandible and left eye
socket as well as generalised perimortem damage to the soft tissue. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. (c) The solid
circle shows five similar intentional perimortem sharp superficial oval wounds, with retracted skin around the edges (one
of which is a fracture to the parietal). The dashed circle clearly shows postmortem, unintentional damage. This figure is
available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
V. G. Standen et al.
wide. The borders of the lesion are retracted,
affecting skin and muscles. Another sharp wound
is located in the left armpit fold, measuring 7.0 cm
long by 0.3–0.5 cm wide. The edges of the wound
are also retracted affecting skin and muscles and
exposing some ribs. An oval perforating wound is
located on the anterior face of the left thigh,
below the inguinal fold, measuring 4.0 ! 3.0 cm,
affecting skin and muscle layers.
Body 3
Conservation
This body is excellently preserved (Figure 4a),
apart from the upper side of the right thigh and a
tear in the skin under the chin. There is still some
hair attached to the scalp and the remains of the
plant fibre mat, which the body was wrapped in.
Unintentional postmortem alterations
The absence of cut marks to the femur suggests
that the missing skin to the thigh was unlikely the
result of intentional activity to deflesh the bodies.
Also, the discontinuity of soft tissue in the chin
area probably resulted from post-excavation
damage rather than from an intentional cut.
The weight and movements of the head during
recovery and/or transportation likely caused the
tear.
Intentional perimortem trauma
A craniofacial disjunction can be observed above
the brow ridges of the frontal and the frontomalar
sutures. There is a loss of frontal bone due to a
compound fracture that exposed part of the
encephalic mass. The bones from the face have
completely shattered and moved into the cranial
vault (Figures 8a–b). The upper lip and nose were
also displaced inwards, resulting in a total facial
collapse. The radiographic image shows a linear
fracture to the frontal and another running from
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Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
704
Figure 8. (a) Body 3, this skull shows a fracture to the frontal and right parietal and significant bone loss. The upper lip
and nose were displaced cranially. (b) Radiograph of the crushed skull. This figure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.
the left temporal and parietal to the occipital
(Figure 8b). As in the cases of body 1 and body 2,
the fractures suggest that the left side of the face
and forehead were crushed with a blunt object,
such as a mace (Figure 6).
The radiographic image of the postcranial
skeleton shows a transverse fracture of the left
radius and ulna, at mid shaft (Figure 4b). The
absence of bone regeneration suggests that this
could be perimortem. There is also an oblique
linear fracture of the left femur and tibia (knee),
possibly caused by over-flexing the extremity, but
its origin cannot be determined.
Soft tissue injury
The body shows an injury to the lower abdominal
region. The left hand is covering an orifice
8.0 ! 7.0 cm (Figure 4a). A stone knife or spear
could have torn the abdominal cavity, but
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
V. G. Standen et al.
there are no signs of extruding bowels or damage
to them.
Discussion and conclusions
The mass grave at AZ-146 contains three young
men buried naked, wrapped in plant fibre mats,
without offerings, which differ from contempora-
neous funerary treatment of the late Formative
period (ca. 2000 BP). They show similar patterns
of intentional perimortem traumatic lesions, for
which the precise anatomical and osteological
evidence can be summarised as follows: (a) severe
compound fractures of the three crania which
are turned towards the left, possibly from the
impact of a blunt object exerted on the right
side; (b) simple fractures of the upper extremities;
(c) multiple wounds to the soft tissue of the scalp,
thorax and to the extremities of body 2 and body
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Lethal Trauma in the Prehistoric Atacama Desert
3 (the trunk skin and soft tissue of body 1 is
missing).
These features allow us to suggest a case of
perimortem alteration based on the following
criteria: the multiple lesions to the soft tissue of
skin show a characteristic pattern of retraction
preserved by natural mummification of the
corpses. This kind of skin reaction cannot be
caused by postmortem agents. There are also
severe displacements of the upper lip and nose
towards the cranial cavity, as a consequence of a
strong strike that crushed the heads of the
individuals. Along with the cranial injuries, arms
and lower extremities present forced twisted
positions and severe forced flexion. The absence
of bone regeneration indicates that the individ-
uals did not remain alive after they were
wounded.
Compound fractures and skin injuries pre-
served by natural mummification allow us to
discuss possible explanations for these perimor-
tem trauma. First, these features cannot be
explained as post-depositional alteration. In our
research experience, we have observed a large
quantity of naturally mummified bodies from the
hyperarid zone of northern Chile, and their
patterns of alteration are not comparable with
what we have described here.
Among farmers living in the Azapa Valley
during the late Formative period (2500–
1700 years BP), nearly 17% (21/119) of the
skeletons show signs of healed intentional bone
trauma, which mostly affected males (Standen
et al., 2000). However, these individuals
were interred and given formal burials con-
taining offerings such as ceramics, textiles, metal
objects and elaborate head dresses (Focacci &
Erices, 1972; Santoro, 1980; Muñoz, 2004;
Romero et al., 2004). Healed adult cranial trauma
was also common among archaic coastal
Chinchorro hunter–gatherers and fishermen
(9000–3600 years BP), showing a higher preva-
lence; almost 25% (17/69) (Standen & Arriaza,
2000). Moreover, isolated cases of lethal trauma
probably caused by projectile points and har-
poons have been identified for the same period
along the coast of Arica (Aufderheide, 1990;
Aufderheide & Rodrı́guez-Martı́n, 1998) and also
in Ilo in southern Peru (Guillén, 1999). Among
the archaic people lethal violence did not result in
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
705
cultural exclusion from burial and funeral rites;
those killed were buried with all their cultural
paraphernalia and in the same cemeteries as their
ancestors.
In sum, we think that the bioarchaeological
context and the characteristics of bone trauma
and soft tissue wounds support the hypothesis
that this was the result of an extreme act of
violence. We suggest that this would have been a
face-to-face attack as no injuries can be observed
on the backs of the corpses. This strategy of
attack is characteristic of small-scale, pre-state
societies, without structures for major political
integration (Turney-High, 1971; Carneiro, 1994;
Keeley, 1996; Otterbein, 2004). As far as we
know, this is the first case of a collective act of
extreme lethal violence found in our Andean
region.
Although, we think that this was something
like an ambush committed by individuals
belonging to a different social group from that
of the victims, we recognise that this statement
needs further research beyond the scope of this
report. This should include dietary analyses and
DNA testing to validate the idea that the victims
belonged to a coastal group, whereas those who
carried out the killings were from a group of
farmers from the Azapa Valley. Evidence to make
this suggestion comes from a fragment of a
temporal bone, found near the mass grave, that
shows signs of severe external auditory exostosis,
a characteristic trait of the coastal populations
that inhabited Arica (Standen et al., 1997) and the
results of a recent extensive craniometric analysis
that strongly suggest a genetic microdifferentia-
tion between the coastal groups and the Azapa
Valley farmers (Rothhammer & Cocilovo, 2008).
Acknowledgements
FONDECYT Grant 1095006 and Convenio de
Desempeño UTA-Mecesup/2. The authors would
like to thank Octavio Lagos for taking the pic-
tures and Leticia Latorre for processing the radio-
graphic images at the Museo Arqueológico de la
Universidad de Tarapacá. They also thank Julia
Wignall and Gwyn Madden for translating the
text from Spanish into English and thank James
Watson for editorial suggestions.
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 20: 693–707 (2010)
706
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